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Communication Technologies Notes

The document provides detailed notes on the physical layer of networking, focusing on multiplexing techniques such as FDM, WDM, TDM, and STDM, which optimize bandwidth usage. It classifies transmission media into guided (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial, fiber-optic) and unguided (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared) types, highlighting their applications and characteristics. Additionally, it discusses modems and switching methods, including circuit-switched and packet-switched networks, emphasizing their roles in data communication.

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13 views3 pages

Communication Technologies Notes

The document provides detailed notes on the physical layer of networking, focusing on multiplexing techniques such as FDM, WDM, TDM, and STDM, which optimize bandwidth usage. It classifies transmission media into guided (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial, fiber-optic) and unguided (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared) types, highlighting their applications and characteristics. Additionally, it discusses modems and switching methods, including circuit-switched and packet-switched networks, emphasizing their roles in data communication.

Uploaded by

sonal.beladar
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Detailed Notes on Unit 3 physical layer

3.1 Multiplexing

- Basic Concept: Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals into one signal
over a shared medium. This allows for more efficient use of the available bandwidth and
reduces the number of physical lines or channels needed for communication.

- Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Different signals are transmitted over different


frequency bands within the same channel. Each signal is allocated a specific frequency
range and they all share the same transmission medium.

- Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM): Primarily used in fiber-optic systems, this is


similar to FDM, but instead of frequencies, different signals are sent over different light
wavelengths (colors). Each wavelength carries its own data stream.

- Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): The transmission time is divided into


slots. Each signal is assigned a specific time slot in a repeating pattern. All signals share the
same frequency but are transmitted at different time intervals.

- Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM): Unlike TDM, STDM allocates time slots
dynamically based on the traffic demand of each signal. This leads to more efficient
bandwidth usage by reducing idle time.

- Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): A more general term for any technique that divides
transmission time into discrete slots for each user or signal. TDM can be used in both
synchronous and statistical forms.

3.2 Transmission Medium

- Classification Based on Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum: Transmission media refers to the


physical pathways that carry data signals from one device to another. These media can be
broadly classified into two categories based on how they carry electromagnetic waves:
- Guided Media: These are physical cables and fibers through which signals are transmitted
along specific paths, such as:
- Twisted Pair Cable (UTP, STP): Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) is commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet
networks, while STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) provides additional shielding to reduce
interference.
- Coaxial Cable: Consists of a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and
an outer insulation. Coaxial cables are used for cable TV, internet, and other broadband
services.
- Fiber-Optic Cable: Uses light to transmit data through strands of glass or plastic. It offers
high bandwidth and is immune to electromagnetic interference.

- Unguided Media: Involves wireless transmission methods that use electromagnetic


waves, such as:
- Radio Waves: These are used in broadcast radio, cell phones, Wi-Fi, etc., and can travel
long distances through the air.
- Microwaves: Used for point-to-point communication, such as satellite links. These
require line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver.
- Infrared: Used for short-range communication, such as remote controls and short-range
wireless data transmission.

3.3 Guided Media

- Twisted Pair (UTP, STP):


- UTP: Commonly used in telecommunication systems and Ethernet networks. It is
relatively low-cost and easy to install.
- STP: Provides better resistance to external noise due to its shielding and is used in
environments with high interference.

- Coaxial Cable:
- This type of cable can support higher bandwidths and is often used for internet and
television services.

- Fiber-Optic Cable:
- Highly reliable with a much higher bandwidth than coaxial or twisted pair cables. Fiber-
optic cables are the preferred medium for long-distance and high-speed communication.

3.4 Unguided Media

- Radio Waves: These electromagnetic waves can be used for wireless communication over
various distances. They are essential in technologies like AM/FM radio, television
broadcasts, and cellular communications.

- Microwaves: These are used in long-distance communication systems, such as satellite and
terrestrial microwave links. Microwaves require line-of-sight and are commonly used in
military, commercial, and private communications.
- Infrared: These waves are used for short-range communication like infrared sensors,
remote controls, and some wireless networking standards like IrDA.

3.5 Modems

- Classifications: A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device used to convert digital data


into analog signals (modulation) for transmission over analog communication lines and vice
versa (demodulation).

- Broadband Modem: This refers to high-speed internet modems, typically used with DSL,
cable, or fiber connections.

- DSL (ADSL, HDSL, VDSL):


- ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line): Offers different upload and download
speeds, commonly used in residential broadband.
- HDSL (High-Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line): Provides higher speeds than ADSL, used for
commercial purposes.
- VDSL (Very-high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line): Provides faster speeds than ADSL,
suitable for high-speed services like video streaming.

3.6 Switching

- Circuit-Switched Networks: These networks establish a dedicated communication path


between sender and receiver for the duration of the call or session. Traditional telephone
networks use circuit-switching.

- Packet-Switched Networks: These networks break data into smaller packets and route
them independently over the network. The packets may take different paths and are
reassembled at the destination. This approach is used by the internet.

- Datagram Approach: A type of packet-switched network where packets are routed


independently, and there is no guarantee of delivery or order.

- Virtual Circuit Approach: A more reliable form of packet switching where a logical
connection (virtual circuit) is established before data transmission begins. This ensures the
packets are delivered in order, and errors are handled.

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