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ACTUATORS
 SENSORS
INTRODUCTION

The five basic senses of human beings are often taken granted (i.e., touching, hearing,
seeing, smelling, and tasting. Robots without some kind of sensory capability can only
perform preprogrammed actions. They cannot deal with uncertainties, variations, or
changes. Robot sensing is used to obtain information about the work environment that
will permit uncertainties to be dealt with such as:

Variations in the dimensions and shapes of parts

Variations in the positions and orientations of parts

Unknown surfaces or obstacles

If a robot lacks some of these sensing capabilities, it cannot deal with such common
situations as a part being misplaced, disoriented, or damaged. The alternative for many
automated manufacturing operations is to build relatively expensive and inflexible
support fixtures and tools which wi1l eliminate some of these potential variables.
Intelligent robots can avoid such costs through the use of sensing capabilities.

The basic requirements to be satisfied by sensors mounted directly on a robot arm may be
summed up as follows:

(1) They must be small in size, lightweight, and well adapted to installation in joint
actuators, on the end effector and other parts of a robot manipulator.
(2) Accuracy and precision of the measurement should be as high as possible over a wide
operating range.
(3) They must be highly reliable and possess high noise immunity even in strong
electromagnet fields and in the face of variations in supply voltage and frequency.
(3) They must be simple to adjust, service, calibrate or replace within a cramped
maintenance space.
(4) They must be mechanically robust and insensitive to temperature exposure.
(5) They must be inexpensive to build or buy.

In order to control a robot, it is necessary to know the position of each joint in the
mechanical linkage. Therefore it is necessary to instrument the joints of the robot with
position sensors (encoders, potentiometers, resolvers, etc.), velocity sensors (e.g.,
tachometers) and acceleration sensors (accelerometers). In addition to the position, it may
be necessary to know the forces and moments exerted by the end effector or simply the
torques/forces exerted by each actuator. The fig 8.1 displays six axis force/torque sensors
that mount between the tool and the link to measure the forces encounted by the tool or
the gripper.
 Fx

Nx
Fy

Strain Gauges
Ny

Nz Outputs
Y1.Y2,…
Fig . Axis wrist force or torque sensor

Pressure sensors may be used to measure the force exerted by a hydraulic or pneumatic
actuator. In addition, the robot system may be commanded using sensory information
from acoustic sensors (ultrasonic ranging systems), touch sensors (optical or strain based)
and vision sensors (digital cameras, laser range finders).

Sensors as Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable for example, force,
pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate, etc., into another form. A common conversion
is to electrical voltage, and the reason for making the conversion is that the converted
signal is more convenient to use and evaluate. A sensor is a transducer that is used to
make a measurement of a physical variable of interest. Some of the common sensors and
transducers include strain gauges (used to measure force and pressure), thermocouples
(temperatures), speedometers (velocity), and Pitot tubes (flow rates). These sensors are
two types as described below.

Analog and Digital Sensors

Sensors are classified into two categories: analog and digital. The two are quite different
in function, in application, and in how they are used with the Robots.

An analog sensor produces a continuously varying output value over its range of
measurement.
Digital sensors, have only two states, often called "on" and "off." The simplest example
of a digital sensor is the touch switch.
Dynamic digital sensors that produce a digital output are more complicated. These
sensors produce pulse trains of transitions between the 0 volt state and the 5 volt state.
With these types of sensors, the frequency characteristics or shape of this pulse train
convey the sensor's measurement.

OVERVIEW OF SENSING

Sensing is concerned with the measurement of the pertinent parameters relevant to

kinematic and dynamic control and robot manipulator for the given application in real
time. This involves transducing the required input signal, preconditioning and
interpreting the collected data in-order to extract the required information.

For a versatile and flexible robotic system, two kinds of sensing are necessary:

1) Internal robotic sensing, which monitors the state of the robot system
2) External sensing which monitors the robot's interaction with the surrounding
environment

Fig. Robot sensory system

Internal sensors serve the purpose of static and dynamic control of the robot itself during
interaction with its surroundings, involving influencing factors like gravity, joint loads,
friction, internal temperature, etc. The parameters to be measured are mainly
displacements and its derivatives, namely velocity, acceleration, and forces, etc. The
robot manipulator joints will be driven by power actuators which require the sensor
system. But for the closed loop control system more sensors are needed compared with
open loop control system.

External sensing is concerned with collecting the information regarding the surroundings.
It assists in adapting to the inevitable errors while carrying out the assigned tasks in either
an insufficiently defined environment or because of the indefinite nature of the task itself.
External sensing involves recognition of the target object, measurement of its position,
orientation, proximity and forces involved during manipulation.
Internal sensors are classified into three categories:

1. Position sensors
2. Velocity sensors
3. Acceleration sensors

Position and velocity sensors are used as feedback devices in industrial robotics. Position
sensor provides the needed information to determine whether the joints have moved to
the target position (linear or rotational) in order to achieve the required position and
orientation of the end effector. Speed and acceleration sensors provide the necessary
information to ensure proper speed control.

POSITION SENSORS

Potentiometer Sensor
A potentiometer is a manually adjustable, variable resistor used to measure either rotary
or linear motion. In robotics, a potentiometer is an analog device works on either AC or
DC signal. It can be used as a position sensor. A rotary potentiometer can be used to
measure the rotation of a shaft.

Fig 8.4 Potentiometer (rotating and linear) position sensor

a) Rotary Type b) Linear Type

Resolvers

It is an analog device works on AC voltage signal. Resolver is an alternative to encoders

for joint feedback in robotic applications. A resolver is essentially a rotary transformer
that can provide absolute position information over one revolution. The resolver consists
of a primary winding located on the rotor shaft and two secondary windings located on
the stator. The secondary windings are oriented 90 degrees relative to each other. Energy
is applied to the primary winding on the rotor. As the rotor moves, the output energy of
the secondary windings varies sinusoidal.

AC supply

Cos output Sine output

α = 00

α = 450

α = 900

α = 1350

α = 1800

α = 2700

Fig . Rotary resolver

Encoders

The task of encoders is to convert angular or linear position to an equivalent binary signal
from which the position can be deduced. Thus, encoders are a type of analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter, with position being the analog input. Encoders are perhaps the most
common shaft position sensors used today. Encoders find wide use as feedback elements
in numerically controlled (NC) machines and in robots.

Encoders can be linear or angular, depending on the type of motion they measure. The
principle of operation is similar, but there is a basic difference: the length of a linear
encoder must equal the amount of linear motion it is to accommodate. Hence, linear
encoders are generally long and expensive. Angular encoders, by comparison, are small
disks. An encoder measures angle of rotation of a motor shaft driving a machine-tool
table through a ball screw. The exact table position can then be inferred from knowledge
of shaft angle, provided we know the ball-screw lead. Angular encoders are much less
expensive than linear ones, but they only provide indirect measurement of the linear
motion. Any elastic deformation or inaccuracy in the ball screw affects accuracy of the
measured position.

The angular encoders can be classified into two basically different types: absolute-
position (coded-pattern) encoders, and incremental encoders. Most encoders utilize either
optical or magnetic measuring means.

Incremental optical encoder:

The incremental optical encoder, shown in figure below, consists of a light source, one or
two disks with opaque and transparent sections, three light sensors, and a controller. In
the single disk system as shown, the disk is attached to the rotating shaft. The stationary
light sensors detect light when the transparent section of the disk comes around. The
encoder's controller keeps track of the shaft position by counting the number of times the
sensors detect changes in light.

Fig.Incremental optical encoder (a) Cutaway view of encoder (b) the etched disk.

Absolute optical encoders:

Unlike incremental optical encoders, absolute optical encoders do not require homing.
These encoders consist of a light source, a rotating disk with more than three
circumferential sets of transparent sections, a light sensor for each ring of slots, and a
circuit card.
Absolute optical encoders are used to detect position of a rotating shaft within a single
revolution. Absolute encoders output a binary number representing the position of the
disk (which is rotated by the shaft). This binary number has as many bits as there are light
sensors and rings in the disk. If the light sensor receives light, it outputs a " 1 "; otherwise
it outputs "0." Absolute optical encoder disks are shown in figure 8.8. The diagrams show
hypothetical disks with four rings of transparent sections and a more typical nine-ring
disk.

If a natural binary numbering system is used, the inner light sensor provides the most
significant binary bit as shown in figure 8.8. The transparent section at the inner ring on
the disk extends for 180 degrees. The second most significant bit is received from the
second sensor from the center, which sees 1ight through a ring of two 90 degree long
slots. These first two sensors output the binary number 00 if the disk is rotated at between
0 and 90 degrees, 01 if the disk is rotated to between 90 and 180 degrees, 10 if between
180 and 270, and 11 if between 270 and 360 degrees. Each additional ring adds another
bit to the binary number, and thus doubles the resultant resolution.

Fig . Absolute optical encoder

Compared to absolute encoders, incremental encoders have four main advantages:

1. They are simpler and less expensive.

2. They need no decoding circuits, only a counter.
3. Their range is only limited by the counter capacity.
4. They have a floating zero, that is, the measurement origin can be chosen at any point
by resetting the counter.

Differences between the resolver and encoder are presented against performance
parameters in Table below.
Parameter Resolver Encoder
Vibration and Resolvers perform reliably under Optical encoders are particularly
Shock loads up to 50 grams. sensitive due to tight tolerances
between the disk and light sources.
Contaminants Brushless resolvers are usually With optical encoders,
immune to contaminants and contamination will interrupt the light
environment since there are no path and create unreliable data.
contacting electrical surfaces.
Temperature In as much as resolvers are For an optical encoder, temperature
transformers, operating causes expansion and contraction of
temperature is limited by the optical disk, aggravating
insulation and bearing mechanical alignments and
lubrication electronics in the same location.
Accuracy A resolver is an "infinite" Resolution of the encoder is
resolution device with realizable determined by the number of lines
resolution depending on on the disk. A high-resolution
resolver-to-digital converters. encoder can be quite large-with a
For higher accuracy, multispeed diameter of 9 to l2 inches
resolvers may be specified
Mechanical The resolver's converter The encoder's electronics are
Package (electronics) is separate and contained in the same housing as the
requires a reference source disk.
Application When a position sensor must be It is best suitable for low vibration
mounted in an application mounted application at neat places.
subject to high vibration and/ or
contamination, a resolver may be
the better choice.
Table Comparison between resolver and encoder
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (LVDT)
Linear variable differential transformers are used for contact displacement measurement.
They include a moving core, which extends into the center of a hollow tube as shown in
Figure below. One primary and two secondary coils are wrapped around the hollow tube
with the secondary coils symmetrically placed around the primary. The core is attached to
the target object in motion.

FIGURE . Linear variable differential transformer.

An AC signal is applied to the primary coil and, because of coupling of magnetic flux
between the coils; this induces AC voltages in the secondary coils. The magnitude and
phase of the output signal of the LVDT is determined by the position of the core within
the tube. The magnitude of the output of the signal is a function of the distance of the
core from the primary coil, and the phase of the output signal is a function of the
direction of the core from the primary coil towards one secondary coil or the other.

LVDT sensors can be used in applications with large travel requirements. However,
mechanical alignment along the direction of travel is important for this type of sensor.

A rotary variable differential transformer is also available. This transducer allows the
measurement of angular displacement up to about 90°. This range may be extended with
gearing.

VELOCITY SENSORS
Speed is the rate of change in displacemen.1t may be measured in meters per second.
Velocity is a measure of speed and direction. It is a vector quantity. Industrial
measurements most often deal with fixed directions. A ram on a machine, for example,
can only travel back and forth along a fixed path. Since the direction is established, the
term velocity rather than speed is used to describe the rate of ram travel. One ram
direction would yield a positive velocity and the opposite direction a negative velocity.
Rotating machine parts also usually travel in a fixed path. Again, one direction would be
measured in terms of positive velocity and the other in negative velocity. Angular
velocity is the rate of change in angular displacement. Angular velocity is usually
measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). It may also be measured in radians per second
(rad/s).

DC Tachometer

Direct current tachometers are also popular for measuring angular velocity. They are
usually equipped with a permanent magnet field, a rotating armature circuit, and a
commutator and brush assembly. Ignoring loading effects, the output of a dc tachometer
is proportional to the flux density of the field, the length of the armature circuit, and the
angular velocity of the shaft. Since flux and the armature circuit are fixed for any given
tachometer, the manufacturers rate them with an output constant of volts per rpm. Typical
dc tachometers produce outputs from 0.01 to 0.02 V/rpm. They produce a polarity
reversal when rotated backward. This is a necessary feature when the tachometer must
also provide direction information to the system.

A tachometr can be described by a relation,

V0(t) = Kt(t) ω
Where V0(t) = The output voltage of the tachometer in volts,
Kt(t) = The tachometer constant in V/ KRPM ( 1KRPM = 1000 RPM),
ω = Angular velocity in radians per second.

Representative Application:

It is required to drive a load via a lead screw assembly at a constant rate of 12 inches (305
mm) / second in order to perform a laser trimming operation. To ensure proper cutting
depth, accurate speed regulation must be maintained. With a pitch on the lead screw of 5
revolutions/inch, the motor must rotate at:

12 inches 5 revolutions 60 seconds

× = 3600 RPM
second inch minute

If a tachometer's output voltage constant is 2.5 V / KRPM, the voltage read on the
tachometer terminals should be:
2.5 Volts
3600X = 9V
KRPM

If the tachometer output voltage is indeed 9 V, then the tachometer and, therefore the
motor, is rotating at the required 3600 RPM. With proper regulation and control from the
servo system, the voltage applied to the motor terminals will maintain the tachometer
output voltage at 9 V, assuring the desired rotational speed.

AC Tachometer

Direct current (DC) tachometers, because they have brushes, suffer from noise and
maintenance problems. Alternating current (AC) tachometers have been developed to
eliminate these problems. It consists of a coil, termed the rotor, which rotates with the
rotating shaft. This coil rotates in the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent

magnet or electromagnet and so an alternating e.m.f. is induced in it. The amplitude or

frequency of this alternating e.m.f. can be used as a measure of the angular velocity of the
rotor. The output may be rectified to give a D.C. voltage with a size which is proportional
to the angular velocity .Non-linearity for such sensors is typically of the order of 0.15%
of the full range and the sensors typically used for rotations up to about 10000
rev/minute.