1.

Layers of OSI Reference Model

Ans: OSI stands for Open System Interconnection

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2. Explain TCP/IP Reference Model.
Ans: 4 layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Host-to-Network Layer /Network access layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
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3. Differences between ISO-OSI model and TCP/IP model
4. List the various Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
Ans: The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as
transmission mode/communication mode.
a. Simplex mode : The communication is unidirectional
b. Half-Duplex Mode: each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
Example: Walkie-talkie
c. Full-Duplex Mode : The communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions. Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
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5. Explain Network Topology

Ans : Network Topology is the pattern used to arrange the nodes of network (describe the way
computers are connected).
Eg: Bus,mesh,star, tree,ring,hybrid
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6. Explain Transmission Media
Ans: Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver.
a. Guided Media : Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Eg : Twisted Pair Cable , Coaxial Cable , Optical Fiber Cable
b. Unguided Media : It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.
Eg: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared
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7. List any 6 Difference between Radio wave, Microwave, and Infrared waves
Ans:

8.

8.Explain Bandwidth-Delay Product

Ans: It is the product of the bandwidth-delay product.The bandwidth-delay product defines the
number of bits that can fill the link.
Eg: Consider that the link capacity of a channel is 512 Kbps and round-trip delay time is 1000ms.
The bandwidth delay product = 512 × 103 bits/sec × 1000 × 10−3 sec
= 512,000 bits = 64,000 bytes = 62.5 KB

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9. Explain Framing in datalink layer
Ans: Framing is the major function of datalink layer. Data-link layer takes the packets from the
Network Layer and encapsulates them into frames.
Methods of variable Framing
●1. Character count.
●2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
●3. Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing.
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10. Explain Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
Ans : insert a special escape byte (ESC) just before each ''accidental'' flag byte in the data.
This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.
Thus, a framing flag byte can be distinguished from one in the data by the absence or presence
of an escape byte before it.

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11. The original data : A B ESC C ESC FLAG FLAG D is given. What is the output after stuffing?
ANS:
After stuffing, we get A B ESC ESC C ESC ESC ESC FLAG ESC FLAG D
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12. Explain Bit stuffing

Ans: In the data, a 0 is automatically inserted after 5 consecutive 1’s.

13. Sliding window protocols

Ans:
a. Stop-and-Wait Protocol : Source send a packet. It sends the next packet only after receiving the
acknowledgement from destination.
b. Go-back-N protocol : If the ACK of a frame is not received within the time period, all frames
starting from that frame are retransmitted
c. Selective Repeat : Only the erroneous or lost frames are retransmitted while good frames
are received and buffered. Sender individually transmits frames that have timed out.
If a frame is corrupted in transit, a NAK is returned and that frame is resend out of sequence.
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14.Explain Multiple Access Protocols
Ans: Multiple Access Protocols are protocols used in computer networks to control how data is
transmitted when multiple devices are trying to communicate over the same network.

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15. Difference between switch and bridge
Ans:

17. What is a gateway?

Ans:A gateway is a network node or device that connects two networks that use different
transmission protocols.
●Gateways play an important role in connecting two networks.
●It works as the entry-exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the networks
must pass through the gateway.
●A network gateway is a device that connects different networks by translating messages from one
protocol into another protocol.
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18. Compare Virtual Circuit Networks and Datagram Networks
Ans:

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19. List the Properties of Routing algorithms
Ans:
• Optimality – capability of routing algorithm to select the best route
• Simplicity and low overhead -With increasing complexity of the routing algorithms the
overhead also increases
• Robustness – means they should perform correctly in the face of unusual circumstances such
as hardware failure
• Stability -The routing algorithms should be stable under all possible circumstances.
• Flexibility – they should quickly & accurately adapt to a variety of network circumstances
• Fairness - Every node connected to the network should get a fair chance of transmitting their
packets.
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20. State the Optimality Principle in routing.
Ans: The optimality principle states that if router J is on the optimal path from router I to router K,
then the optimal path from J to K also falls along the same route.
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21. Explain Flooding
Ans: Flooding is the static routing algorithm.
In this algorithm, every incoming packet is sent on all outgoing lines except the line on
which it has arrived
Advantages of Flooding
• It is very simple to setup and implement, since a router may know only its neighbours.
 • It is extremely robust. Even in case of malfunctioning of a large number routers, the packets
find a way to reach the destination.
• All nodes which are directly or indirectly connected are visited. So, there are no chances for
any node to be left out.
• The shortest path is always chosen by flooding.
Limitations of Flooding
• Flooding tends to create an infinite number of duplicate data packets
• The network may be clogged with unwanted and duplicate data packets.
• It is wasteful if a single destination needs the packet, since it delivers the data packet to all
nodes irrespective of the destination.
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22. Comparison between Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing
Ans:

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23. Explain Congestion control
Ans: It refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion, before it happens,
or remove congestion, after it has happened.
24. What is the difference between open-loop and closed loop congestion control
Ans: In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens.
Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it happens.

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25. Differentiate Backpressure and chokepacket.

Ans:

1. Backpressure

Node 3 in the figure has more input data than it can handle. It drops some packets in its input buffer
and informs node 2 to slow down.

Node 2, in turn, may be congested because it is slowing down the output flow of data. If node 2 is
congested, it informs node 1 to slow down, which in turn may create congestion in node 1.

If so, node 1 informs the source of data to slow down. This, in time, alleviates the congestion.

The pressure on node 3 is moved backward to the source to remove the congestion.

2. Choke Packet

A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of congestion.

In backpressure, the warning is from one node to its upstream node, although the warning may
eventually reach the source station.

In the choke packet method, the warning is from the router, which has encountered congestion,
to the source station directly.

The intermediate nodes through which the packet has travelled are not warned.
26. List the techniques for achieving good quality of service in a network
ans:
• Scheduling
◦ FIFO
◦ Priority scheduling
◦ Weighted Fair Queuing

• Traffic shaping
◦ Leaky bucket
◦ token bucket

• Resource reservation

• Admission control

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27. Explain the need of Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Ans: Internetworking protocol (lP) does not have an inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control
messages. Ie, The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism. The IP
protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries.

So, IP depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error control.

–It is used for 1. reporting errors and 2.management queries.
–ICMP is a supporting protocol and is used by network devices like routers for sending error
messages and operations information.
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28. Explain the two categories of ICMP messages
Ans:

Eg: Destination unreachable : The destination unreachable error occurs when the packet does not
reach the destination. Suppose the sender sends the message, but the message does not reach the
destination, then the intermediate router reports to the sender that the destination is unreachable.
Echo-request and echo-reply message :
●A router or a host can send an echo-request message.
●It is used to ping a message to another host that "Are you alive".
●If the other host is alive, then it sends the echo-reply message.
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29. Differentiate ARP and RARP

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30.Explain the purpose of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Ans: it is a network management protocol used to ‘dynamically’ assign an IP address to any device,
or node, on a network, so they can communicate using IP (Internet Protocol).

Working of DHCP

1. DHCP Discover Message:

- This message is generated by the Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP
server/servers are present in a network or not.
–This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a network to find the DHCP server.
2. DHCP Offers A Message:
– The server will respond to the host in this message specifying the unleased IP address and other
TCP configuration information.
3. DHCP Request Message:
– When a client receives an offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP request message.
– The client will produce a gratuitous ARP in order to find if there is any other host present in the
network with the same IP address.
– If there is no reply from another host, then there is no host with the same TCP configuration in the
network and the message is broadcasted to the server showing the acceptance of the IP address.
4. DHCP Acknowledgment Message:
–In response to the request message received, the server will make an entry with a specified client
ID and bind the IP address offered with lease time.
–Now, the client will have the IP address provided by the server.

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31. What is the maximum number of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts on a local subnet
that uses the 255.255.255.192 subnet mask?
Ans:
Given subnet mask=255.255.255.192
Ie, 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
Thus, maximum no.of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts = 2 no.ofhostbits – 2 =26 - 2 = 64-2 = 62

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32. Purpose of subnetting.
Ans: Subnetting is a process of dividing a single large network into multiple sub networks.
Uses of Subnetting
● Maintenance is easier for smaller networks. For example, if we consider a class A address, the
possible number of hosts is 224 for each network, it is obvious that it is difficult to maintain such a
huge number of hosts, but it would be quite easier to maintain if we divide the network into small
parts.
● Subnetting helps in organizing the network in an efficient way which helps in expanding the
technology for large firms and companies.
● Reduces traffic and maintain order and efficiency.
● Reduces network complexity
● Subnetting enhances the network's overall performance by removing redundant traffic.
● Increases network security .
● Simplified management

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33. Classes of IPv4 Address

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34. Find the class of each address
a. 00000010 10000010 01010100 01010101 : First bit is 0. Thus, class A
b. 252.5.15.111 : class E
c. 172.15.165.2 : class B
35. Differentiate IPV4 and IPV6
IPV4 IPV6
Header size : 20-60 bytes Header size : 40bytes
Address length :32 bits Address length :128 bits
Checksum field included No Checksum field included
Version 4 Version 6
Address representation is in decimal format Address representation is in hexadecimal format
Address consist of 4 fields separated by dot Address consist of 8 fields separated by colon
Addresses divided into 5 classes, A B C D E No classes
Eg : 128.90.12.1 2001:1A90:2123:1B23:2C13:1001:2123:3DEF

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36. List applications of UDP and TCP
Ans: TCP : Text Communication, file transfer, email sending etc
UDP : Online gaming, Real-time multimedia streaming
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37. List advantages and disadvantages of TCP
Ans:
Advantages of TCP

It is a reliable protocol.

It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.

It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order that it was sent.

Disadvantages of TCP

TCP is slower than UDP especially at the beginning of a file transfer. TCP’s congestion control can
also slow down data transfer to avoid n/w congestion

Additional expense to create and maintain connections since it is a connection oriented protocol.

TCP’s use of ACKs and retransmissions can add latency which can affect real-time applications

Not suited for data transfers that require faster speed.

TCP uses more bandwidth than UDP, especially when establishing a connection,sending ACKs and
retransmitting data
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38. List advantages and disadvantages of UDP
Ans:
Advantages of UDP

Speed: UDP is faster than TCP because it does not have the overhead of establishing a connection
and ensuring reliable data delivery.
Lower latency: Since there is no connection establishment, there is lower latency and faster
response time.

Simplicity: UDP has a simpler protocol design than TCP, making it easier to implement and
manage.

Broadcast support: UDP supports broadcasting to multiple recipients, making it useful for
applications such as video streaming and online gaming.

UDP uses smaller packet sizes than TCP, which can reduce network congestion and improve overall
network performance.

Disadvantages of UDP

No reliability: UDP does not guarantee delivery of packets or order of delivery, which can lead to
missing or duplicate data.

No congestion control: UDP does not have congestion control, which means that it can send packets
at a rate that can cause network congestion.

Limited use cases: UDP is not suitable for applications that require reliable data delivery, such as
email or file transfers, and is better suited for applications that can tolerate some data loss, such as
video streaming or online gaming.

No guaranteed ordering of packets while delivering.

Not suitable for critical data : Not ideal for transferring important data where accuracy and
completeness matters, such as financial transactions

39. Explain the TCP connection establishment phase.

Ans:
Three-Way Handshaking

STEP 1

The client sends the first segment (SYN segment) in which only the SYN flag is set. This segment
is for synchronization of sequence Numbers.
STEP 2
The server sends the second segment, a SYN + ACK segment with two flag bits set as: SYN and
ACK.
STEP 3
The client sends the third segment. This is just an ACK segment.
It acknowledges the receipt of the second segment with the ACK flag and acknowledgment number
field.
40. List any 6 differences between TCP and UDP
Ans:
TCP UDP
Connection oriented Connection less
Reliable as it guarentees the delivery of packet Not reliable as it guarentees the delivery of
at receiver packet at receiver
Slower Faster
Retransmission of lost packets done No retransmission of lost packets
TCP used by HTTP, FTP,SMTP etc Used by DNS, DHCP, SNMP etc
Used where trustworthy communication is Used where quick communication is necessary
needed such as file transferring like live streaming

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41. Explain the architecture of FTP
Ans: It is an application layer protocol. Used for transferring a file from one host to another

To transfer a file, FTP uses two TCP connections in parallel :

1. Control connection : for control information (commands and responses)

2. Data connection : Used for data transfer

Separation of commands and data transfer makes FTP more efficient.

FTP uses two well known TCP ports :

1. Port 21 is used for control connection.

2. Port 20 is used for data connection

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42. Explain the purpose of DNS (Domain Name System).
Ans: It helps you find websites by translating easy-to-remember names (like www.example.com)
into the numerical IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to locate each other on the
internet.
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43. Explain Resolution

Ans: Mapping a name to an address or address to a name is called resolution

1. recursive resolution
The client(resolver) can ask for a recursive answer from a name server.
This means that the resolver expects the name server to supply the final answer.
If the server is the authority for the domain name, it checks its database and responds.
If the server is not the authority, it sends the request to another server (the parent usually) and waits
for the response.
If the parent is the authority, it responds.otherwise it sends the query to yet another server.
When the query is finally resolved, the response travels back until it finally reaches the requesting
client. This is called recursive resolution

2. Iterative resolution
If the client doesnt ask for a recursive answer, the mapping can be done iteratively
If the server is the authority for the name, it sends an answer.
If it is not , it returns to the client, the IP address of the server that it thinks can resolve the query.
The client is responsible for repeating the query to this second server.
If the newly addressed server can resolve the problem, it answers the query with the IP address
Otherwise it returns the IP address of a new server to the client.
Now the client must repeat the query to the third server.
This process is called iterative resolution because the client repeats the same query to multiple
servers.
44. Working of Email.

45. POP3 Vs IMAP

Ans:

46. Explain the functions of each layer in OSI model (most important)
Ans:

1) Physical layer
• transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
• Bit synchronisation
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
 • Data transmission : It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology : It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2) Data-Link Layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames.
• Physical Addressing
• Flow Control
• Error Control : error-free transfer of data frames.
• Access Control

3).Network Layer:
• Logical addressing
• Routing
• Packetising : A Network Layer receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
packets

4) Transport Layer
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously. Due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds
the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
• Flow control
• Error control

5) Session Layer
• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can
be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
• Translation: It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and
changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 • Encryption: converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
• Compression: it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
• An application layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.