6

Polynomials

Objectives
I To add, subtract and multiply polynomials.
I To divide polynomials.
I To use the remainder theorem, factor theorem and rational-root theorem to identify
the linear factors of cubic and quartic polynomials.
I To solve equations and inequalities involving cubic and quartic polynomials.
I To recognise and sketch the graphs of cubic and quartic functions.
I To find the rules for given cubic graphs.
I To apply cubic functions to solving problems.
I To use the bisection method to solve polynomial equations numerically.

In Chapter 3 we looked at polynomial functions of degree 2, or quadratics.

A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function. The general rule for such a
function is
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a,0
A polynomial function of degree 4 is called a quartic function. The general rule for such a
function is
f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, a,0
In Chapter 3 it was shown that all quadratic functions can be written in ‘turning point form’
and that the graph of a quadratic has one basic form, the parabola.
This is not true of cubic or quartic functions. There is a range of different graph ‘shapes’ for
cubic and quartic functions, depending on the values of the coefficients (a, b, c, d and e).

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 206 Chapter 6: Polynomials

6A The language of polynomials

 A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n is a natural number or zero, and the coefficients a0 , . . . , an are real numbers
with an , 0.
 The leading term, an xn , of a polynomial is the term of highest index among those terms
with a non-zero coefficient.
 The degree of a polynomial is the index n of the leading term.
 A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading term has coefficient 1.
 The constant term is the term of index 0. (This is the term not involving x.)
Note: The constant function P(x) = 0 is called the zero polynomial; its degree is undefined.

Example 1
Let P(x) = x4 − 3x3 − 2. Find:
a P(1) b P(−1) c P(2) d P(−2)

Solution
a P(1) = 14 − 3 × 13 − 2 b P(−1) = (−1)4 − 3 × (−1)3 − 2
=1−3−2 =1+3−2
= −4 =2

c P(2) = 24 − 3 × 23 − 2 d P(−2) = (−2)4 − 3 × (−2)3 − 2

= 16 − 24 − 2 = 16 + 24 − 2
= −10 = 38

Example 2
a Let P(x) = 2x4 − x3 + 2cx + 6. If P(1) = 21, find the value of c.
b Let Q(x) = 2x6 − x3 + ax2 + bx + 20. If Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0, find the values of a and b.

Solution Explanation
4 3
a P(x) = 2x − x + 2cx + 6 and P(1) = 21. We will substitute x = 1 into P(x)
P(1) = 2(1)4 − (1)3 + 2c + 6 to form an equation and solve.

= 2 − 1 + 2c + 6
= 7 + 2c
Since P(1) = 21,
7 + 2c = 21
c=7

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 6A The language of polynomials 207

b Q(x) = 2x6 − x3 + ax2 + bx + 20 and First find Q(−1) and Q(2) in terms
Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0. of a and b.
Q(−1) = 2(−1)6 − (−1)3 + a(−1)2 − b + 20
= 2 + 1 + a − b + 20
= 23 + a − b

Q(2) = 2(2)6 − (2)3 + a(2)2 + 2b + 20

= 128 − 8 + 4a + 2b + 20
= 140 + 4a + 2b
Since Q(−1) = Q(2) = 0, this gives Form simultaneous equations in a
23 + a − b = 0 (1) and b by putting Q(−1) = 0 and
Q(2) = 0.
140 + 4a + 2b = 0 (2)
Divide (2) by 2:
70 + 2a + b = 0 (3)
Add (1) and (3):
93 + 3a = 0
a = −31
Substitute in (1):
b = −8
Hence a = −31 and b = −8.

The arithmetic of polynomials

The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication for polynomials are naturally
defined, as shown in the following examples.
Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2 and Q(x) = 2x2 + 4. Then
P(x) + Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2) + (2x2 + 4)
= x3 + 5x2 + 6

P(x) − Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2) − (2x2 + 4)

= x3 + x2 − 2

P(x)Q(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2)(2x2 + 4)

= (x3 + 3x2 + 2) × 2x2 + (x3 + 3x2 + 2) × 4
= 2x5 + 6x4 + 4x2 + 4x3 + 12x2 + 8
= 2x5 + 6x4 + 4x3 + 16x2 + 8
The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is a polynomial.

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 208 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 3
Let P(x) = x3 − 6x + 3 and Q(x) = x2 − 3x + 1. Find:
a P(x) + Q(x) b P(x) − Q(x) c P(x)Q(x)

Solution
a P(x) + Q(x) b P(x) − Q(x)
3 2
= x − 6x + 3 + x − 3x + 1 = x3 − 6x + 3 − (x2 − 3x + 1)
= x3 + x2 − 6x − 3x + 3 + 1 = x3 − 6x + 3 − x2 + 3x − 1
= x3 + x2 − 9x + 4 = x3 − x2 − 6x + 3x + 3 − 1
= x3 − x2 − 3x + 2
c P(x)Q(x) = (x3 − 6x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 1)
= x3 (x2 − 3x + 1) − 6x(x2 − 3x + 1) + 3(x2 − 3x + 1)
= x5 − 3x4 + x3 − 6x3 + 18x2 − 6x + 3x2 − 9x + 3
= x5 − 3x4 + (x3 − 6x3 ) + (18x2 + 3x2 ) − (6x + 9x) + 3
= x5 − 3x4 − 5x3 + 21x2 − 15x + 3

We use the notation deg( f ) to denote the degree of a polynomial f . For f , g , 0, we have

deg( f + g) ≤ max deg( f ), deg(g) (provided f + g , 0)
deg( f × g) = deg( f ) + deg(g)

Equating coefficients
Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding coefficients are equal. For
two cubic polynomials, P(x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ,
they are equal if and only if a3 = b3 , a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .
For example, if
P(x) = 4x3 + 5x2 − x + 3 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
then P(x) = Q(x) if and only if b3 = 4, b2 = 5, b1 = −1 and b0 = 3.

Example 4
The polynomial P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 can be written in the form (x − 2)(x2 + bx + c) + r
where b, c and r are real numbers. Find the values of b, c and r.
Solution Explanation
2
(x − 2)(x + bx + c) + r We first expand the brackets of
= x(x2 + bx + c) − 2(x2 + bx + c) + r (x − 2)(x2 + bx + c) + r
= x3 + bx2 + cx − 2x2 − 2bx − 2c + r
= x3 + (b − 2)x2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c + r

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 6A 6A The language of polynomials 209

We have
x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 = x3 + (b − 2)x2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c + r
for all real numbers x. This implies We now equate coefficients:
b−2=3 ∴ b=5 first the coefficients of x2 , then
the coefficients of x, and finally
c − 2b = 2 ∴ c = 2b + 2 = 12
the constants.
−2c + r = 1 ∴ r = 2c + 1 = 25
Hence b = 5, c = 12 and r = 25. This means that Substitute the values for b, c and r
2
P(x) = (x − 2)(x + 5x + 12) + 25 into (x − 2)(x2 + bx + c) + r.

Summary 6A
 A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n is a natural number or zero, and the coefficients a0 , . . . , an are real numbers
with an , 0. The leading term is an xn (the term of highest index) and the constant
term is a0 (the term not involving x).
 The degree of a polynomial is the index n of the leading term.
 The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is a polynomial. Division does not
always lead to another polynomial.
 Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding coefficients are equal.
Two cubic polynomials, P(x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ,
are equal if and only if a3 = b3 , a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .

Skill-
sheet Exercise 6A

Example 1 1 Let P(x) = x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 1. Find:

a P(1) b P(−1) c P(2) d P(−2)

2 Let P(x) = 8x3 − 4x2 − 2x + 1. Find:

1  1
a P b P−
2 2
3 Let P(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 2x + 6. Find:
a P(0) b P(1) c P(2) d P(−1) e P(a) f P(2a)

Example 2 4 a Let P(x) = x3 + 5x2 − ax − 20. If P(2) = 0, find the value of a.

b Let P(x) = 2x3 + ax2 − 5x − 7. If P(3) = 68, find the value of a.
c Let P(x) = x4 + x3 − 2x + c. If P(1) = 6, find the value of c.
d Let P(x) = 3x6 − 5x3 + ax2 + bx + 10. If P(−1) = P(2) = 0, find the values of a and b.
e Let P(x) = x5 − 3x4 + ax3 + bx2 + 24x − 36. If P(3) = P(1) = 0, find the values of a
and b.

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 210 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6A

Example 3 5 Let f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x, g(x) = 2 − 3x and h(x) = x2 + x. Simplify each of the following:
a f (x) + g(x) b f (x) + h(x) c f (x) − g(x)
d 3 f (x) e f (x)g(x) f g(x)h(x)
g f (x) + g(x) + h(x) h f (x)h(x)

6 Expand each of the following products and collect like terms:

a (x − 2)(x2 − 2x + 3) b (x − 4)(x2 − 2x + 3) c (x − 1)(2x2 − 3x − 4)
2 2
d (x − 2)(x + bx + c) e (2x + 1)(x − 4x − 3)

Example 4 7 It is known that x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12 = (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c) for all values of x, for suitable
values of b and c.
a Expand (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c) and collect like terms.
b Find b and c by equating coefficients.
c Hence write x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12 as a product of three linear factors.

8 Let x2 + 6x − 2 = (x − b)2 + c. Find the values of b and c so that this is true for all x.

6B Division of polynomials
In order to sketch the graphs of many cubic and quartic functions (as well as higher degree
polynomials) it is often necessary to find the x-axis intercepts. As with quadratics, finding
x-axis intercepts can be done by factorising and then solving the resulting equation using the
null factor theorem.
All cubics will have at least one x-axis intercept. Some will have two and others three.
We shall first look at the techniques for dividing one polynomial by another. One process for
division of polynomials is exactly the same as the long division process for numbers.

The long-division algorithm for positive integers

We show the process for 274 ÷ 13.

 21
13 274
26
14
13
1
We have
274 = 13 × 21 + 1
In this example:
 274 is the dividend  13 is the divisor
 21 is the quotient  1 is the remainder.

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 6B Division of polynomials 211

Division of positive integers

When we divide the number p by d we obtain two integers, q the quotient and r the
remainder, such that
p = dq + r and 0≤r<d
For example, dividing 27 by 4 gives
27 = 4 × 6 + 3

Note: If r = 0, then d is a factor of p. For example, 24 = 4 × 6.

The long-division algorithm for polynomials

The process for dividing a polynomial by a linear polynomial follows very similar steps. For
example, (x2 + 7x + 11) ÷ (x − 2) gives

x+9
x − 2 x2 + 7x + 11 Divide x2 by x. This gives x.
x2 − 2x Multiply x − 2 by x and subtract from x2 + 7x + 11.
9x + 11 This leaves 9x + 11. Now x into 9x goes 9 times.
9x − 18 Multiply x − 2 by 9 and subtract from 9x + 11.
29 This leaves 29 remainder.
2
Thus (x + 7x + 11) ÷ (x − 2) = x + 9 with remainder 29. We write
x2 + 7x + 11 = (x − 2)(x + 9) + 29
We can see in this example that x − 2 is not a factor of x2 + 7x + 11. We can also write the
result as
x2 + 7x + 11 29
= x+9+
x−2 x−2
In this example:
 x2 + 7x + 11 is the dividend
 x − 2 is the divisor
 x + 9 is the quotient
 29 is the remainder.

Division of polynomials
When we divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x) we obtain two polynomials,
Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder, such that
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x)
and either R(x) = 0 or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
Here P(x) is the dividend and D(x) is the divisor.

Note: If R(x) = 0, then D(x) is a factor of P(x). For example, let P(x) = x2 + 6x + 8
and D(x) = x + 2. Then P(x) = (x + 2)(x + 4) = D(x)(x + 4) + 0.

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 212 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 5
Divide x3 + x2 − 14x − 24 by x + 2.
Solution Explanation
2  Divide x, from x + 2, into the leading term x3 to get x2 .
 x − x − 12
x + 2 x3 + x2 − 14x − 24  Multiply x2 by x + 2 to give x3 + 2x2 .
x3 + 2x2  Subtract from x3 + x2 − 14x − 24, leaving −x2 − 14x − 24.

−x2 − 14x − 24  Now divide x, from x + 2, into −x2 to get −x.

−x2 − 2x  Multiply −x by x + 2 to give −x2 − 2x.
−12x − 24  Subtract from −x2 − 14x − 24, leaving −12x − 24.
−12x − 24  Divide x into −12x to get −12.
0  Multiply −12 by x + 2 to give −12x − 24.
 Subtract from −12x − 24, leaving remainder of 0.

In this example we see that x + 2 is a factor of x3 + x2 − 14x − 24, as the remainder is zero.
Thus (x3 + x2 − 14x − 24) ÷ (x + 2) = x2 − x − 12 with zero remainder.
x3 + x2 − 14x − 24
∴ = x2 − x − 12
x+2

Example 6
Divide 3x3 + x − 3 by x − 2.
Solution Explanation
2 Here there is no term in x2 , however we can rewrite the
 3x + 6x + 13 polynomial as 3x3 + 0x2 + x − 3.
x − 2 3x3 + 0x2 + x − 3
3x3 − 6x2  Divide x, from x − 2, into 3x3 to get 3x2 .
6x2 + x − 3  Multiply 3x2 by x − 2 to give 3x3 − 6x2 .
6x2 − 12x  Subtract from 3x3 + 0x2 + x − 3, leaving 6x2 + x − 3.
13x − 3  Now divide x, from x − 2, into 6x2 to get 6x.
13x − 26  Multiply 6x by x − 2 to give 6x2 − 12x.
23  Subtract from 6x2 + x − 3, leaving 13x − 3.
 Divide x into 13x to get 13.
 Multiply 13 by x − 2 to give 13x − 26.
 Subtract from 13x − 3, leaving remainder of 23.

From this example, we have

3x3 + x − 3 = (x − 2)(3x2 + 6x + 13) + 23
Alternatively, we can write
3x3 + x − 3 23
= 3x2 + 6x + 13 +
x−2 x−2

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 6B Division of polynomials 213

Equating coefficients to divide

We will briefly outline how to carry out divisions by equating coefficients as shown in the
first section of this chapter.
To divide x3 − 7x2 + 5x − 4 by x − 3, first write the identity
x3 − 7x2 + 5x − 4 = (x − 3)(x2 + bx + c) + r
We first find b, then c and finally r by equating coefficients of the left-hand side and
right-hand side of this identity.
x2 term Left-hand side: −7x2 . Right-hand side: −3x2 + bx2 = (−3 + b)x2 .
Therefore −3 + b = −7. Hence b = −4.

x term Left-hand side: 5x. Right-hand side: 12x + cx = (12 + c)x.

Therefore 12 + c = 5. Hence c = −7.

constant term Left-hand side: −4. Right-hand side: 21 + r.

Therefore 21 + r = −4. Hence r = −25.
So we can write
x3 − 7x2 + 5x − 4 = (x − 3)(x2 − 4x − 7) − 25
We do the following example using this method. You can see how the long division has the
same arithmetic steps.

Example 7
Divide 3x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 by 2x + 1.
Solution Alternative
3 2 For the alternative method, write the identity
2x + 14 x − 5
 8 3x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 = (2x + 1)(ax2 + bx + c) + r
2x + 1 3x + 2x2 − x − 2
3
Equate coefficients of x3 :
3x3 + 32 x2
3 = 2a. Therefore a = 23 .
1 2
2x −x−2
Equate coefficients of x2 :
1 2 1
2x + 4x 2 = a + 2b. Therefore b = 12 (2 − 32 ) = 41 .
− 45 x − 2 Equate coefficients of x:
− 45 x − 5
8
−1 = 2c + b. Therefore c = 21 (−1 − 14 ) = − 58 .
−1 38 Equate constant terms:
5
−2 = c + r. Therefore r = −2 + 8 = − 11
8 .

Note: The Interactive Textbook includes an online appendix on polynomials that describes
another method for division (called synthetic division).

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 214 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Using the TI-Nspire

Use propFrac( ) from menu > Algebra >
Fraction Tools > Proper Fraction as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 In M, select N from the Math1 keyboard.
3x3 + 2x2 − x − 2
 Enter the expression .
2x + 1
 Highlight the expression and go to Interactive >
Transformation > Fraction > propFrac.

Dividing by a non-linear polynomial

To divide by a non-linear polynomial, use the same technique as for a linear polynomial.

Example 8
Divide 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4 by x2 − 1.
Solution Explanation

 3x − 2 We write x2 − 1 as x2 + 0x − 1.
x + 0x − 1 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4
2

3x3 + 0x2 − 3x
−2x2 + 6x − 4
−2x2 + 0x + 2
6x − 6
∴ 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 4 = (x2 − 1)(3x − 2) + 6x − 6

Summary 6B
 When we divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x) we obtain two
polynomials, Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder, such that
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x)
and either R(x) = 0 or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
 Two methods for dividing polynomials are long division and equating coefficients.
(A third method is presented in the polynomials appendix in the Interactive Textbook.)

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 6B 6B Division of polynomials 215

Exercise 6B

Example 5 1 For each of the following, divide the polynomial by the accompanying linear
expression:
a x3 + x2 − 2x + 3, x − 1 b 2x3 + x2 − 4x + 3, x + 1
c 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 1, x + 2 d 2x3 − 3x2 + x − 2, x − 3

Example 6 2 For each of the following, divide the polynomial by the accompanying linear
expression:
a x3 + 3x − 4, x + 1 b 2x3 + 17x + 15, x + 4
c x3 + 4x2 + 2, x + 3 d x3 − 3x2 + 6x, x − 2

3 For each of the following, divide the polynomial by the accompanying linear expression
and hence show that the linear expression is a factor of the polynomial:
a x3 − x2 + 3x + 5, x + 1 b 2x3 + 6x2 − 14x − 24, x + 4
c x3 − 5x2 + 18, x − 3 d 3x3 − 7x2 − 4x + 12, x − 2

4 Find the quotient and remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second:
a x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 1, x + 2 b x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 4, x − 5
c 2x3 − x2 − 3x − 7, x + 1 d 5x3 − 3x + 7, x − 4

Example 7 5 For each of the following, divide the polynomial by the accompanying linear
expression:
a x3 + 6x2 + 8x + 11, 2x + 5 b 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 5, 2x + 1

For each of the following, divide the cubic polynomial by the linear polynomial:

CAS
6
a 2x3 + 3x2 − 32x + 15, 2x − 1 b x3 − 3x2 + 1, 3x − 1

x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 1 a
7 a Write in the form P(x) + , where P(x) is a quadratic
x−1 x−1
expression and a is a real number.
2x3 − 2x2 + 5x + 3 a
b Write in the form P(x) + , where P(x) is a quadratic
2x − 1 2x − 1
expression and a is a real number.

Example 8 8 For each of the following, divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x):
a P(x) = 2x3 − 6x2 − 4x + 12, D(x) = x2 − 2
b P(x) = x3 − 6x2 + x − 8, D(x) = x2 + 1
c P(x) = 2x3 − 6x2 − 4x + 54, D(x) = x2 − 2
d P(x) = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 7x + 5, D(x) = x2 + 2x − 1

For each of the following, divide the polynomial P(x) by the polynomial D(x):
CAS

9
a P(x) = x4 − x3 + 7x + 2, D(x) = x2 + 2x − 1
b P(x) = 2x4 + x3 + 13x + 10, D(x) = 2x2 − x + 4

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 216 Chapter 6: Polynomials

6C Factorisation of polynomials
You can factorise some cubic polynomials using techniques that you already know.
 Some cubics can be factorised by first taking out a common factor. For example:
2x3 − 14x2 + 24x = 2x(x2 − 7x + 12)
= 2x(x − 3)(x − 4)
 Some cubics can be factorised by using grouping of terms. For example:
x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 6 = x2 (x − 3) − 2(x − 3)
= (x2 − 2)(x − 3)
√ √
= (x + 2)(x − 2)(x − 3)
We will apply these techniques to solving cubic equations in Section 6D. In this section we
develop more general techniques for factorising cubic polynomials.

Remainder theorem
Since the aim of factorising a cubic is usually to solve an equation or to find the x-axis
intercepts of a graph, the first step is to establish whether a particular linear expression
is a factor of the given cubic or not. It is possible to do this without actually doing the
division process.
Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1.
Divide P(x) by x − 2:
2
 x + 5x + 12
x − 2 x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
x3 − 2x2
5x2 + 2x + 1
5x2 − 10x
12x + 1
12x − 24
25
The remainder is 25.
Now evaluate P(2):
P(2) = (2)3 + 3(2)2 + 2(2) + 1
= 8 + 12 + 4 + 1
= 25
The example suggests that, when P(x) is divided by x − α, the remainder is equal to P(α).
This is in fact true, and the result is called the remainder theorem.

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 6C Factorisation of polynomials 217

The remainder theorem can be proved as follows. Suppose that, when the polynomial P(x) is
divided by x − α, the quotient is Q(x) and the remainder is R. Then
P(x) = (x − α)Q(x) + R
Now, as the two expressions are equal for all values of x, they are equal for x = α.
∴ P(α) = (α − α)Q(α) + R ∴ R = P(α)
i.e. the remainder when P(x) is divided by x − α is equal to P(α). We therefore have
P(x) = (x − α)Q(x) + P(α)
More generally:

Remainder theorem
 α
When P(x) is divided by βx + α, the remainder is P − .
β

Example 9
Use the remainder theorem to find the value of the remainder when:
a P(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 6 is divided by x − 2
b P(x) = x3 − 2x + 4 is divided by 2x + 1.

Solution Explanation
a P(2) = (2)3 − 3(2)2 + 2(2) + 6 We apply the remainder theorem by
= 8 − 12 + 4 + 6 evaluating P(2).
=6
The remainder is 6.
 1   1 3  1
b P− = − −2 − +4 We apply the remainder theorem by
2 2 2
evaluating P(− 21 ).
1
=− +1+4
8
39
=
8
39
The remainder is .
8

Note: It is not necessary to perform polynomial division to find the remainder.

Example 10
When P(x) = x3 + 2x + a is divided by x − 2, the remainder is 4. Find the value of a.
Solution Explanation
P(2) = 8 + 4 + a = 4 We apply the remainder theorem to form a
Therefore a = −8. linear equation in a.

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 218 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Factor theorem
Now, in order for x − α to be a factor of the polynomial P(x), the remainder must be zero.
We state this result as the factor theorem.

Factor theorem
For a polynomial P(x):
 If P(α) = 0, then x − α is a factor of P(x).
 Conversely, if x − α is a factor of P(x), then P(α) = 0.

More generally:  α
 If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then P − = 0.
 α β
 Conversely, if P − = 0, then βx + α is a factor of P(x).
β

Example 11
Show that x + 1 is a factor of x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 and hence find the other linear factors.
Solution Alternative
Let 3
P(x) = x − 4x + x + 62 The division can also be performed using
Then P(−1) = (−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + (−1) + 6 the method of equating coefficients.

=0 Once we have shown that x + 1 is a

Therefore x + 1 is a factor of P(x), by the factor, we know that we can write
factor theorem. x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 + bx + c)
Divide P(x) by x + 1 to find the other factor: Equating constant terms gives c = 6.
2 Equating coefficients of x2 gives
 x − 5x + 6 1 + b = −4, and so b = −5.
x + 1 x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
x3 + x2 Hence
2
−5x + x + 6 x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 − 5x + 6)
−5x2 − 5x
= (x + 1)(x − 3)(x − 2)
6x + 6
6x + 6
0
Hence
x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 − 5x + 6)
= (x + 1)(x − 3)(x − 2)
The linear factors of x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 are
(x + 1), (x − 3) and (x − 2).

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 6C Factorisation of polynomials 219

Thinking about the numbers involved in the process of factorisation gives us a way of
searching for factors.
For example, consider the polynomial x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6. Assume that this polynomial has a
linear factor x − α, where α is an integer. Then we can write
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − α)(x2 + bx + c)
= x3 − (α − b)x2 − (αb − c)x − αc
By considering the constant term, it can be seen that αc = −6. Therefore α divides 6. (Since
α is an integer, it follows that b and c are too.)
Thus only the factors of 6 need be considered (i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6).
Try these in turn until a value for α makes P(α) = 0. This process is completed in the
following example.

Example 12
Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6.
Solution Explanation
P(1) = 1 − 2 − 5 + 6 = 0 The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
∴ x − 1 is a factor. We evaluate the first option, P(1), which
Now divide to find the other factors: in fact equals 0. If P(1) did not equal 0,
2 we would try the other factors of 6 in turn
x −x−6 until a zero result is found.
x − 1 x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
x3 − x2
−x2 − 5x + 6
−x2 + x
−6x + 6
−6x + 6
0

∴ x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1)(x2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)

Note: For some cubics, the quadratic factor may not be able to be factorised. Such a cubic
has only one linear factor. We consider the consequences for its graph in Section 6F.

Using the TI-Nspire

Use factor( ) from menu > Algebra > Factor to
factorise the expression x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6.

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 220 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Using the Casio ClassPad

 In M, enter the expression x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6.
 Highlight the expression and go to Interactive >
Transformation > factor.

Rational-root theorem
Consider the cubic polynomial
P(x) = 2x3 − x2 − x − 3
We can easily show that
P(1) , 0, P(−1) , 0, P(3) , 0 and P(−3) , 0
Hence the equation P(x) = 0 has no solution that is an integer.
Does it have a rational solution, that is, a fraction for a solution?
The rational-root theorem helps us with this question.
The theorem tells us that, if βx + α is a factor of 2x3 − x2 − x − 3, where α and β are integers
with highest common factor 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime), then β must divide 2 and
α must divide −3.
α
Therefore, if − is a solution of the equation P(x) = 0 (where α and β are relatively prime),
β
then β divides 2 and α divides −3. So the only value of β that needs to be considered is 2, and
α = ±3 or α = ±1.
 1  3
We can test these through the factor theorem. That is, check P ± and P ± . We find
2 2
3  3 3  3 2  3 
P =2 − − −3
2 2 2 2
27 9 3
=2× − − −3
8 4 2
=0
We have found that 2x − 3 is a factor.
Dividing through we find that
2x3 − x2 − x − 3 = (2x − 3)(x2 + x + 1)
We can show that x2 + x + 1 has no linear factors by showing that the discriminant of this
quadratic is negative.

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 6C Factorisation of polynomials 221

Example 13
Factorise P(x) = 3x3 + 8x2 + 2x − 5.
Solution Explanation
P(1) = 8 , 0, P(−1) = −2 , 0, The only possible integer solutions
P(5) = 580 , 0, P(−5) = −190 , 0, are ±5 or ±1. So there are no
 5 integer solutions. We now use the
P − =0 rational-root theorem.
3 α
Therefore 3x + 5 is a factor. If − is a solution, the only value of β
β
that needs to be considered is 3 and
Dividing gives
α = ±5 or α = ±1.
P(x) = 3x3 + 8x2 + 2x − 5
= (3x + 5)(x2 + x − 1)
We complete the square for x2 + x − 1 to
factorise:
1 1
x2 + x − 1 = x2 + x + − − 1
4 4
 1  2 5
= x+ −
2 4
 √  √ 
1 5 1 5
= x+ + x+ −
2 2 2 2
Hence
 √  √ 
1 5 1 5
P(x) = (3x + 5) x + + x+ −
2 2 2 2

Here is the complete statement of the theorem:

Rational-root theorem
Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of degree n with all the
coefficients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the highest common factor
of α and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime).
If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then β divides an and α divides a0 .

Note: A proof of the rational-root theorem is given in the polynomials appendix in the
Interactive Textbook.

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 222 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Special cases: sums and differences of cubes

Example 14
Factorise x3 − 27.
Solution Alternative
Let 3
P(x) = x − 27 The division can also be performed using
Then P(3) = 27 − 27 = 0 the method of equating coefficients.

Thus x − 3 is a factor. Let x3 − 27 = (x − 3)(x2 + bx + c).

Divide to find the other factor: Equating constant terms gives c = 9.

2 Equating coefficients of x2 gives
 x + 3x + 9 −3 + b = 0, and so b = 3.
x − 3 x3 + 0x2 + 0x − 27
x3 − 3x2 Hence x3 − 27 = (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9).
3x2 + 0x − 27
3x2 − 9x
9x − 27
9x − 27
0
Hence
x3 − 27 = (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)

In general, if P(x) = x3 − a3 , then x − a is a factor and so by division:

x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )

If a is replaced by −a, then

x3 − (−a)3 = x − (−a) x2 + (−a)x + (−a)2
This gives:

x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )

Example 15
Factorise 8x3 + 64.
Solution
8x3 + 64 = (2x)3 + (4)3
= (2x + 4)(4x2 − 8x + 16)

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 6C 6C Factorisation of polynomials 223

Summary 6C
 Remainder theorem  α
When P(x) is divided by βx + α, the remainder is P − .
β
 Factor theorem  α
• If βx + α is a factor of P(x), then P − = 0.
 α β
• Conversely, if P − = 0, then βx + α is a factor of P(x).
β
 A cubic polynomial can be factorised by using the factor theorem to find the first linear
factor and then using polynomial division or the method of equating coefficients to
complete the process.
 Rational-root theorem Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial
of degree n with all the coefficients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the
highest common factor of α and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime). If βx + α is a
factor of P(x), then β divides an and α divides a0 .
 Difference of two cubes: x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
 Sum of two cubes: x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 )

Skill-
sheet Exercise 6C

Example 9 1 Without dividing, find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second:
a x3 − x2 − 3x + 1, x − 1 b x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 1, x + 2
3 2
c 2x − 2x + 3x + 1, x − 2 d x3 − 2x + 3, x + 1
e x3 + 2x − 5, x − 2 f 2x3 + 3x2 + 3x − 2, x + 2
g 6 − 5x + 9x2 + 10x3 , 2x + 3 h 10x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 1, 2x + 1
i 108x3 − 27x2 − 1, 3x + 1

Example 10 2 Find the value of a for each of the following:

a x3 + ax2 + 3x − 5 has remainder −3 when divided by x − 2
b x3 + x2 − 2ax + a2 has remainder 8 when divided by x − 2
c x3 − 3x2 + ax + 5 has remainder 17 when divided by x − 3
d x3 + x2 + ax + 8 has remainder 0 when divided by x − 1

Example 11 3 Without dividing, show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second
polynomial:
a x3 − x2 + x − 1, x − 1 b x3 + 3x2 − x − 3, x − 1
c 2x3 − 3x2 − 11x + 6, x + 2 d 2x3 − 13x2 + 27x − 18, 2x − 3

4 Find the value of m if the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second:
a x3 − 4x2 + x + m, x − 3 b 2x3 − 3x2 − (m + 1)x − 30, x − 5
c x3 − (m + 1)x2 − x + 30, x + 3

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 224 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6C

Example 12 5 Factorise each of the following:

a 2x3 + x2 − 2x − 1 b x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1
c 6x3 − 13x2 + 13x − 6 d x3 − 21x + 20
e 2x3 + 3x2 − 1 f x3 − x2 − x + 1
g 4x3 + 3x − 38 h 4x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 6

6 Find the remainder when (1 + x)4 is divided by x + 2.

Example 13 7 Use the rational-root theorem to help factorise each of the following cubic polynomials:
a 2x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 15 b 2x3 − 3x2 + 8x + 5
c 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x − 5 d 2x3 − x2 − 8x − 3

Example 15 8 Factorise each of the following:

a x3 − 1 b x3 + 64
c 27x3 − 1 d 64x3 − 125
e 1 − 125x3 f 8 + 27x3
g 64m3 − 27n3 h 27b3 + 8a3

Factorise each of the following:

CAS
9
a x3 + x2 − x + 2 b 3x3 − 7x2 + 4
3 2
c x − 4x + x + 6 d 6x3 + 17x2 − 4x − 3

10 Find the values of a and b and factorise the polynomial P(x) = x3 + ax2 − x + b, given
that P(x) is divisible by x − 1 and x + 3.

11 a Show that x − a is a factor of xn − an , for any constant a and any natural number n.
b Find conditions (if any) on n that are required in order that:
i x + a is a factor of xn + an
ii x + a is a factor of xn − an .

12 The polynomial P(x) has a remainder of 2 when divided by x − 1 and a remainder of 3

when divided by x − 2. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 1)(x − 2) is ax + b,
i.e. P(x) can be written as P(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)Q(x) + ax + b.
a Find the values of a and b.
b i Given that P(x) is a cubic polynomial with coefficient of x3 being 1, and −1 is a
solution of the equation P(x) = 0, find P(x).
ii Show that the equation P(x) = 0 has no other real solutions.

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 6D Solving cubic equations 225

6D Solving cubic equations

In order to solve a cubic equation, the first step is often to factorise. We start with an example
of a cubic already written in factorised form.

Example 16
Solve (x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 3) = 0.
Solution Explanation
Using the null factor theorem, In this example, the cubic has
(x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 3) = 0 implies already been factorised.
x−2=0 or x+1=0 or x+3=0
Thus the solutions are x = 2, −1 and −3.

In the following example, a common factor of x is first taken out.

Example 17
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a 2x3 − x2 − x = 0 b x3 + 2x2 − 10x = 0

Solution
a 2x3 − x2 − x = 0 b x3 + 2x2 − 10x = 0
x(2x2 − x − 1) = 0 x(x2 + 2x − 10) = 0
x(2x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 x(x2 + 2x + 1 − 11) = 0
√ √
∴ x = 0 or x = − 12 or x = 1 x(x + 1 − 11)(x + 1 + 11) = 0
√ √
∴ x = 0 or x = −1 + 11 or x = −1 − 11

In the following example, grouping is used to factorise.

Example 18
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 44 = 0 b x3 − ax2 − 11x + 11a = 0

Solution
a x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 44 = 0 b x3 − ax2 − 11x + 11a = 0
x2 (x − 4) − 11(x − 4) = 0 x2 (x − a) − 11(x − a) = 0
Therefore (x − 4)(x2 − 11) = 0 Therefore (x − a)(x2 − 11) = 0
√ √
Hence x = 4 or x = ± 11 Hence x = a or x = ± 11

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 226 Chapter 6: Polynomials

In the following two examples, the factor theorem is used to find a linear factor.

Example 19
Solve x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 = 0.
Solution Explanation
Let 3 2
P(x) = x − 4x − 11x + 30 In this example we first identify
Then P(1) = 1 − 4 − 11 + 30 , 0 a linear factor using the factor
theorem.
P(−1) = −1 − 4 + 11 + 30 , 0
P(2) = 8 − 16 − 22 + 30 = 0
∴ x − 2 is a factor.
By division or inspection, The factorisation is completed using
x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 = (x − 2)(x2 − 2x − 15) one of the methods given in the
previous section.
= (x − 2)(x − 5)(x + 3)

∴ (x − 2)(x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
∴ x − 2 = 0 or x − 5 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
∴ x = 2, 5 or −3

Example 20
Solve 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 2 = 0.
Solution Explanation
Let 3
P(x) = 2x − 5x + 5x − 22 First find a linear factor using
Then P(1) = 2 − 5 + 5 − 2 = 0 the factor theorem. Then find the
quadratic factor by division.
∴ x − 1 is a factor.
The discriminant of this quadratic
By division or inspection, is negative, so the quadratic cannot
2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 2 = (x − 1)(2x2 − 3x + 2) be factorised further. Hence there is
∴ (x − 1)(2x2 − 3x + 2) = 0 only one linear factor and therefore
only one solution.
∴x=1

Using the TI-Nspire

Use solve( ) from menu > Algebra > Solve to
solve the equation 2x3 − 5x2 + x + 2 = 0.

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 6D 6D Solving cubic equations 227

Using the Casio ClassPad

 In M, select ` from or Math3 .
Math1
3 2
 Enter the equation 2x − 5x + x + 2 = 0. Tap EXE .
Note: You can omit ‘= 0’ here. When using `, it is
not necessary to enter the right-hand side of the
equation if it is zero.

Summary 6D
Cubic polynomial equations can be solved by first using an appropriate factorisation
technique. Factorisation may involve:
 taking out a common factor
 using grouping of terms
 using the factor theorem
 polynomial division or equating coefficients
 sum or difference of two cubes
 using the quadratic formula to complete the factorisation.

Exercise 6D

Example 16 1 Solve each of the following:

a (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4) = 0 b (x − 4)2 (x − 6) = 0
c (2x − 1)(x − 3)(3x + 2) = 0 d x(x + 3)(2x − 5) = 0

Example 17 2 Solve each of the following:

a x3 − 2x2 − 8x = 0 b x3 + 2x2 − 11x = 0
c x3 − 3x2 − 40x = 0 d x3 + 2x2 − 16x = 0

Example 18 3 Use grouping to solve each of the following:

a x3 − x2 + x − 1 = 0 b x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0
c x3 − 5x2 − 10x + 50 = 0 d x3 − ax2 − 16x + 16a = 0

Example 19 4 Solve each of the following:

a x3 − 19x + 30 = 0 b 3x3 − 4x2 − 13x − 6 = 0
c x3 − x2 − 2x + 2 = 0 d 5x3 + 12x2 − 36x − 16 = 0
e 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 f 2x3 − 3x2 − 29x − 30 = 0

Example 20 5 Solve each of the following for x:

a x3 + x2 − 24x + 36 = 0 b 6x3 + 13x2 − 4 = 0
c x3 − x2 − 2x − 12 = 0 d 2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 6 = 0
e x3 − x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 f x3 + x2 − 11x − 3 = 0

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 228 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6D

6 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a 2x3 = 16x b 2(x − 1)3 = 32 c x3 + 8 = 0
1
d 2x3 + 250 = 0 e 1000 =
x3
Factorise each of the following cubic expressions using your CAS calculator:

CAS
7
a 2x3 − 22x2 − 250x + 2574 b 2x3 + 27x2 + 52x − 33
c 2x3 − 9x2 − 242x + 1089 d 2x3 + 51x2 + 304x − 165

6E Cubic functions of the form f(x) = a(x − h)3 + k

In Chapter 3 we saw that all quadratic functions can be written in ‘turning point form’ and
that the graphs of all quadratics have one basic form, the parabola. This is not true of cubic
functions.
Let us first consider those cubics that are of the form
f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k
The graphs of these functions can be formed by simple transformations of the graph of
f (x) = x3 .
For example, the graph of f (x) = (x − 1)3 + 3 is obtained from the graph of f (x) = x3 by a
translation of 1 unit in the positive direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the positive direction
of the y-axis.

Transformations of the graph of f(x) = x3

Dilations from an axis and reflections in an axis
As with other graphs it has been seen that changing the value of a simply narrows or
broadens the graph without changing its fundamental shape. Again, if a < 0, the graph is
reflected in an axis. Note that reflecting in the x-axis and reflecting in the y-axis result in the
same graph. This is because (−x)3 = −x3 .
For example:

y = x3 1
y = 3x3 y = – 2 x3
y y y

x x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2

The implied domain of all cubics is R and the range is also R.

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 6E Cubic functions of the form f(x) = a(x − h)3 + k 229

Point of inflection
The significant feature of the graph of a cubic of this form is the point of inflection (a point
of zero gradient). This will be discussed fully in Chapter 18, but for the moment we note that
it is the ‘flat point’ of the graph.
The point of inflection of y = x3 is at the origin (0, 0).

Vertical translations
By adding or subtracting a constant term to y = x3 , the graph moves either ‘up’ or ‘down’.
The graph of y = x3 + k is the basic graph moved k units up (for k > 0). The point of
inflection becomes (0, k). In this case, the graph of y = x3 is translated k units in the positive
direction of the y-axis.

Horizontal translations
The graph of y = (x − h)3 is simply the basic graph moved h units to the ‘right’ (for h > 0).
The point of inflection is at (h, 0). In this case, the graph of y = x3 is translated h units in the
positive direction of the x-axis.

General form

For the graph of a cubic function of the form

y = a(x − h)3 + k
the point of inflection is at (h, k).

When sketching cubic graphs of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k, first identify the point of
inflection. To add further detail to the graph, find the x-axis and y-axis intercepts.

Example 21
Sketch the graph of the function y = (x − 2)3 + 4.
Solution
The graph of y = x3 is translated 2 units to the right and y
4 units up.
Point of inflection is (2, 4).
3
(2 + √–4, 0)
x-axis intercept: y-axis intercept:
Let y = 0 Let x = 0 4
3 (2, 4)
0 = (x − 2) + 4 y = (0 − 2)3 + 4 x
3 0 1 2 3 4
−4 = (x − 2) y = −8 + 4
√3 (0, –4)
−4 = x − 2 y = −4
√3
x = 2 + −4
≈ 0.413

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 230 Chapter 6: Polynomials

1
The function f : Ò → Ò, f(x) = x 3
The functions with rules of the form f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k are one-to-one functions. Hence
each of these functions has an inverse function.
1
The inverse function of f (x) = x3 is f −1 (x) = x 3 .

y
y = x3
y=x

1
y = x3
x
0

1
The graphs of y = x3 and y = x 3 are shown above.
1 1
The graph of y = x 3 is instantaneously vertical at x = 0. The graphs of y = x3 and y = x 3
intersect at (1, 1) and (−1, −1).

Example 22
1
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1) 3 − 2.
Solution Explanation
When x = 0, y Find the axis intercepts.
1
y= (−1) 3 −2 The graph of
1
= −1 − 2 y = (x − 1) 3 − 2
= −3 1
(9, 0) is the graph of y = x 3
When y = 0, x translated 1 unit to the right
1 0
(x − 1) 3 −2=0 and 2 units down.
1
1 3
y = (x – 1) – 2
(x − 1) 3 =2
(0, –3)
x − 1 = 23
x=9

We find the inverse function of a cubic of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k by using the technique
introduced in Chapter 5.

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 6E 6E Cubic functions of the form f(x) = a(x − h)3 + k 231

Example 23
Find the inverse function f −1 of f : R → R, f (x) = 2(x − 4)3 + 3.
Solution Explanation
Interchange x and y: Remember that (x, y) ∈ f if and only
x = 2(y − 4)3 + 3 if (y, x) ∈ f −1 .

Solve for y:
x − 3 = 2(y − 4)3
x−3
= (y − 4)3
2
 x − 31
3
y−4= The opposite operation to cubing
2
 x − 31 is taking the cube root. That is,
3 √3 1
y= +4 x = x3
2
 x − 31
3
Therefore f −1 : R → R, f −1 (x) = +4
2

Summary 6E
 The graph of y = a(x − h)3 + k has the same shape as y = ax3 but is translated h units in
the positive x-axis direction and k units in the positive y-axis direction (where h and k
are positive constants).
 The implied domain of all cubic functions is R.
1
 The functions f (x) = x3 and f −1 (x) = x 3 are inverse functions of each other.

Exercise 6E

Example 21 1 Using the method of horizontal and vertical translations, sketch the graph of each of the
following:
a y = (x + 2)3 − 1 b y = (x − 1)3 − 1 c y = (x + 3)3 + 2
d y = (x − 2)3 + 5 e y = (x + 2)3 − 5

2 Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

a y = 2x3 + 3 b y = 2(x − 3)3 + 2 c 3y = x3 − 5
d y = 3 − x3 e y = (3 − x)3 f y = −2(x + 1)3 + 1
1
g y= (x − 3)3 + 2
2
Example 22 3 Sketch the graph of each of the following:
1 1 1
a y = (x − 1) 3 − 2 b y = 2x 3 c y = 2(x − 3) 3 + 1
1 1 1
d y = 3(x + 2) 3 − 2 e y = −2(x − 3) 3 + 2 f y = −2(x + 3) 3 − 2

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 232 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6E

Example 23 4 Find the inverse function of each of the following functions:

1
a f (x) = 2x3 + 3 b f (x) = 3x 3 c f (x) = 2(x + 1)3 + 1
1 1 1
d f (x) = 2(x + 3) 3 − 2 e f (x) = −2(x − 1) 3 + 4 f f (x) = −2(x + 2) 3 − 1

6F Graphs of factorised cubic functions

The general cubic function written in polynomial form is
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
There is a variety of graph shapes for cubic functions, depending on the values of the
coefficients. The graph of a cubic function is not necessarily a simple transformation
(dilations, translations, reflections) of the graph of y = x3 .
All cubics have at least one x-axis intercept. We have seen that cubic functions of the form
f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k have only one x-axis intercept, but these are not the only cubic functions
with one x-axis intercept. Some cubic functions have two and others have three.
The y-axis intercept is easily found by letting x = 0, and it is the point (0, d).
When sketching the graphs of cubics which are not of the form f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k, begin by
finding the x-axis intercepts.
In the following example, the cubic is already in factorised form.

Example 24
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 1). Do not give coordinates of turning points.
Solution
To find the x-axis intercepts, let y = 0. y

Then 0 = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 1)

∴ x − 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
∴ x-axis intercepts are 1, −1 and −2. x
–2 –1 0 1 2
To find the y-axis intercept, let x = 0.
–2
Then y = (0 − 1)(0 + 2)(0 + 1) = −2.
∴ y-axis intercept is −2.
Check the following by substituting values:
 When x > 1, y > 0.  When −1 < x < 1, y < 0.
 When −2 < x < −1, y > 0.  When x < −2, y < 0.
(Notice how the sign of the y-value changes from one side of an x-axis intercept to the
other.) Finally, consider what happens to the graph ‘beyond’ the x-axis intercepts:
 For x > 1, y > 0 and as x increases y increases.
 For x < −2, y < 0 and as x decreases y decreases.

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 6F Graphs of factorised cubic functions 233

The polynomial form of the cubic in this example is y = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2. The coefficient
of x3 is positive. We now see what happens when the coefficient of x3 is negative.
The graph of the cubic function y
y = −x3 − 2x2 + x + 2
is the reflection in the x-axis of the graph y = –x3 – 2x2 + x + 2
of the cubic function considered in 2
Example 24. x
–2 –1 0 1 2
 When x > 1, y < 0. –2
 When −1 < x < 1, y > 0.
 When −2 < x < −1, y < 0.
 When x < −2, y > 0.

 For x > 1, y < 0 and as x increases y decreases.

 For x < −2, y > 0 and as x decreases y increases.

At this stage the location of the turning points is unspecified. However, it is important to note
that, unlike quadratic graphs, the turning points are not symmetrically located between x-axis
intercepts. How to determine the exact values of the coordinates of the turning points will be
shown later in this book.

Sign diagrams
A sign diagram is a number-line diagram which shows when an expression is positive or
negative.
The following is a sign diagram for a cubic function, the graph of which is also shown.
y

α β γ
x

Graph
β γ
+ α
– x
Sign diagram

Using a sign diagram requires that the factors, and the x-axis intercepts, be found. The y-axis
intercept and sign diagram can then be used to complete the graph.
This procedure is shown in Example 25.

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 234 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 25
Sketch the graph of y = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6.
Solution
Let P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6
Then P(1) = 1 + 2 − 5 − 6 , 0
P(−1) = −1 + 2 + 5 − 6 = 0
∴ x + 1 is a factor.
By division, y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3). + x
–
∴ x-axis intercepts are −1, 2 and −3. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
When x < −3, y is negative. y
When −3 < x < −1, y is positive.
6
When −1 < x < 2, y is negative. 4
2
x
When x > 2, y is positive. –3 –2 –1 –2 0 1 2
This gives the sign diagram. –6
–8

Using the TI-Nspire

To add detail to the graph, the coordinates of
the turning points can be found with a CAS
calculator.
 Enter f 1(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6 in a Graphs
application.
 Choose a suitable window ( menu >
Window/Zoom > Window Settings).

 Use > Analyze Graph > Maximum.

menu

 Move the cursor to the left of the point

(lower bound), click, move to the right of the
point (upper bound) and click to display the
coordinates.
 Repeat for other points of interest.

Note: Alternatively, use > Trace > Graph Trace to find the coordinates of the two
menu
turning points. A label will appear on the screen to indicate that the calculator has
found a local maximum or a local minimum.

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 6F Graphs of factorised cubic functions 235

Using the Casio ClassPad

To add detail to the graph, the coordinates of the
turning points can be found with a CAS calculator.
 Go to the menu m, select Graph & Table
and tap the cursor next to y1.
 Enter x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6.
 Tick the box and select $ to produce the graph.
 Choose a suitable window using 6 or a
combination of Zoom Out and Zoom Box.
 Tap in the graph window to select it, then use
Analysis > G-Solve > Max to find the local
maximum and Min to find the local minimum.
Note: The maximum and minimum points must be
visible on the screen before carrying out the
analysis step.

Repeated factors
The polynomial function f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x + 3) has a repeated factor. In this case x − 1 is
repeated. Since the repeated factor is squared, it is easy to see that the sign of the y-value is
the same ‘close in’ on either side of the corresponding x-axis intercept.
If the factorised cubic has a repeated factor and another linear factor, there are only two
x-axis intercepts and the repeated factor corresponds to one of the turning points.

Example 26
Sketch the graph of y = x2 (x − 1).
Solution
To find the x-axis intercepts, let y = 0.
Then x2 (x − 1) = 0. y

Thus the x-axis intercepts are at x = 0 and x = 1.

Because the repeated factor is x2 , there is also a turning
point at x = 0. x
–1 0 1 2
The y-axis intercept (letting x = 0) is at y = 0.

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 236 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Cubics with one x-axis intercept

Cubics of the form y = (x − a)3 have only one x-axis intercept. Some other cubics also have
only one x-axis intercept because, when they are factorised, they are found to have only one
linear factor, with the remaining quadratic factor unable to be factorised further.

Example 27
Sketch the graph of y = −(x − 1)(x2 + 4x + 5).
Solution
To find the x-axis intercept, let y = 0. y

First, we note that the factor x2 + 4x + 5 cannot

5
be factorised further:
∆ = b2 − 4ac
x
= 42 − 4(1)(5) –2 –1 0 1
= −4
∴ there are no further linear factors.
Hence, when solving the equation −(x − 1)(x2 + 4x + 5) = 0, there is only one solution.
∴ x-axis intercept is x = 1.
To find the y-axis intercept, let x = 0. Then y = −(0 − 1)(02 + 4(0) + 5) = 5.
A CAS calculator can be used to find the turning points (0, 5) and (−1.82, 2.91), where the
coordinates of the second point are given to two decimal places.

Note: At this stage of the course, you cannot determine all the features of the graph of a
general cubic polynomial by hand. Further techniques for graphing cubics will be
introduced in Chapter 18.

Summary 6F
 The graph of a cubic function can have one, two or three x-axis intercepts.
 If a cubic can be written as the product of three linear factors, y = a(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ),
then its graph can be sketched by following these steps:
• Find the y-axis intercept.
• Find the x-axis intercepts.
• Prepare a sign diagram.
• Consider the y-values as x increases to the right of all x-axis intercepts.
• Consider the y-values as x decreases to the left of all x-axis intercepts.
 If the cubic has a repeated factor to the power 2, then the y-values have the same sign
immediately to the left and right of the corresponding x-axis intercept.

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 6F 6F Graphs of factorised cubic functions 237

Exercise 6F

Example 24 1 Sketch the graph for each of the following and draw a sign diagram. Label your sketch
graph showing the points of intersection with the axes. (Do not determine coordinates
of turning points.)
a y = x(x − 1)(x − 3) b y = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)
c y = (2x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) d y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)

Example 25 2 Sketch the graph for each of the following and draw a sign diagram. Label your sketch
graph showing the points of intersection with the axes. (Do not determine coordinates
of turning points.)
a y = x3 − 9x b y = x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 18
c y = −x3 + x2 + 3x − 3 d y = 3x3 − 4x2 − 13x − 6
e y = 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1 f y = 2x3 − 9x2 + 7x + 6

Example 26 3 Sketch the graph for each of the following and draw a sign diagram. Label your sketch
graph showing the points of intersection with the axes. (Do not determine coordinates
of turning points.)
a y = (x − 1)(x − 2)2 b y = x2 (x − 4)
c y = 2(x + 1)2 (x − 3) d y = x3 + x2
e y = 4x3 − 8x2 + 5x − 1 f y = x3 − 5x2 + 7x − 3

Sketch the graph for each of the following and draw a sign diagram. Label your sketch

CAS
Example 27 4
graph showing the points of intersection with the axes. (Do not determine coordinates
of turning points.) Use your calculator to help sketch each of them.
a y = (x − 1)(x2 + 1) (Note: There is no turning point or ‘flat point’ of this cubic.)
2
b y = (x + 2)(x − 4) (Note: There are two turning points.)

5 Sketch the graph for each of the following, using a CAS calculator to find the
coordinates of axis intercepts and local maximum and local minimum values:
a y = −4x3 − 12x2 + 37x − 15 b y = −4x3 + 19x − 15
c y = −4x3 + 0.8x2 + 19.8x − 18 d y = 2x3 + 11x2 + 15x
e y = 2x3 + 6x2 f y = 2x3 + 6x2 + 6

6 Show that the graph of f , where f (x) = x3 − x2 − 5x − 3, cuts the x-axis at one point and
touches it at another. Find the values of x at these points.

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 238 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6G

6G Solving cubic inequalities

As was done for quadratic inequalities, we can solve cubic inequalities by considering the
graph of the corresponding polynomial.

Example 28
Find { x : x3 + x2 − 5x + 3 ≤ 0 }.
Solution Explanation
P(x) = x3 + x2 − 5x + 3  Use the factor theorem to find
P(1) = 1 + 1 − 5 + 3 = 0 an initial linear factor.
 Complete the factorisation.
∴ x − 1 is a factor. By division, y = (x − 1)2 (x + 3).
 Find the axis intercepts.
There are only two x-axis intercepts, 1 and −3. The  Sketch the graph.
y-axis intercept is 3. (Note that this cubic has a
y
repeated factor, and so (1, 0)
is a turning point as well an
intercept.)
3  Solve the inequality by
2
inspecting the graph.
1
x  Express the solution in formal
–3 –2 –1 1 2 set notation.

From the graph we can see that y ≤ 0 when x ≤ −3

or when x = 1.
∴ { x : x3 + x2 − 5x + 3 ≤ 0 } = (−∞, −3] ∪ {1}

Summary 6G
Cubic inequalities can be solved by sketching the graph of the corresponding cubic
function and analysing the graph.

Skill-
sheet Exercise 6G

Example 28 1 Solve the following cubic inequalities:

a (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0 b (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 4) ≥ 0
2
c (x − 1)(x − 2) < 0 d x(x + 2)(x − 3) > 0
3
e (x − 1) + 8 ≤ 0 f x3 − 1 ≥ 0
g x2 (x − 4) > 0 h (x + 3)(x2 + 2x + 5) ≤ 0

2 Solve the following cubic inequalities. Begin by getting all of the terms on one side.
a x3 > 4x b x3 < 5x2 c x3 + 4x ≤ 4x2
d x3 > 9x e x3 − 6x2 + x ≥ 6 f 2x3 − 6x2 − 4x < −12
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 6H Families of cubic polynomial functions 239

6H Families of cubic polynomial functions

In Chapter 2 we considered the information that is necessary to determine the equation of a
straight line. In Chapter 3 this was considered for quadratic functions, and in Chapter 4 for
rectangular hyperbolas, circles and other types of relations.
Here are some examples of families of cubic polynomial functions:
y = ax3 , a > 0 The cubic graphs that are dilations from the x-axis
of y = x3 .
y = a(x − h)3 + k, a , 0 The cubic graphs that are translations of y = ax3 .
y = a(x − 2)(x + 5)(x − 4), a , 0 The cubic graphs with x-axis intercepts 2, −5 and 4.
3 2
y = ax + bx + cx, a , 0 The cubic graphs that pass through the origin.
Recall that in this context we call a, b, c, h and k parameters.

Finding rules for cubic polynomial functions

The method used for finding the equation from the graph of a cubic will depend on what
information is given in the graph.
If the cubic function has rule of the form f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k and the point of inflection (h, k)
is given, then only one other point needs to be known in order to find the value of a.
For those that are not of this form, the information given may be some or all of the x-axis
intercepts as well as the coordinates of other points including possibly the y-axis intercept.

Example 29
a A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 2)3 + 2. The point (3, 10) is on the graph
of the function. Find the value of a.
b A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4). The point (5, 16) is on
the graph of the function. Find the value of a.

Solution Explanation
a y = a(x − 2)3 + 2 In each of these problems we substitute in
When x = 3, y = 10. Solve for a: the given values to find the unknown.

10 = a(3 − 2)3 + 2 For part a, the coordinates of the point of

inflection of a graph which is a translation
8 = a × 13
of y = ax3 are known and the coordinates
a=8 of one further point are known.
b y = a(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4) For part b, three x-axis intercepts are
When x = 5, y = 16. known and the coordinates of a fourth point
are known.
16 = a(5 − 1)(5 + 2)(5 − 4)
16 = 28a
4
a=
7

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 240 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 30
A cubic function has rule of the form f (x) = ax3 + bx. The points (1, 16) and (2, 30) are on
the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.
Solution
Since f (1) = 16 and f (2) = 30, we obtain the simultaneous equations
16 = a + b (1)
30 = a(2)3 + 2b (2)
1
Multiply (1) by 2 and subtract from (2). This gives −2 = 6a and hence a = − .
3
49
Substitute in (1) to find b = .
3

Example 31
Determine the rule for the cubic function shown in each of the following graphs:
aa y bb y

2 (3, 2)
2
1
1
x
–1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 0 1
–1

–2 (1, –2)

Solution Explanation
a y = a(x + 1)(x − 2)2 The x-axis intercepts are −1 and 2, and the
Put (3, 2) into the equation: graph touches the x-axis at 2. So the cubic
has a repeated factor x − 2.
2 = a(4)(1)
1
Therefore the form of the rule appears to be
=a
2 y = a(x + 1)(x − 2)2 .
The rule is y = 12 (x + 1)(x − 2)2 .
b y = a(x + 1)3 + 2 This graph appears to be of the form
To determine a, put the known point y = a(x − h)3 + k. The point of inflection
(1, −2) into the equation: is at (−1, 2). Therefore h = −1 and k = 2.

−2 = a(2)3 + 2
−4 = 8a
− 12 = a
The rule is y = − 12 (x + 1)3 + 2.

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 6H Families of cubic polynomial functions 241

Example 32
A cubic function f has rule f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. If
f (1) = 0, f (2) = −7, f (4) = 27, f (5) = 80
find the values of a, b, c and d.

Using the TI-Nspire

 Define the function f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
 Use > Algebra > Solve System of
menu
Equations > Solve System of Linear Equations.
Complete the pop-up screen and enter the
equations as shown to find a, b, c and d.
 An alternative method is also shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 In M, enter the expression ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
(Remember to enter the variables a, b, c and d
using the Var keyboard.)
 Highlight the expression and go to Interactive >
Define.
 In the Math1 keyboard, tap the simultaneous
equations icon ~. Tap it twice more to expand
for four simultaneous equations.
 Enter the known values f (1) = 0, f (2) = −7, f (4) = 27 and f (5) = 80 into the four
lines and enter the variables a, b, c, d in the bottom right separated by commas.
(You can enter the function name f using either the abc or the Math3 keyboard.)

Summary 6H
The rule of a cubic function can be determined if:
 the coordinates of four points on the graph are known
 the form of the function is known to be f (x) = a(x − α)2 (x − β), and α and β and the
coordinates of one other point are known
 the form of the function is known to be f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k, and the coordinates of the
inflection point (h, k) and one other point are known.
There are other sets of information which can be used to determine the rule of a cubic
function and more of these will be given in Chapter 18.

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 242 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6H

Skill-
sheet Exercise 6H

Example 29a 1 a A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 3)3 + 1. The point (4, 12) is on the
graph of the function. Find the value of a.
Example 29b b A cubic function has rule of the form y = a(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 1). The point (3, 24) is
on the graph of the function. Find the value of a.
Example 30 c A cubic function has rule of the form y = ax3 + bx. The points (1, 16) and (2, 40) are
on the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.

Example 31 2 The graphs shown are similar to the y

basic curve y = −x3 . Find possible cubic b
4
functions which define each of the curves.
a 3
(3, 2)
2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

3 Find the equation of the cubic function for which the graph is shown. y

(3, 6)

x
0 2

4 Find a cubic function whose graph touches the x-axis at x = −4, cuts it at the origin, and
has a value 6 when x = −3.

5 The graph of a cubic function has x-axis intercepts 1, 3 and −1 and y-axis intercept −6.
Find the rule for this cubic function.

6 A cubic function f has rule f (x) = (x − 3)(x2 + a) and f (6) = 216. Find the value of a.

7 The graphs below have equations of the form shown. In each case, determine the
equation.
a y = a(x − h)3 + k b y = ax3 + bx2 c y = ax3
y y y

(1, 5) (1, 5)
(3, 2)
x x x
(–3, –1) (0, 0) (0, 0)
(–1, –5)
–25

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 6H 6I Quartic and other polynomial functions 243

8 Find the expressions which define the following cubic curves:

a y b y

4 4
(2, 3)
2 (1, 1) 2
(1, 0.75)
x x
–2 0 2 –2 0 2
–2 –2
(–2, –3) Note: This graph
–4 –4
is not of the form
y = a(x – h)3 + k.
For each of the following, use a CAS calculator to find the values of a, b, c, d in the

CAS
Example 32 9
cubic equation y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, given that the following points lie on its graph:
a (0, 270), (1, 312), (2, 230), (3, 0) b (−2, −406), (0, 26), (1, 50), (2, −22)
c (−2, −32), (2, 8), (3, 23), (8, 428) d (1, −1), (2, 10), (3, 45), (4, 116)
e (−3, −74), (−2, −23), (−1, −2), (1, −2) f (−3, −47), (−2, −15), (1, −3), (2, −7)
g (−4, 25), (−3, 7), (−2, 1), (1, −5)

6I Quartic and other polynomial functions

In this section we look at polynomial functions of degree 4 and greater.

Quartic functions of the form f(x) = a(x − h)4 + k

The graph of f (x) = (x − 1)4 + 3 is obtained from the graph of y = x4 by a translation of 1 unit
in the positive direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the positive direction of the y-axis.
As with other graphs it has been seen y
that changing the value of a simply
y = 3x4
narrows or broadens the graph without y = x4
changing its fundamental shape. Again,
if a < 0, the graph is inverted.
The significant feature of the graph of a 0
x
quartic of this form is the turning point
(a point of zero gradient). The turning y = – 12 x4
point of y = x4 is at the origin (0, 0).
For the graph of a quartic function of
the form
y = a(x − h)4 + k
the turning point is at (h, k).

When sketching quartic graphs of the form y = a(x − h)4 + k, first identify the turning point.
To add further detail to the graph, find the x-axis and y-axis intercepts.

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 244 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 33
Sketch the graph of the function y = (x − 2)4 − 1.
Solution
Turning point is (2, −1). y

x-axis intercepts: y-axis intercept:

15
Let y = 0 Let x = 0
0 = (x − 2)4 − 1 y = (0 − 2)4 − 1
1 = (x − 2)4 = 16 − 1
√4
± 1= x−2 = 15 x
0 1 3
x = 2 + 1 or x = 2 − 1 (2, –1)
x = 3 or x = 1

The implied domain of all quartics is R, but unlike cubics the range is not R.

Other quartic functions y y

The techniques for graphing quartic functions in general are
very similar to those employed for cubic functions. A CAS
calculator is to be used in the graphing of these functions.
Great care needs to be taken in this process as it is easy to miss –2 2
key points on the graph using these techniques. x
x
0 0
The graph of y = 2x4 − 8x2 is shown.

Example 34
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a x4 − 8x = 0 b 2x4 − 8x2 = 0 c x4 − 2x3 − 24x2 = 0

Solution
a x4 − 8x = 0 b 2x4 − 8x2 = 0
Factorise to obtain Factorise to obtain
x(x3 − 8) = 0 2x2 (x2 − 4) = 0
∴ x = 0 or x3 − 8 = 0 ∴ 2x2 = 0 or x2 − 4 = 0
Thus x = 0 or x = 2. Thus x = 0 or x = 2 or x = −2.

c x4 − 2x3 − 24x2 = 0
Factorise to obtain x2 (x2 − 2x − 24) = 0
∴ x2 = 0 or x2 − 2x − 24 = 0
i.e. x = 0 or (x − 6)(x + 4) = 0
Thus x = 0 or x = 6 or x = −4.

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 6I Quartic and other polynomial functions 245

Odd and even polynomials

In this subsection we look briefly at odd and even polynomial functions. Knowing that a
function is even or that it is odd is very helpful when sketching its graph.
 A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x). This means that the graph is symmetric about the
y-axis. That is, the graph appears the same after reflection in the y-axis.
 A function f is odd if f (−x) = − f (x). The graph of an odd function has rotational
symmetry with respect to the origin: the graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180◦
about the origin.
A power function is a function f with rule f (x) = xr where r is a non-zero real number. In

this book we focus on the cases where r is a positive integer or r ∈ −2, −1, 12 , 13 .

Even-degree power functions y

2
The functions with rules f (x) = x and
f (x) = x4 are examples of even-degree
power functions.
2 y = x4 y = x2
The following are properties of all
even-degree power functions:
 f (−x) = f (x) for all x
x
 f (0) = 0 0
–2 –1 1 2
 As x → ±∞, y → ∞.

Note that, if m and n are positive even integers with m > n, then:
 xm > xn for x > 1 or x < −1
 xm < xn for −1 < x < 1 with x , 0
 xm = xn for x = 1 or x = −1 or x = 0.

Odd-degree power functions

The functions with rules f (x) = x3 and y
f (x) = x5 are examples of odd-degree
power functions. y = x3
y = x5
2
The following are properties of all
odd-degree power functions:
x
 f (−x) = − f (x) for all x –2 –1 0 1 2
 f (0) = 0
–2
 As x → ∞, y → ∞ and
as x → −∞, y → −∞.
Note that, if m and n are positive odd integers with m > n, then:
 xm > xn for x > 1 or −1 < x < 0
 xm < xn for x < −1 or 0 < x < 1
 xm = xn for x = 1 or x = −1 or x = 0.

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 246 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 35
State whether each of the following polynomials is even or odd:
a f (x) = 6x4 − 3x2 b g(x) = 3x5 − x3 + x
c h(x) = x6 − 3x2 + 2 d m(x) = x7 − 4x

Solution
a f (−x) = 6(−x)4 − 3(−x)2 b g(−x) = 3(−x)5 − (−x)3 + (−x)
= 6x4 − 3x2 = −3x5 + x3 − x
= f (x) = −g(x)
The function is even. The function is odd.
6 2
c h(−x) = (−x) − 3(−x) + 2 d m(−x) = (−x)7 − 4(−x)
= x6 − 3x2 + 2 = −x7 + 4x
= h(x) = −m(x)
The function is even. The function is odd.

The results of the example are not surprising since:

 The sum of two even functions is even, and any constant multiple of an even function
is even.
 The sum of two odd functions is odd, and any constant multiple of an odd function is odd.
Not every polynomial is even or odd. For example, the polynomial f (x) = x2 + x is neither.

Example 36
a On the one set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x4 and g(x) = 2x3 .
b Solve the equation f (x) = g(x).
c Solve the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x).

Solution
a y b f (x) = g(x)
x4 = 2x3
16 x4 − 2x3 = 0
x3 (x − 2) = 0
g(x) = 2x3 x = 0 or x = 2
f(x) = x4
2
x
–2 –1 –2 0 1 2

c f (x) ≤ g(x)
x4 ≤ 2x3
From the graphs and part b, we see that f (x) ≤ g(x) for x ∈ [0, 2].

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 6I 6I Quartic and other polynomial functions 247

Summary 6I
 The graph of y = a(x − h)4 + k has the same shape as y = ax4 but is translated h units
in the positive x-axis direction and k units in the positive y-axis direction (for h and k
positive constants).
 The implied domain of all quartic functions is R.
 A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x). This means that the graph is symmetric about
the y-axis.
 A function f is odd if f (−x) = − f (x). The graph of an odd function has rotational
symmetry with respect to the origin.
 A power function is a function f with rule f (x) = xr where r is a non-zero real
number.

Exercise 6I

Example 33 1 Using the method of horizontal and vertical translations, sketch the graph of each of the
following:
a y = (x + 2)4 − 1 b y = (x − 1)4 − 1 c y = (x + 3)4 + 2
d y = (x − 2)4 + 5 e y = (x + 2)4 − 5

2 Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

a y = 2x4 + 3 b y = 2(x − 3)4 + 2 c y = x4 − 16
4 4
d y = 16 − x e y = (3 − x) f y = −2(x + 1)4 + 1

Example 34 3 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a x4 − 27x = 0 b (x2 − x − 2)(x2 − 2x − 15) = 0
c x4 + 8x = 0 d x4 − 6x3 = 0
e x4 − 9x2 = 0 f 81 − x4 = 0
g x4 − 16x2 = 0 h x4 − 7x3 + 12x2 = 0
i x4 − 9x3 + 20x2 = 0 j (x2 − 4)(x2 − 9) = 0
k (x − 4)(x2 + 2x + 8) = 0 l (x + 4)(x2 + 2x − 8) = 0

Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of each of the following. Give x-axis
CAS

4
intercepts and coordinates of turning points. (Values of coordinates of turning points to
be given correct to two decimal places.)
a y = x4 − 125x b y = (x2 − x − 20)(x2 − 2x − 24)
c y = x4 + 27x d y = x4 − 4x3
e y = x4 − 25x2 f y = 16 − x4
g y = x4 − 81x2 h y = x4 − 7x3 + 12x2
i y = x4 − 9x3 + 20x2 j y = (x2 − 16)(x2 − 25)
k y = (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 10) l y = (x + 4)(x2 + 2x − 35)

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 248 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6I

Example 35 5 State whether each of the following polynomials is even or odd:

a f (x) = 5x6 − 3x2 b g(x) = 7x11 − x3 + 2x
c h(x) = x4 − 3x2 + 2 d m(x) = x5 − 4x3

Example 36 6 a On the one set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 2x2 .
b Solve the equation f (x) = g(x). c Solve the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x).

7 a On the one set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x4 and g(x) = 9x2 .
b Solve the equation f (x) = g(x). c Solve the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x).

8 a On the one set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 4x.
b Solve the equation f (x) = g(x). c Solve the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x).

The graph of a quartic function can have zero, one, two, three or four x-axis intercepts.

CAS
9
For each of the following, find the number of x-axis intercepts of the graph:
a g(x) = x4 + 2 b g(x) = (x2 − 4)(x2 + 1) c g(x) = (x − 2)2 (x2 + 1)
d g(x) = (x2 − 4)(x2 − 1) e g(x) = x2 (x2 − 4) f g(x) = x4 + x2

6J Applications of polynomial functions

In this section, we use a CAS calculator to find maximum and minimum values of restricted
polynomial functions.

Example 37
A square sheet of tin measures 12 cm × 12 cm.
Four equal squares of edge x cm are cut out of the
corners and the sides are turned up to form an open
rectangular box. Find: 12 cm

a the values of x for which the volume is 100 cm3

b the maximum volume. x
12 cm

Solution
The figure shows how it is possible to form many x
open rectangular boxes with dimensions 12 − 2x,
12 − 2x and x. (12 − 2x)
The volume of the box is (12 − 2x)
V = x(12 − 2x)2 , 0≤x≤6
which is a cubic model.
We complete the solution using a CAS calculator as follows.

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 6J Applications of polynomial functions 249

Using the TI-Nspire

Plot the graph of V = x(12 − 2x)2 .
a To find the values of x for which V = 100, plot the graph of V = 100 on the same
screen and then find the intersection points using menu > Geometry > Points & Lines >
Intersection Point(s).
b To find the maximum volume, use menu > Trace > Graph Trace or menu > Analyze
Graph > Maximum.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Plot the graph of V = x(12 − 2x)2 .
a To find the values of x for which V = 100:
 Plot the graph of V = 100 in the same window.
 To adjust your graph window use 6. Set
xmin = 0 and xmax = 6. Then go to Zoom Auto.
This will automatically adjust the window to
the given domain. The grid appears when the
y-scale is adjusted to 20 units.
 Select the graph window $ and go to Analysis
> G-Solve > Intersection.
 Press the right arrow on the hard keyboard to
find the other point of intersection.

b The maximum volume of the box may be found

using Analysis > G-Solve > Max. (First remove the
tick for y2 and redraw the graph.)

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 250 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Example 38
It is found that 250 metres of the path of a y
stream can be modelled by a cubic function.
The cubic passes through the points (0, 0),
(100, 22), (150, −10), (200, −20).
a Find the equation of the cubic function. x
b Find the maximum deviation of the graph 0
from the x-axis for x ∈ [0, 250].

Using the TI-Nspire

 Define f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx.
 Solve using the Solve System of Linear
Equations command. Enter using the
following function notation:
f (100) = 22, f (150) = −10,
f (200) = −20
Proceed as shown in the first screen.

 Store these values as a, b and c respectively.

(For the ‘store’ symbol →, press ctrl var .)
 Use fMax( ) from menu > Calculus >
Function Maximum to find where f obtains its
maximum value.
 Use fMin( ) from menu > Calculus >
Function Minimum to find where f obtains its
minimum value.
The maximum deviation is 38.21 metres.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 Define f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
 Enter the four equations shown
as simultaneous equations with
variables set as a, b, c, d.

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 6J 6J Applications of polynomial functions 251

 Store the values found for a, b, c, d as shown below. (You can use Edit > Copy and
> Paste. The symbol ⇒ is found in Math1 , Math2 and Math3 .)
Edit
 The maximum value can be found in the main screen. Type f (x), highlight it and go
to Interactive > Calculation > fMin/fMax. Enter the required interval for x. Tap OK .
 Alternatively, find the maximum value in Graph & Table . Enter and graph
y1 = f (x) and then use Analysis > G-Solve > Max.

Exercise 6J

A square sheet of cardboard has edges of length 20 cm.

CAS
Example 37 1
Four equal squares of edge length x cm are cut out of
the corners and the sides are turned up to form an open 20 cm
rectangular box.
a Find the length of each edge of the base of the box
x
in terms of x.
20 cm
b Find the volume, V cm3 , of the box in terms of x.
c Find the volume of the box when x = 5.
d Find the values of x for which the volume is 500 cm3 .

2 A rectangular sheet of metal measuring 10 cm × 12 cm is ℓ

to be used to construct an open rectangular tray. The tray
10 cm w
will be constructed by cutting out four equal squares from
the corners of the sheet as shown in the diagram.
x
a If the edge of each cut-out square is x cm, express ` 12 cm
and w in terms of x.
b Write down a rule for the volume, V cm3 , of the open tray in terms of x.
c Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of V against x for suitable values of x.
d Find the value of V when x = 1.
e Find the values of x for which V = 50.
f Find the maximum volume of the box and the value of x for which this occurs.
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 252 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6J

3 The outside surface area of an open box is 75 cm2 . The base is a square with each edge
x cm. Let h cm be the height of the box.
a Find the surface area of the box in terms of x and h.
b Hence, find h in terms of x.
c Find V in terms of x if V cm3 is the volume of the box.
d Find V when:
i x=2 ii x = 5 iii x = 8
e Given that V = 59 when x = 4, find the other value of x for which V = 59.

4 In an upright triangular prism, the triangular base has sides of length 5x cm, 12x cm
and 13x cm. The height of the prism is h cm. The sum of the lengths of all of its edges
is 180 cm.
a Find h in terms of x.
b Find V in terms of x, where V cm3 is the volume of the prism.
c Find V when x = 3.
d Find the values of x for which V = 1200.

The diagram shows a conical heap of gravel. The slant height of the heap is 8 m, the

CAS
5
radius of the base x m, and the height h m.
a Express x in terms of h.
b Construct a function which expresses V, the volume
of the heap in m3 , in terms of h.
c Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of V
h 8m
against h.
d State the domain for the function.
e Find the value of V when h = 4.
x
f Find the values of h for which V = 150.
g Find the maximum volume of the cone and the
corresponding value of h.

6 The diagram shows a rectangular prism with a square cross-section.

Measurements are in centimetres.
a If the sum of the dimensions, length plus width plus height,
is 160 cm, express the height, h, in terms of x.
h
b Write down an expression for the volume, V cm3 , of the
prism in terms of x.
c State the domain. x
x
d Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of V against x.
e Find the value(s) of x for which V = 50 000.
f Find the maximum volume of the prism.

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 6K The bisection method 253

6K The bisection method

The bisection method is used for finding approximate solutions of equations of the form
f (x) = 0. Here we restrict our attention to the case where f is a polynomial function.
With higher degree polynomials, the problem of finding exact solutions is more demanding,
and it can be shown that beyond degree 4 there is no nice general formula to find all the
solutions of a polynomial equation.
For the cubic function f (x) = x3 + 3x + 6, y
the equation f (x) = 0 has only one real
solution. The exact solution is
−1 √
x= √ + (−3 + 10)1/3 6 y = x3 + 3x + 6
(−3 + 10)1/3
Finding this by hand is beyond the x
0
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
requirements of this course, but we can find
a numerical approximation to this solution
using the bisection method.
We note that f (−2) < 0 and f (−1) > 0. This observation is central to using the bisection
method.

In general, consider an equation f (x) = 0 that has one solution α in the interval [a1 , b1 ].
 The sign of f (a1 ) is the opposite of the sign of f (b1 ), because f (α) = 0 and so the
function must change from being positive to being negative or vice versa.
a1 + b1
 Calculate m1 = and f (m1 ).
2
 Choose the interval [a1 , m1 ] if f (a1 ) × f (m1 ) < 0, and the interval [m1 , b1 ] otherwise.
 The process is then repeated with the new interval, and then repeatedly until the
required accuracy is reached.

Using a spreadsheet for the bisection method

We now return to the function f (x) = x3 + 3x + 6 and finding the solution of the equation
x3 + 3x + 6 = 0.
Step 1 We start with the interval [−2, −1], since we know the solution lies in this interval.
f (−2) = −8 < 0 and f (−1) = 2 > 0.
−2 + (−1)
Let m1 = = −1.5.
2
Since f (−1.5) = −1.875 < 0, we now know the solution is between −1.5 and −1.

Step 2 Choose −1.5 as the new left endpoint. Therefore the second interval is [−1.5, −1].
−1.5 + (−1)
Now m2 = = −1.25 and f (−1.25) = 0.296875 > 0.
2

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 254 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Step 3 Choose −1.25 as the new right endpoint. Thus the third interval is [−1.5, −1.25].
−1.5 + (−1.25)
Now m3 = = −1.375 and f (−1.375) = −0.724609 < 0.
2
Step 4 Choose −1.375 as the new left endpoint. Thus the fourth interval is [−1.375, −1.25].
At this point we know that the solution is in the interval [−1.375, −1.25].
We continue with the spreadsheet as shown. This spreadsheet can be modified for other
functions.

Left endpoint ai Right endpoint bi Midpoint mi f (mi )

Step 1 −2 −1 −1.5 −1.87500000
Step 2 −1.5 −1 −1.25 0.29687500
Step 3 −1.5 −1.25 −1.375 −0.72460938
Step 4 −1.375 −1.25 −1.3125 −0.19848633
Step 5 −1.3125 −1.25 −1.28125 0.05294800
Step 6 −1.3125 −1.28125 −1.296875 −0.07181931
Step 7 −1.296875 −1.28125 −1.2890625 −0.00919962
Step 8 −1.2890625 −1.28125 −1.28515625 0.02193302
Step 9 −1.2890625 −1.28515625 −1.28710938 0.00638143
Step 10 −1.2890625 −1.28710938 −1.28808594 −0.00140541
Step 11 −1.28808594 −1.28710938 −1.28759766 0.00248893

We conclude that the solution is −1.29 correct to two decimal places.

Whatever equation we are working with, if the starting interval is 1 unit, then the ‘error’ is at


most 12 after the next step and at most 21 n−1 after n steps.

Using pseudocode for the bisection method

Computers cannot directly understand instructions that are written in our natural language.
We have to provide them with instructions in a programming language. The process of
taking an algorithm and writing it in a programming language is called coding.
In Appendix A, we give an introduction to pseudocode. This is an informal notation for
writing instructions that is closer to natural language. It makes no reference to any particular
programming language. In order to actually implement the instructions on a computer, they
must be translated into a specific programming language.
Note: You should work through Appendix A before starting this subsection. The Interactive
Textbook also includes online appendices that provide an introduction to coding using
the language Python and to coding using the TI-Nspire and the Casio ClassPad.
In the following example, we give an algorithm written in pseudocode for solving the
equation x3 + 3x + 6 = 0. The algorithm follows the same steps used to construct the
spreadsheet above.

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 6K The bisection method 255

Example 39
The equation x3 + 3x + 6 = 0 has one real solution, which lies in the interval [−2, −1].
Using pseudocode, write an algorithm to find this solution correct to within 0.01.
Solution Explanation
We use the bisection method.
define f (x):
 Define the function f (x) = x3 + 3x + 6.
return x3 + 3x + 6
 Assign initial values to the variables:
a ← −2 the left endpoint a, the right endpoint b
b ← −1 and the midpoint m.
m ← −1.5  We use a while loop, since we don’t
know how many iterations will be
while b − a > 2 × 0.01
required. We want to continue until
if f (a) × f (m) < 0 then b − a ≤ 2 × 0.01.
b←m • Use an ifthen block to update the
else value of the left endpoint a or the
a←m right endpoint b.
end if • Then recalculate the value of the
a+b midpoint m.
m←
2 • At the end of each pass of the loop,
print a, m, b, f (a), f (m), f (b) print the values of a, m, b, f (a), f (m)
end while and f (b).
print m  After the while loop is complete, print
the value of m, which is the approximate
solution.

The following table shows the result of executing the algorithm from Example 39. The first
row gives the initial values of a, m, b, f (a), f (m) and f (b). The next rows give the values that
are printed at the end of each pass of the while loop.

a m b f (a) f (m) f (b)

Initial −2 −1.5 −1 −8 −1.875 2
Pass 1 −1.5 −1.25 −1 −1.875 0.296875 2
Pass 2 −1.5 −1.375 −1.25 −1.875 −0.724609 0.296875
Pass 3 −1.375 −1.3125 −1.25 −0.724609 −0.198486 0.296875
Pass 4 −1.3125 −1.28125 −1.25 −0.198486 0.052948 0.296875
Pass 5 −1.3125 −1.296875 −1.28125 −0.198486 −0.071819 0.052948
Pass 6 −1.296875 −1.289063 −1.28125 −0.071819 −0.009200 0.052948

After the 6th pass of the while loop, we have b − a = 0.015625 ≤ 0.02. So we exit the loop.
The final printed value of m is −1.289063. You can achieve greater accuracy by changing the
condition on the while loop.

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 256 Chapter 6: Polynomials 6K

Exercise 6K

1 Use a spreadsheet with the bisection method to find approximate solutions for each of
the following. The initial interval is given and the desired accuracy is stated.
a x3 − x − 1 = 0 [1, 2] 2 decimal places
4
b x +x−3=0 [1, 3] 3 decimal places
3
c x − 5x + 4.2 = 0 [1, 2] 3 decimal places
3 2
d x − 2x + 2x − 5 = 0 [2, 3] 3 decimal places
4 2
e 2x − 3x + 2x − 6 = 0 [−2, −1] 2 decimal places

Example 39 2 The equation −x3 + 3x + 6 = 0 has one real solution, which lies in the interval [2, 3].
Using pseudocode, write an algorithm to find this solution correct to within 0.001.

3 Let f (x) = −x3 − 3x + 6. The equation f (x) = 0 has only one real solution.
a Find f (1) and f (2). Hence give an interval that contains the solution.
b Use the bisection method to determine an approximate solution to f (x) = 0, correct
to two decimal places.

4 Show the results of the first three passes of the while loop when the pseudocode
algorithm in Example 39 is adapted for each of the following equations. The initial
values of the variables are given.
a 2x3 + 6x2 + 3 = 0 Initial values: a = −4, m = −3.5, b = −3
3 2
b 2x + 6x + 3x + 5 = 0 Initial values: a = −3, m = −2.5, b = −2
3 2
c 6x + 6x + 3x + 1 = 0 Initial values: a = −1, m = −0.5, b = 0

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 Chapter 6 review 257

Review
Chapter summary

 The sum, difference and product of two polynomials is a polynomial.

 Division of one polynomial by another does not always result in a polynomial.
Assign-
ment  Remainder theorem When P(x) is divided by x − α, the remainder is equal to P(α).
e.g. When P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by x − 2, the remainder is
Nrich P(2) = (2)3 + 3(2)2 + 2(2) + 1 = 25
 Factor theorem For a polynomial P(x), if P(α) = 0, then x − α is a factor. Conversely,
if x − α is a factor of P(x), then P(α) = 0.
e.g. For P(x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6,
P(−1) = (−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + (−1) + 6 = 0
and so x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
 Sums and differences of cubes:
x3 − a3 = (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 ) e.g. x3 − 27 = (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)

x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − ax + a2 ) e.g. 8x3 + 64 = (2x)3 + 43

= (2x + 4)(4x2 − 8x + 16)
 Rational-root theorem Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of
degree n with all the coefficients ai integers. Let α and β be integers such that the highest
common factor of α and β is 1 (i.e. α and β are relatively prime). If βx + α is a factor
of P(x), then β divides an and α divides a0 .
 Steps for solving a cubic equation:
i If necessary, rearrange the equation so that the right-hand side is zero.
ii Factorise the cubic polynomial on the left-hand side by using the factor theorem and
then dividing.
iii Use the null factor theorem to determine solutions.
e.g. Solve x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 = 0.
Since P(2) = 8 − 16 − 22 + 30 = 0, we know that x − 2 is a factor.
Dividing x − 2 into x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 gives
x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 = (x − 2)(x2 − 2x − 15)
= (x − 2)(x − 5)(x + 3)
∴ (x − 2)(x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
y
∴ x = 2, 5 or −3
 The basic shape of the curve defined by y = x3 is shown in
the graph. 1

x
–1 0 1
–1

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Review 258 Chapter 6: Polynomials

 The implied domain of all polynomial functions is R.

1
 The functions f (x) = x3 and f −1 (x) = x 3 are inverse functions of each other.
 The graph of y = a(x − h)3 + k has the same shape as y = ax3 but is translated h units in
the positive x-axis direction and k units in the positive y-axis direction (where h and k are
positive constants). The point of inflection is at (h, k).
 The basic shape of the curve defined by y = x4 is shown in y
the graph.

x
0

 The graph of y = a(x − h)4 + k has the same shape as y = ax4 but is translated h units in
the positive x-axis direction and k units in the positive y-axis direction (where h and k are
positive constants). The turning point is at (h, k).
 Sign diagrams assist in sketching graphs of cubic functions.
e.g. y = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6
= (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
When x < −3, y is negative. +
x
When −3 < x < −1, y is positive. –
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2
When −1 < x < 2, y is negative.
When x > 2, y is positive.
 Steps for sketching the graph of a cubic function y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d:
i Use the factor theorem and division to determine the x-axis intercepts.
ii The y-axis intercept is d.
iii Draw a sign diagram.
 Finding equations for given cubic graphs:
i y ii y

x x
b 0 c h 0

Form: y = a(x − b)(x − c)2 Form: y = a(x − h)3 + k

Assume b and c are known, substitute Substitute known values to determine a.
another known point to calculate a.
Alternatively, use the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and the known points to
determine a, b, c and d.

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 Chapter 6 review 259

Review
 A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x). This means that the graph is symmetric about
the y-axis.
 A function f is odd if f (−x) = − f (x). The graph of an odd function has rotational
symmetry with respect to the origin.
 A power function is a function f with rule f (x) = xr where r is a non-zero real number.

Technology-free questions

1 Sketch the graph of each of the following:

a y = (x − 1)3 − 2 b y = (2x − 1)3 + 1 c y = 3(x − 1)3 − 1
d y = −3x3 e y = −3x3 + 1 f y = −3(x − 2)3 + 1
g y = 4(x + 2)3 − 3 h y = 1 − 3(x + 2)3

2 Sketch the graph of each of the following:

a y = (x − 1)4 b y = (2x − 1)4 + 1 c y = (x − 1)4 − 1
d y = −2x4 e y = −3x4 + 1 f y = −(x − 2)4 + 1
g y = 2(x + 1)4 − 3 h y = 1 − 2(x + 2)4

3 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a 2x3 + 3x2 = 11x + 6 b x2 (5 − 2x) = 4 c x3 + 4x + 12 = 7x2

4 a Use the factor theorem to show that 2x − 3 and x + 2 are factors of 6x3 + 5x2 − 17x − 6.
Find the other factor.
b Solve the equation 2x3 − 3x2 − 11x + 6 = 0.
c Solve the equation x3 + x2 − 11x − 3 = 8.
d i Show that 3x − 1 is a factor of 3x3 + 2x2 − 19x + 6.
ii Find the factors of 3x3 + 2x2 − 19x + 6.

5 Let f (x) = x3 − kx2 + 2kx − k − 1.

a Show that f (x) is divisible by x − 1.
b Factorise f (x).

6 Find the values of a and b for which x3 + ax2 − 10x + b is divisible by x2 + x − 12.

7 Draw a sign diagram for each of the following and hence sketch the graph:
a y = (x + 2)(3 − x)(x + 4) b y = (x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)
3 2
c y = 6x + 13x − 4 d y = x3 + x2 − 24x + 36

8 Without actually dividing, find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by
the second:
a x3 + 4x2 − 5x + 1, x + 6 b 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 4, x − 2
c 3x3 + 2x + 4, 3x − 1

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 260 Chapter 6: Polynomials

y
Review

9 Find the rule of the cubic for which the graph

is shown.

x
–2 1 5
(0, –4)

10 Find a cubic function whose graph touches the x-axis at x = −4, passes through the
origin and has a value of 10 when x = 5.

11 Let f (x) = 2x3 + ax2 − bx + 3. When f (x) is divided by x − 2 the remainder is 15 and
f (1) = 0.
a Calculate the values of a and b. b Find the other two linear factors of f (x).

12 Solve each of the following inequalities for x:

a (x − 3)2 (x + 4) ≤ 0 b −(x + 3)(x + 4)(x − 2) ≥ 0
3 2
c x − 4x + x < −6

13 For each of the following, find a sequence of transformations that takes the graph of
y = x3 to the graph of:
a y = 2(x − 1)3 + 3 b y = −(x + 1)3 + 2 c y = (2x + 1)3 − 2

Multiple-choice questions

1 If P(x) = x3 + 3x2 + x − 3, then P(−2) equals

A 1 B −1 C −25 D 3 E −5

2 If a > b > c and P(x) = (x − a)2 (x − b)(x − c), then P(x) < 0 for x ∈
A (−∞, a) B (−∞, b) C (−∞, c) D (c, b) E (b, a)

3 The image of the graph of y = x3 under a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis followed
by a reflection in the y-axis and then a translation of 4 units in the negative direction of
the y-axis is
x3 x3
A y=− −4 B y=− −4 C y = −8x3 − 4
8 2
x3 x3
D y=− +4 E y= +4
2 8
4 The equation x3 + 5x − 10 = 0 has only one solution. This solution lies between
A −2 and −1 B −1 and 0 C 0 and 1 D 1 and 2 E 2 and 8
√ √
5 Let P(x) = x4 + ax2 − 4. If P( 2) = 0 and P(− 2) = 0, the value of a is
A 0 B 2 C −2 D −3 E 3

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 Chapter 6 review 261

Review
6 Let P(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx − 9. If P(1) = 0 and P(−3) = 0, the values of a and b are
A a = 1, b = −3 B a = −1, b = 3 C a = 5, b = 3
D a = −5, b = −3 E a = 0, b = 0

7 If ax3 + 2x2 + 5 is exactly divisible by x + 1, the value of a is

A 1 B 7 C −1 D 3 E −7

8 When the polynomial P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x + d is divided by x − 2, the remainder is 10.

The value of d is
A 10 B 4 C −10 D −4 E 3

9 The diagram shows part of the graph of a y

polynomial function.

x
b 0 a

A possible equation for the rule of the function is

A y = (x − b)2 (x − a) B y = (x − a)2 (x − b) C y = −(x + b)2 (x − a)
D y = (x − b)2 (a − x) E y = (x + b)2 (a − x)

10 The graph of y = f (x) is shown on the right. y

Which one of the following could be the graph of
y = 1 − f (x)?
2
AAA
AA A y yy yy BBB
BB B y yy yy
x
–2 0 2
22222 22222
–2
x xx xx x xx xx
–2 00000 22222 –2 0 0 22222
–2
–2
–2–2 –2–2 0 00
–2–2
–2 –2
–2 –2–2–2
–2
–2 –2–2

C D D y yy yy E E y yy yy
CC
CC
C y yy yy DD
DD EE
EE

22222 22222 22222

x xx xx x xx xx x xx xx
–2 00 0 –2 0 0 22222 –2 00 0 22222
–2–2
–2–2 00 22222 –2–2 0 00
–2–2 –2–2
–2–2 00
–2 –2–2–2 –2
–2–2
–2–2 –2–2 –2–2
–2–2

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Review 262 Chapter 6: Polynomials

Extended-response questions

The volume of a cylinder is given by V = πr2 h. It is given that h + r = 6.

CAS
1
a Write V(r) in terms of r.
b State the values that r can have.
c Find V(3).
d Find the values of r for which V(r) = 27π.
e Use your CAS calculator to find the maximum possible volume of the cylinder.

2 There is a proposal to provide a quicker, more efficient and more environmentally

friendly system of inner-city public transport by using electric taxis. The proposal
necessitates the installation of power sources at various locations as the taxis can only
be driven for a limited time before requiring recharging.
The graph shows the speed v m/s that the taxi will v
maintain if it is driven at constant speed in such a (m/s)
way that it uses all its energy up in t seconds. 25
The curve is a section of a parabola which touches
the t-axis at t = 900. When t = 0, v = 25.
a Construct a rule for v in terms of t.
b If s metres is the distance that a taxi can travel
900 t (seconds)
before running out of electrical energy, write
down a rule connecting s and t.
c Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of s against t.
d Originally the power sources were to be located at 2 km intervals.
However there is a further proposal to place them at 3.5 km intervals.
Is this new distance feasible?
e With the power sources at 2 km intervals, use your graph to determine approximately
both the maximum and minimum speeds recommended for drivers. Explain your
answer.

3 It is found that the shape of a branch of a eucalyptus tree can be modelled by a cubic
function. The coordinates of several points on the branch are (0, 15.8), (10, 14.5),
(15, 15.6), (20, 15). y
a The rule for the function is of the
form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. Find the
values of a, b, c and d.
b Find the coordinates of the point on
the branch that is:
i closest to the ground 20 m
ii furthest from the ground.
x
0

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 Chapter 6 review 263

Review
4 The figure shows part of a cubic graph that represents the relationship between the
engine speed, R × 1000 rpm, and the throttle setting, x mm from the closed position, for
a new engine. It can be seen from the graph that the engine has a ‘flat spot’ where an
increase in x has very little effect on R.
R
a Develop a cubic expression (rpm × 1000)
permitted
for R in terms of x of the form maximum
R = a(x − h)3 + k. 10 rpm
b Find a if when the graph is tick over
extended it passes through
0
the origin. 5 Throttle setting (mm) x

c In a proposed modification to the design, the ‘flat spot’ will occur when x = 7 mm.
The speed of the engine in this case will be 12 000 rpm when x = 7 mm.
Assuming that a cubic model still applies and that R = 0 when x = 0, write down an
expression for R as a function of x.

A net for making a cardboard box with overlapping flaps is shown in the figure. The

CAS
5
dotted lines represent cuts and the solid lines represent lines along which the cardboard
is folded.
w
Top Top Top Top
2

h Left Back Right Front

w
Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom
2

ℓ w ℓ w

a If ` = 35 cm, w = 20 cm and h = 23 cm, calculate the area of the net.

b If the area of the net is to remain constant at the value calculated in part a and ` = h,
write down an expression for V, the volume of the box in cm3 , as a function of `.
(The maximum volume of the box will occur when ` = h).
c Use a CAS calculator to help draw the graph of V against `.
d Find the value of ` when the volume of the box is:
i 14 000 cm3
ii 10 litres = 10 000 cm3
e Find the maximum volume of the box and the value of ` for which this occurs.

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Review 264 Chapter 6: Polynomials

A reinforced box is made by cutting congruent squares of side length x cm from the

CAS
6
four corners of a rectangular piece of cardboard that measures 48 cm by 96 cm. The
flaps are folded up.

48 cm

96 cm

a Find an expression for V, the volume of the box formed.

b Plot a graph of V against x on your CAS calculator.
i What is the domain of the function V?
ii Using your CAS calculator, find the maximum volume of the box and the value
of x for which this occurs (approximate values required).
c Find the volume of the box when x = 10.
d It is decided that 0 ≤ x ≤ 5. Find the maximum volume possible.
e If 5 ≤ x ≤ 15, what is the minimum volume of the box?

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