Mathematics

Chapter-1
1. Addition of Rational Numbers
Example 1:
Add the rational numbers −58\frac{-5}{8}8−5 and 38\frac{3}{8}83.
Solution:
 Step I: Since the denominators are the same, add the numerators directly:
−58+38=−5+38=−28 \frac{-5}{8} + \frac{3}{8} = \frac{-5 + 3}{8} = \frac{-2}{8}8−5+83=8−5+3=8−2BYJU'S
 Step II: Simplify the fraction:
−28=−14 \frac{-2}{8} = \frac{-1}{4}8−2=4−1
Thus, the sum is −14\frac{-1}{4}4−1. BYJU'S
2. Finding Rational Numbers Between Two Numbers
Example 2:
Find 12 rational numbers between -1 and 2.
Solution:
 Step I: Express -1 and 2 with the same denominator:
−1=−55,2=105 -1 = \frac{-5}{5}, \quad 2 = \frac{10}{5}−1=5−5,2=510ICSEHELP
 Step II: Identify 12 rational numbers between −55\frac{-5}{5}5−5 and 105\frac{10}{5}510:ICSEHELP
−45,−35,−25,−15,0,15,25,35,45,55,65,75 \frac{-4}{5}, \frac{-3}{5}, \frac{-2}{5}, \frac{-1}{5}, 0, \frac{1}{5}, \
frac{2}{5}, \frac{3}{5}, \frac{4}{5}, \frac{5}{5}, \frac{6}{5}, \frac{7}{5}5−4,5−3,5−2,5−1,0,51,52,53,54,55
,56,57ICSEHELP
These are the required rational numbers between -1 and 2. ICSEHELP
3. Representation of Rational Numbers on the Number Line
Example 3:
Represent 34\frac{3}{4}43 on the number line.
Solution:
 Step I: Divide the segment between 0 and 1 into 4 equal parts, as the denominator is 4.
 Step II: Count 3 parts from 0 towards 1 to locate 34\frac{3}{4}43.
Thus, 34\frac{3}{4}43 is located three-fourths of the way from 0 to 1 on the number line.
4. Multiplication of Rational Numbers
Example 4:
Multiply −23\frac{-2}{3}3−2 and 45\frac{4}{5}54.
Solution:
 Step I: Multiply the numerators:
−2×4=−8 -2 \times 4 = -8−2×4=−8
 Step II: Multiply the denominators:Doubtnut+4BYJU'S+4YouTube+4
3×5=15 3 \times 5 = 153×5=15
 Step III: Combine the results:
−815 \frac{-8}{15}15−8BYJU'S
Thus, the product is −815\frac{-8}{15}15−8.
5. Division of Rational Numbers
Example 5:
Divide 56\frac{5}{6}65 by −74\frac{-7}{4}4−7.
Solution:
 Step I: Multiply 56\frac{5}{6}65 by the reciprocal of −74\frac{-7}{4}4−7:
56×−47 \frac{5}{6} \times \frac{-4}{7}65×7−4
 Step II: Multiply the numerators:
5×(−4)=−20 5 \times (-4) = -205×(−4)=−20
 Step III: Multiply the denominators:
6×7=42 6 \times 7 = 426×7=42
 Step IV: Simplify the fraction:
−2042=−1021 \frac{-20}{42} = \frac{-10}{21}42−20=21−10
Thus, the quotient is −1021\frac{-10}{21}21−10.
6. Properties of Rational Numbers
Example 6:
Verify the associative property of addition for 12\frac{1}{2}21, −13\frac{-1}{3}3−1, and 16\frac{1}{6}61.
Solution:
 Step I: Calculate (12+−13)+16(\frac{1}{2} + \frac{-1}{3}) + \frac{1}{6}(21+3−1)+61:
o Sub-step I: Find a common denominator for 12\frac{1}{2}21 and −13\frac{-1}{3}3−1, which is 6:
12=36,−13=−26\frac{1}{2} = \frac{3}{6}, \quad \frac{-1}{3} = \frac{-2}{6}21=63,3−1=6−2
o Sub-step II: Add the fractions:YouTube+2BYJU'S+2YouTube+2
36+−26=16\frac{3}{6} + \frac{-2}{6} = \frac{1}{6}63+6−2=61
o Sub-step III: Add 16\frac{1}{6}61:
16+16=26=13\frac{1}{6} + \frac{1}{6} = \frac{2}{6} = \frac{1}{3}61+61=62=31

Chapter-2
Key Concepts Covered:
1. Definition of Exponents: An exponent refers to the number of times a number (the base) is multiplied
by itself. For example, in 232^323, 2 is the base, and 3 is the exponent, indicating 2×2×2=82 \times 2 \
times 2 = 82×2×2=8.
2. Laws of Exponents:
o Product Law: am×an=am+na^m \times a^n = a^{m+n}am×an=am+n
o Quotient Law: aman=am−n\frac{a^m}{a^n} = a^{m-n}anam=am−n
o Power of a Power Law: (am)n=am×n(a^m)^n = a^{m \times n}(am)n=am×n
o Power of a Product Law: (ab)m=am×bm(ab)^m = a^m \times b^m(ab)m=am×bm
o Power of a Quotient Law: (ab)m=ambm(\frac{a}{b})^m = \frac{a^m}{b^m}(ba)m=bmam
o Zero Exponent Law: a0=1a^0 = 1a0=1 (provided a≠0a \neq 0a=0)
o Negative Exponent Law: a−m=1ama^{-m} = \frac{1}{a^m}a−m=am1
Types of Problems and Step-by-Step Solutions:
1. Simplifying Expressions Using Laws of Exponents:
 Example Problem: Simplify (23×2−5)÷2−2(2^3 \times 2^{-5}) \div 2^{-2}(23×2−5)÷2−2.BYJU'S
Solution:
o Step I: Apply the Product Law: 23×2−5=23+(−5)=2−22^3 \times 2^{-5} = 2^{3 + (-5)} = 2^{-
2}23×2−5=23+(−5)=2−2.
o Step II: Apply the Quotient Law: 2−2÷2−2=2−2−(−2)=202^{-2} \div 2^{-2} = 2^{-2 - (-2)} =
2^02−2÷2−2=2−2−(−2)=20.
o Step III: Apply the Zero Exponent Law: 20=12^0 = 120=1.
Answer:
4.

SelfStudys
2. Evaluating Expressions with Negative Exponents:
Example Problem: Evaluate 5−35^{-3}5−3.
Solution:
o Step I: Apply the Negative Exponent Law: 5−3=1535^{-3} = \frac{1}{5^3}5−3=531.
o Step II: Calculate 53=1255^3 = 12553=125.
o Step III: Therefore, 5−3=11255^{-3} = \frac{1}{125}5−3=1251.
Answer: 1125\frac{1}{125}1251.
3. Simplifying Complex Expressions:
Example Problem: Simplify (3−1×9−1)÷3−2(3^{-1} \times 9^{-1}) \div 3^{-2}(3−1×9−1)÷3−2.
BYJU'S
Solution:
o Step I: Express 9 as a power of 3: 9−1=(32)−1=3−29^{-1} = (3^2)^{-1} = 3^{-
2}9−1=(32)−1=3−2.
o Step II: Now, the expression becomes (3−1×3−2)÷3−2(3^{-1} \times 3^{-2}) \div 3^{-2}
(3−1×3−2)÷3−2.
o Step III: Apply the Product Law: 3−1×3−2=3−33^{-1} \times 3^{-2} = 3^{-3}3−1×3−2=3−3.
o Step IV: Apply the Quotient Law: 3−3÷3−2=3−3−(−2)=3−13^{-3} \div 3^{-2} = 3^{-3 - (-2)}
= 3^{-1}3−3÷3−2=3−3−(−2)=3−1.
o Step V: Apply the Negative Exponent Law: 3−1=133^{-1} = \frac{1}{3}3−1=31.
Answer: 13\frac{1}{3}31.
4. Using Exponents in Scientific Notation:
Example Problem: Express 0.00045 in scientific notation.
Solution:
o Step I: Identify the decimal point movement needed to get a number between 1 and 10: Move 4
places to the right to get 4.5.
o Step II: Since the decimal was moved 4 places to the right, the exponent will be negative:
4.5×10−44.5 \times 10^{-4}4.5×10−4.
Answer: 4.5×10−44.5 \times 10^{-4}4.5×10−4.
 Chapter-3
Type 1: Finding the Square of a Number
Example Question: Find the square of 15.
Solution:
 Step I: Express 15 as the sum of two numbers: 15=10+515 = 10 + 515=10+5.
 Step II: Apply the identity (a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2(a + b)^2 = a^2 + 2ab + b^2(a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2. Here,
a=10a = 10a=10 and b=5b = 5b=5.
 Step III: Calculate a2=102=100a^2 = 10^2 = 100a2=102=100.
 Step IV: Calculate b2=52=25b^2 = 5^2 = 25b2=52=25.
 Step V: Calculate 2ab=2×10×5=1002ab = 2 \times 10 \times 5 = 1002ab=2×10×5=100.
 Step VI: Add the results: 100+100+25=225100 + 100 + 25 = 225100+100+25=225.
Therefore, 152=22515^2 = 225152=225.
Type 2: Finding the Square Root of a Perfect Square Using Prime Factorization
Example Question: Find the square root of 144.YouTube+2ICSEHELP+2YouTube+2
Solution:
 Step I: Perform prime factorization of 144: 144=24×32144 = 2^4 \times 3^2144=24×32.
 Step II: For each prime factor, divide the exponent by 2: 24/2×32/2=22×312^{4/2} \times 3^{2/2} =
2^2 \times 3^124/2×32/2=22×31.
 Step III: Calculate the result: 22=42^2 = 422=4 and 31=33^1 = 331=3.
 Step IV: Multiply the results: 4×3=124 \times 3 = 124×3=12.
Therefore, 144=12\sqrt{144} = 12144=12.
Type 3: Finding the Square Root of a Non-Perfect Square Using Long Division Method
Example Question: Find the square root of 20 up to two decimal places.
Solution:
 Step I: Pair the digits of 20 from right to left: 202020 (since it's a two-digit number, it's a single pair).
 Step II: Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to 20. Here, 42=164^2 = 1642=16 is
the largest.ICSEHELP
 Step III: Subtract 16 from 20: 20−16=420 - 16 = 420−16=4.
 Step IV: Bring down two zeros to make it 400.
 Step V: Double the quotient obtained (which is 4), giving 8.
 Step VI: Find a digit xxx such that 8x×x≤4008x \times x \leq 4008x×x≤400. Here, x=4x = 4x=4 works
because 84×4=33684 \times 4 = 33684×4=336.
 Step VII: Subtract 336 from 400: 400−336=64400 - 336 = 64400−336=64.
 Step VIII: Bring down two more zeros to make it 6400.
 Step IX: Double the quotient obtained so far (which is 44), giving 88.
 Step X: Find a digit yyy such that 88y×y≤640088y \times y \leq 640088y×y≤6400. Here, y=7y = 7y=7
works because 887×7=6209887 \times 7 = 6209887×7=6209.
 Step XI: Thus, the quotient is 4.47 up to two decimal places.
Therefore, 20≈4.47\sqrt{20} \approx 4.4720≈4.47.
Type 4: Determining if a Number is a Perfect Square
Example Question: Is 50 a perfect square?BYJU'S+2Shaalaa.com+2Shaalaa.com+2
Solution:
 Step I: Perform prime factorization of 50: 50=21×5250 = 2^1 \times 5^250=21×52.
 Step II: Check the exponents of all prime factors. For a number to be a perfect square, all exponents
must be even. Here, the exponent of 2 is 1 (odd), and the exponent of 5 is 2 (even).
Since not all exponents are even, 50 is not a perfect square.
Type 5: Finding the Smallest Number to be Multiplied to Make a Perfect Square
Example Question: Find the smallest number by which 72 must be multiplied to make it a perfect square.
Solution:
 Step I: Perform prime factorization of 72: 72=23×3272 = 2^3 \times 3^272=23×32.
 Step II: Identify the prime factors with odd exponents. Here, the exponent of 2 is 3 (odd).
 Step III: To make the exponent of 2 even, multiply by 2.
Therefore, multiplying 72 by 2 gives 72×2=14472 \times 2 = 14472×2=144, which is a perfect square
(12212^2122).
Type 6: Finding the Square Root of a Decimal Number
Example Question: Find the square root of 2.25.
Solution:
 Step I: Convert 2.25 to a fraction: 2.25=2251002.25 = \frac{225}{100}2.25=100225.
 Step II: Find the square root of the numerator and denominator separately: ( \sqrt{225}

Chapter-4
Type 1: Forming and Solving Equations from Number Properties
Example Question:
In a two-digit number, the unit digit is four times the tens digit, and the sum of the digits is 10. Find the
number.ICSEHELP
Solution:
1. Step I: Let the tens digit be xxx.
2. Step II: Since the unit digit is four times the tens digit, the unit digit is 4x4x4x.ICSEHELP
3. Step III: According to the problem, the sum of the digits is 10:ICSEHELP
x+4x=10x + 4x = 10x+4x=10
4. Step IV: Solve for xxx:
5x=10 ⟹ x=105=25x = 10 \implies x = \frac{10}{5} = 25x=10⟹x=510=2
5. Step V: Therefore, the tens digit is 2, and the unit digit is 4×2=84 \times 2 = 84×2=8.
6. Step VI: The number is 10×2+8=2810 \times 2 + 8 = 2810×2+8=28.
Type 2: Testing Divisibility
Example Question:
Test whether the number 1236 is divisible by 3.ICSEHELP
Solution:
1. Step I: Find the sum of the digits of 1236:
1+2+3+6=121 + 2 + 3 + 6 = 121+2+3+6=12
2. Step II: A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
3. Step III: Since 12 is divisible by 3, 1236 is also divisible by 3.
Type 3: Replacing Letters with Digits in Arithmetic Problems
Example Question:
In the addition problem below, replace A and B with suitable digits:ICSEHELP
css
CopyEdit
AA
+B6
-----
C25
Solution:
1. Step I: Recognize that AA represents a two-digit number where both digits are A, so it can be expressed
as 10A+A=11A10A + A = 11A10A+A=11A.
2. Step II: Similarly, B6 represents the number 10B+610B + 610B+6.
3. Step III: The sum is given as 225, so:
11A+(10B+6)=22511A + (10B + 6) = 22511A+(10B+6)=225
4. Step IV: Simplify and solve for A and B:YouTube+2YouTube+2YouTube+2
11A+10B=21911A + 10B = 21911A+10B=219
To find integer solutions, test values for A and solve for B.
5. Step V: If A=1A = 1A=1, then:ICSEHELP
11×1+10B=219 ⟹ 10B=208 ⟹ B=20.811 \times 1 + 10B = 219 \implies 10B = 208 \implies B =
20.811×1+10B=219⟹10B=208⟹B=20.8
Since B must be a single digit, A≠1A \neq 1A=1.
6. Step VI: If A=2A = 2A=2, then:
11×2+10B=219 ⟹ 10B=197 ⟹ B=19.711 \times 2 + 10B = 219 \implies 10B = 197 \implies B =
19.711×2+10B=219⟹10B=197⟹B=19.7
Again, B is not a single digit.
7. Step VII: Continue testing values until A=5A = 5A=5:
11×5+10B=219 ⟹ 55+10B=219 ⟹ 10B=164 ⟹ B=16.411 \times 5 + 10B = 219 \implies 55 + 10B
= 219 \implies 10B = 164 \implies B = 16.411×5+10B=219⟹55+10B=219⟹10B=164⟹B=16.4
Still not a single digit.
8. Step VIII: Upon further testing, we find that no single-digit values of A and B satisfy the equation,
indicating a possible error in the problem statement or additional constraints not provided.
Type 4: Finding Numbers Based on Divisibility Conditions
Example Question:
Give five examples of numbers that are divisible by 4 but not by 8.ICSEHELP
Solution:
1. Step I: A number is divisible by 4 if its last two digits form a number divisible by 4.
2. Step II: A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits form a number divisible by 8.
3. Step III: To find numbers divisible by 4 but not by 8, consider numbers where the last two digits are
divisible by 4, but the last three digits are not divisible by 8. Examples include:
o 124
o 212vedantu.com
o 316
o 428
o 532
4. Step IV: Verify each:
o 124: Last two digits 24 (divisible by 4), last three digits 124 (not divisible by 8).
o 212: Last two digits 12 (divisible by 4), last three digits 212 (not divisible by 8).
o 316: Last two digits 16 (divisible by 4), last three digits 316 (not divisible by 8).
o 428: Last two digits 28 (divisible by 4), last three digits 428 (not divisible by

Chapter-25
1. Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table
Example Question: The marks obtained by 30 students in a mathematics test out of 10 are as follows:
7, 5, 9, 6, 7, 8, 5, 6, 9, 7, 6, 8, 7, 5, 9, 6, 7, 8, 5, 6, 9, 7, 6, 8, 7, 5, 9, 6, 7, 8
Construct a frequency distribution table for the data.
Solution:
 Step I: Identify the range of data values. Here, the marks range from 5 to 9.
 Step II: List each unique data value in ascending order to form the 'Marks' column.
 Step III: Tally the occurrences of each mark to determine their frequencies.
 Step IV: Create the frequency distribution table:
Marks Frequency
5 5
6 7
7 8
8 5
9 5
2. Calculating the Mean (Average) of Data
Example Question: Using the frequency distribution table above, calculate the mean of the marks.
Solution:
 Step I: Multiply each mark by its corresponding frequency to get the 'Total Marks' for each category.
 Step II: Sum all the 'Total Marks' to get the cumulative total.
 Step III: Divide the cumulative total by the total number of students to find the mean.
Marks (x) Frequency (f) f × x
5 5 25
6 7 42
7 8 56
8 5 40
9 5 45
Total 30 208
Mean = Total of (f × x) / Total Frequency = 208 / 30 ≈ 6.93
3. Determining the Median of Data
Example Question: Find the median of the marks using the frequency distribution table.
Solution:
 Step I: Arrange the data in ascending order (already done in the table).
 Step II: Calculate the cumulative frequency for each mark.YouTube
 Step III: Find the middle position using (N + 1)/2, where N is the total number of observations.
 Step IV: Identify the mark corresponding to the middle position as the median.
Marks Frequency Cumulative Frequency
5 5 5
6 7 12
7 8 20
8 5 25
9 5 30
Total number of observations (N) = 30
Middle position = (30 + 1)/2 = 15.5
The 15th and 16th observations fall within the cumulative frequency of 20 (corresponding to mark 7).
Therefore, the median is 7.
4. Identifying the Mode of Data
Example Question: Determine the mode of the marks from the frequency distribution table.
Solution:
 Step I: Identify the mark with the highest frequency.
 Step II: The mode is the mark that appears most frequently.
From the table, mark 7 has the highest frequency of 8.
Therefore, the mode is 7.
5. Drawing a Bar Graph
Example Question: Represent the frequency distribution of marks using a bar graph.
Solution:
 Step I: Draw a horizontal axis (x-axis) representing the marks and a vertical axis (y-axis) representing
the frequency.
 Step II: Label each axis appropriately.
  Step III: For each mark, draw a bar up to the corresponding frequency.
 Step IV: Ensure all bars are of equal width and are evenly spaced.

Chapter-26
Key Topics Covered:
1. Bar Graphs: Visual representation of data using rectangular bars of varying heights.
2. Histograms: Similar to bar graphs but used for continuous data without gaps between bars.
3. Pie Charts: Circular charts divided into sectors representing proportions of the whole.
4. Frequency Polygons: Line graphs used to display the frequencies of different classes.
Example Problems with Step-by-Step Solutions:
1. Constructing a Bar Graph:
Problem: The following table shows the number of students in different classes of a school:
Class Number of Students
6 45
7 50
8 55
9 60
10 65
Solution:
o Step I: Draw a horizontal (x-axis) and a vertical axis (y-axis) on graph paper.
o Step II: Label the x-axis as "Class" and the y-axis as "Number of Students."
o Step III: Choose an appropriate scale for the y-axis (e.g., 1 unit = 10 students).
o Step IV: Draw bars for each class with heights corresponding to the number of students. Ensure
equal width and spacing between bars.
2. Drawing a Histogram:
Problem: The marks obtained by students in a test are grouped as follows:
Marks Range Number of Students
0 - 10 5
10 - 20 10
20 - 30 15
30 - 40 20
40 - 50 10
Solution:
o Step I: Draw the x-axis (Marks Range) and y-axis (Number of Students).
o Step II: Mark the class intervals on the x-axis and choose a suitable scale for the y-axis.
o Step III: Draw adjacent bars for each class interval with heights representing the number of
students. There should be no gaps between the bars.
3. Creating a Pie Chart:
 Problem: A family's monthly expenditure is divided as follows:
Category Expenditure (₹)
Rent 10,000
Food 6,000
Education 4,000
Savings 5,000
Miscellaneous 5,000
Solution:
o Step I: Calculate the total expenditure: 10,000 + 6,000 + 4,000 + 5,000 + 5,000 = ₹30,000.
o Step II: Determine the angle for each category using the formula: (Category Expenditure / Total
Expenditure) × 360°.
 Rent: (10,000 / 30,000) × 360° = 120°
 Food: (6,000 / 30,000) × 360° = 72°
 Education: (4,000 / 30,000) × 360° = 48°
 Savings: (5,000 / 30,000) × 360° = 60°
 Miscellaneous: (5,000 / 30,000) × 360° = 60°
o Step III: Draw a circle and use a protractor to mark each sector with the calculated angles. Label
each sector accordingly.
4. Plotting a Frequency Polygon:
Problem: The frequency distribution of ages in a group is given below:
Age Group Frequency
10 - 15 5
15 - 20 10
20 - 25 15
25 - 30 10
30 - 35 5
Solution:
o Step I: Calculate the mid-point of each age group: (Lower Limit + Upper Limit) / 2.
 10 - 15: (10 + 15) / 2 = 12.5
 15 - 20: (15 + 20) / 2 = 17.5
 20 - 25: (20 + 25) / 2 = 22.5
 25 - 30: (25 + 30) / 2 = 27.5
 30 - 35: (30 + 35) / 2 = 32.5
o Step II: Plot the mid-points on the x-axis and corresponding frequencies on the y-axis.
o Step III: Connect the points with straight lines to form the frequency polygon. Optionally, close
the polygon by connecting the ends to the x-axis.

Chapter-27
1. Basic Probability Calculation
Problem: A bag contains 5 red balls and 3 blue balls. If one ball is drawn at random, what is the probability that
it is red?
Solution:
 Step-I: Determine the total number of balls in the bag.
Total balls = 5 (red) + 3 (blue) = 8.
 Step-II: Identify the number of favorable outcomes (drawing a red ball).
Number of red balls = 5.
 Step-III: Apply the probability formula:YouTube+1ICSEHELP+1
Probability = (Number of favorable outcomes) / (Total number of outcomes) = 5/8.
2. Probability with Playing Cards
Problem: What is the probability of drawing an ace from a standard deck of 52 playing cards?
Solution:
 Step-I: Recognize the total number of cards in a standard deck.
Total cards = 52.
 Step-II: Identify the number of aces in the deck.
Number of aces = 4.Doubtnut
 Step-III: Calculate the probability:
Probability = 4/52 = 1/13.
3. Probability with Dice
Problem: When a fair six-sided die is rolled, what is the probability of rolling an even number?
Solution:
 Step-I: List the total possible outcomes when rolling a die: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Total outcomes = 6.
 Step-II: Identify the favorable outcomes (even numbers): {2, 4, 6}.
Number of favorable outcomes = 3.
 Step-III: Compute the probability:
Probability = 3/6 = 1/2.
4. Probability with Coins
Problem: If two fair coins are tossed simultaneously, what is the probability of getting at least one head?
Solution:
 Step-I: Determine the total possible outcomes: {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
Total outcomes = 4.Flipkart
 Step-II: Identify the favorable outcomes (at least one head): {HH, HT, TH}.
Number of favorable outcomes = 3.
 Step-III: Calculate the probability:
Probability = 3/4.
5. Complementary Probability
Problem: The probability of an event occurring is 0.7. What is the probability of the event not occurring?
Solution:
 Step-I: Understand that the sum of probabilities of an event occurring and not occurring is 1.
 Step-II: Subtract the probability of the event occurring from 1:ICSEHELP+5ICSEHELP+5YouTube+5
Probability (not occurring) = 1 - 0.7 = 0.3.