DISCRETE STRUCTURE 2-Unit

Course Instructor: Mr.Joshua A. FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course introduces students to the fundamental concepts of discrete

mathematics, including set theory, logic, relations, functions, graph theory, and
combinatorics. Students will learn how to apply these concepts to solve problems
in computer science.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the basic concepts of discrete mathematics.

2. Apply set theory, logic, and relations to solve problems.

3. Analyze and solve problems using graph theory and combinatorics.

4. Develop problem-solving skills using discrete mathematical structures.

COURSE OUTLINE

Week 1: Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

- Overview of discrete mathematics

- Importance of discrete mathematics in computer science

- Basic mathematical structures (sets, relations, functions)

Week 2-3: Set Theory

- Sets and set operations (union, intersection, difference)

- Set properties (commutative, associative, distributive)

- Set identities and proofs

Week 4-5: Logic

- Propositional logic (statements, logical operators, truth tables)

- Predicate logic (quantifiers, predicates, logical equivalences)

- Logical arguments and proofs

Week 6-7: Relations and Functions

- Relations (reflexive, symmetric, transitive)

- Functions (domain, codomain, range)

- Composition and inverse of functions

Week 8-9: Graph Theory

- Basic graph concepts (vertices, edges, adjacency)

- Graph representations (adjacency matrix, adjacency list)

- Graph traversals (DFS, BFS)

Week 10-11: Combinatorics

- Permutations and combinations

- Binomial theorem and Pascal's triangle

- Recurrence relations and generating functions

Week 12: Review and Assessment

- Review of key concepts

- Practice problems and case studies

- Final exam

Assessment

- Class participation and engagement (10%)

- Quizzes and assignments (10%)

- Continuous Assessment (C.A)(20%)

- Final exam (60%)

Recommended Textbook

- "Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications" by Kenneth H. Rosen

- "Discrete Mathematics" by Richard Johnsonbaugh

Prerequisites

- CSC111 Introduction to Computer Science

- MTH113 Discrete Mathematics (or equivalent).

6th January 2025 First Semester

WEEK 1

1. Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

2. Overview of Discrete Mathematics

3. Importance of Discrete Mathematics in computer science

4. Basic Mathematical structures (Sets, relations, functions)

1. INTRODUCTION TO DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Discrete mathematics is a branch of mathematics that deals with discrete elements

rather than continuous values. It involves the study of mathematical structures that
are fundamentally discrete, meaning they are made up of individual, distinct
elements rather than continuous values.

Discrete mathematics has become increasingly important in computer science, as

computers operate on discrete values (0s and 1s) rather than continuous values. It
provides a foundation for understanding many fundamental concepts in computer
science, including algorithms, data structures, and software engineering.

2. OVERVIEW OF DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Discrete mathematics encompasses a broad range of topics, including:

Set theory: The study of sets, which are collections of unique objects.
Relations and functions: The study of relationships between sets and the
functions that map elements from one set to another.

Graph theory: The study of graphs, which are collections of nodes and edges that
connect them.

Combinatorics: The study of counting and arranging objects in various ways.

Number theory: The study of properties of integers and other whole numbers.

Algebra: The study of mathematical structures, such as groups, rings, and fields.

These topics form the foundation of discrete mathematics and are essential for
understanding many concepts in computer science.

3. IMPORTANCE OF DISCRETE MATHEMATICS IN COMPUTER

SCIENCE

Discrete mathematics plays a crucial role in computer science, as it provides a

foundation for understanding many fundamental concepts, including:

Algorithms: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical structures and

techniques necessary for designing and analyzing algorithms.

Data structures: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical foundations for

understanding data structures, such as graphs, trees, and arrays.
Computer networks: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical
foundations for understanding computer networks, including graph theory and
network topology.

Cryptography: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical foundations for

understanding cryptography, including number theory and algebra.

Software engineering: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical

foundations for understanding software engineering, including set theory and
relations.

In summary, discrete mathematics provides the mathematical foundations

necessary for understanding many fundamental concepts in computer science.

4. BASIC MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES (SETS, RELATIONS,

FUNCTIONS)

Sets

A set is a collection of unique objects, known as elements or members. Sets are

denoted using curly brackets {} and are used to define collections of objects.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

*Relations*

A relation is a connection between two sets. Relations are denoted using the
symbol ∼ and are used to define relationships between sets.
Example: A ∼ B, where A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}

Functions

A function is a relation between two sets that assigns each element in the domain
(input set) to exactly one element in the range (output set). Functions are denoted
using the symbol f: A → B.

Example: f: A → B, where A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}, and f(1) = a, f(2) = b,

f(3) = c

These basic mathematical structures form the foundation of discrete mathematics

and are essential for understanding many concepts in computer science.

CLASS EXERCISE ONE:

Here are some potential exam questions and answers for the topics:

Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

1. Define Discrete Mathematics.

Answer: Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are

fundamentally discrete, meaning they are made up of individual, distinct elements
rather than continuous values.

1. What are the main branches of Discrete Mathematics?

Answer: The main branches of discrete mathematics are set theory, number theory,
algebra, combinatorics, graph theory, and logic.
Overview of Discrete Mathematics

1. What is the difference between discrete and continuous mathematics?

Answer: Discrete mathematics deals with countable, individual elements, while

continuous mathematics deals with uncountable, infinite sets.

1. What are some examples of discrete objects?

Answer: Examples of discrete objects include integers, graphs, and finite

sequences.

Importance of Discrete Mathematics in Computer Science

1. Why is discrete mathematics important in computer science?

Answer: Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical foundations for

computer science, including algorithms, data structures, and software engineering.

1. How is discrete mathematics used in computer programming?

Answer: Discrete mathematics is used in computer programming to develop

algorithms, analyze data structures, and optimize software performance.

Basic Mathematical Structures

Sets

1. Define a set.

Answer: A set is an unordered collection of unique elements.

1. What is the difference between a set and a list?

Answer: A set is an unordered collection of unique elements, while a list is an

ordered collection of elements that may be duplicated.

Relations

1. Define a relation.

Answer: A relation is a set of ordered pairs that represent a connection between

elements.

1. What is the difference between a relation and a function?

Answer: A relation is a set of ordered pairs, while a function is a relation where

each input corresponds to exactly one output.

Functions

1. Define a function.

Answer: A function is a relation where each input corresponds to exactly one

output.

1. What is the difference between a function and a one-to-one correspondence?

Answer: A function is a relation where each input corresponds to exactly one

output, while a one-to-one correspondence is a function where each output
corresponds to exactly one input.
 WEEK 2-3 Csc235
SET THEORY

1. Sets and set operations (Union, Intersection, Difference)

2. Set properties (Commutative, Associative, Distributive)

3. Set identities and proofs

1. Sets and Set Operations

1.1 Sets

A set is a collection of unique objects, known as elements or members. Sets are

denoted using curly brackets {} and are used to define collections of objects.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

1.2 Set Operations

Set operations are used to combine sets in various ways.

1.2.1 Union

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are
in A or in B or in both.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

1.2.2 Intersection

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements
that are in both A and B.
Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}

A ∩ B = {3}

1.2.3 Difference

The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A - B, is the set of all elements that
are in A but not in B.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}

A - B = {1, 2}

2. Set Properties

Set properties are used to describe the behavior of set operations.

2.1 Commutative Property

The commutative property states that the order of the sets does not change the
result of the operation.

Example: A ∪ B = B ∪ A

A∩B=B∩A

2.2 Associative Property

The associative property states that the order in which we perform the operations
does not change the result.
Example: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

2.3 Distributive Property

The distributive property states that the union of a set with the intersection of two
sets is equal to the intersection of the union of the set with each of the two sets.

Example: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

3. Set Identities and Proofs

Set identities are statements that are always true for any sets A, B, and C. Proofs
are used to show that these identities are true.

3.1 Idempotent Laws

A∪A=A

A∩A=A

Proof: Let A be any set. Then, A ∪ A = A, since the union of a set with itself does
not add any new elements. Similarly, A ∩ A = A, since the intersection of a set
with itself does not remove any elements.

3.2 Identity Laws

A∪∅=A

A∩U=A
Proof: Let A be any set. Then, A ∪ ∅ = A, since the union of a set with the empty
set does not add any new elements. Similarly, A ∩ U = A, since the intersection of
a set with the universal set does not remove any elements.

3.3 Complement Laws

A ∪ A' = U

A ∩ A' = ∅

Proof: Let A be any set. Then, A ∪ A' = U, since the union of a set with its
complement includes all elements in the universal set. Similarly, A ∩ A' = ∅, since
the intersection of a set with its complement does not include any elements.

CLASS EXERCISE TWO:

Here are some potential exam questions and answers for the above topics:

Sets and Set Operations

1. Define the union of two sets A and B.

Answer: The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are
in A or in B or in both.

1. Find the intersection of the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}.

Answer: A ∩ B = {2, 3}
1. Define the difference of two sets A and B.

Answer: The difference of A and B, denoted by A - B, is the set of all elements that
are in A but not in B.

Set Properties

1. State the commutative property of set union.

Answer: A ∪ B = B ∪ A

1. State the associative property of set intersection.

Answer: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

1. State the distributive property of set union over set intersection.

Answer: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Set Identities and Proofs

1. Prove the identity A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.

Answer: A ∪ (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

1. Prove the identity A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.

Answer: A ∩ (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
1. Prove the identity A - (B ∪ C) = (A - B) ∩ (A - C).

Answer: A - (B ∪ C) = A ∩ (B ∪ C)' = A ∩ (B' ∩ C') = (A ∩ B') ∩ (A ∩ C') = (A -

B) ∩ (A - C)
 WEEK 4-5 CSC235
LOGIC

1. Prepositional Logic (statements, logical operators, truth tables)

2. Predicate Logic (quantifiers, Predicates, logical equivalences)

3. Logical arguments and proofs

1. Propositional Logic

1.1 Statements

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false. Statements are also
known as propositions.

Example: "It is raining outside.

1.2 Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine statements to form new statements.

- Negation (~): The negation of a statement is the opposite of the statement.

Example: "It is not raining outside." (~p)

- Conjunction (∧): The conjunction of two statements is true only if both

statements are true.
Example: "It is raining outside and the sky is gray." (p ∧ q)

- Disjunction (∨): The disjunction of two statements is true if at least one of the
statements is true.

Example: "It is raining outside or the sky is gray." (p ∨ q)

-Implication (→): The implication of two statements is true if the first statement is
false or the second statement is true.

Example: "If it is raining outside, then the sky is gray." (p → q)

- Equivalence (↔): The equivalence of two statements is true if both statements

have the same truth value.

Example: "It is raining outside if and only if the sky is gray." (p q)

1.3 Truth Tables

Truth tables are used to determine the truth value of a statement based on the truth
values of its components.

|p|q|p∧q|p∨q|p→q|pq|

| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

|T|T|T|T|T|T|

|T|F|F|T|F|F|

|F|T|F|T|T|F|

|F|F|F|F|T|T|
2. Predicate Logic

2.1 Quantifiers

Quantifiers are used to specify the scope of a predicate.

-Universal Quantifier (∀): The universal quantifier states that a predicate is true
for all elements in the domain.

Example: "For all x, x is greater than 5." (∀x (x > 5))

- Existential Quantifier (∃): The existential quantifier states that a predicate is

true for at least one element in the domain.

Example: "There exists an x such that x is greater than 5." (∃x (x > 5))

2.2 Predicates

Predicates are functions that take an object as input and return a truth value.

Example: "x is greater than 5." (P(x))

2.3 Logical Equivalences

Logical equivalences are used to simplify predicates.

Example: "x is greater than 5" is logically equivalent to "x is not less than or equal
to 5." (P(x) ≡ ~Q(x))
3. Logical Arguments and Proofs

3.1 Logical Arguments

A logical argument is a sequence of statements that are intended to prove a

conclusion.

Example: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is

mortal."

3.2 Proofs

A proof is a logical argument that is intended to establish the truth of a statement.

Example: "Theorem: The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees.
Proof: Let ABC be a triangle. Draw a line through A parallel to BC. Then, ∠1 = ∠2
and ∠3 = ∠4. Therefore, ∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3 = 180 degrees."

3.3 Types of Proofs

There are several types of proofs, including:

-Direct Proof: A direct proof is a proof that establishes the truth of a statement
directly.

-Indirect Proof: An indirect proof is a proof that establishes the truth of a

statement by showing that the negation of the statement is false.

-Proof by Contradiction: A proof by contradiction is a proof that establishes the

truth of a statement by showing that the assumption that the statement is false leads
to a contradiction.
 CLASS EXERCISE THREE: ASSIGNMENT

Prepositional Logic

Statements, Logical Operators, and Truth Tables

1. What is the truth value of the statement "It is raining and the sky is blue" if
it is raining but the sky is not blue?

Answer: False

1. Construct a truth table for the statement "p → q" (p implies q).

Answer:

|p|q|p→q|

| --- | --- | --- |

|T|T|T|

|T|F|F|

|F|T|T|

|F|F|T|

1. Simplify the expression "(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ¬q)" using logical equivalences.

Answer: p ∧ (q ∨ ¬q) = p ∧ T = p

Predicate Logic

Quantifiers, Predicates, and Logical Equivalences

1. Translate the statement "For all x, if x is a student, then x is enrolled in a

course" into predicate logic.
Answer: ∀x (S(x) → E(x))

1. What is the difference between the universal quantifier (∀) and the
existential quantifier (∃)?

Answer: ∀ means "for all" and is used to make a statement about every member of
a set. ∃ means "there exists" and is used to make a statement about at least one
member of a set.

1. Prove the logical equivalence of the statements "∀x (P(x) → Q(x))" and "∃x
(P(x) ∧ Q(x))".

Answer: These statements are not logically equivalent.

Logical Arguments and Proofs

Validity, Soundness, and Argument Forms

1. Determine whether the argument "All humans are mortal. Socrates is

human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal" is valid and sound.

Answer: Valid and sound.

1. Identify the argument form of the following argument: "If it is raining, then
the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it is raining."

Answer: Affirming the consequent (invalid form).

1. Prove the validity of the argument form "Modus Ponens" using a truth
table.
Answer:

| p | q | p → q | p ∧ (p → q) | (p ∧ (p → q)) → q |

| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

|T|T|T|T|T|

|T|F|F|F|T|

|F|T|T|F|T|

|F|F|T|F|T|

1. Translate the statement "There exists a number x such that x is greater

than 5" into predicate logic.

Answer: ∃x (x > 5)

1. Construct a truth table for the statement "p ⇔ q" (p if and only if q).

Answer:

|p|q|p⇔q|

| --- | --- | --- |

|T|T|T|

|T|F|F|
|F|T|F|

|F|F|T|

1. Determine whether the statement "If x is a prime number, then x is greater

than 1" is true for all x.

Answer: True for all x, except x = 1 (which is not prime).

 WEEK 6-7 CSC235
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

1. Relations (Reflexive, Symmetric, Transitive)

2. Functions (domain, codomain, range)

3. Composition and inverse of functions

1. Relations

1.1 Definition of a Relation

A relation R between two sets A and B is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B.

1.2 Types of Relations

There are several types of relations, including:

1.2.1 Reflexive Relation

A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A.

Example: The relation "is equal to" on the set of integers is reflexive.

1.2.2 Symmetric Relation

A relation R on a set A is symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R implies (b, a) ∈ R for all a, b ∈ A.

Example: The relation "is a friend of" on the set of people is symmetric.

1.2.3 Transitive Relation

A relation R on a set A is transitive if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R implies (a, c) ∈ R

for all a, b, c ∈ A.

Example: The relation "is greater than" on the set of integers is transitive.

2. Functions

2.1 Definition of a Function

A function f from a set A to a set B is a relation between A and B such that for
every a ∈ A, there is exactly one b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f.

2.2 Domain, Codomain, and Range

The domain of a function f is the set of all input values for which f is defined.

The codomain of a function f is the set of all possible output values of f.

The range of a function f is the set of all actual output values of f.

3. Composition and Inverse of Functions

3.1 Composition of Functions

Given two functions f: A → B and g: B → C, the composition of f and g is the

function g ∘ f: A → C defined by (g ∘ f)(a) = g(f(a)) for all a ∈ A.

3.2 Inverse of a Function

A function f: A → B is invertible if there exists a function g: B → A such that (g ∘
f)(a) = a for all a ∈ A and (f ∘ g)(b) = b for all b ∈ B. The function g is called the
inverse of f and is denoted by f^(-1).

CLASS EXERCISE FOUR:

Relations

Reflexive, Symmetric, Transitive

1. Define a reflexive relation.

Answer: A relation R on a set A is reflexive if for every element a in A, (a, a) is in R.

1. Determine whether the relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)} on the set A
= {1, 2, 3} is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Answer: Reflexive: yes, Symmetric: no, Transitive: yes

1. Prove that the relation "is equal to" on the set of real numbers is symmetric.

Answer: For any real numbers a and b, if a = b, then b = a.

Functions

Domain, Codomain, Range

1. Define a function and its domain, codomain, and range.

Answer: A function f from a set A to a set B is a relation that assigns to each
element in A exactly one element in B. The domain of f is A, the codomain is B, and
the range is the set of all elements in B that are assigned to at least one element in
A.

1. Determine the domain, codomain, and range of the function f(x) = 1/x.

Answer: Domain: all real numbers except 0, Codomain: all real numbers, Range:
all real numbers except 0

1. Find the range of the function f(x) = x^2.

Answer: The range is the set of all non-negative real numbers.

Composition and Inverse of Functions

1. Define the composition of two functions.

Answer: The composition of two functions f and g is a new function h(x) = f(g(x)),
where the domain of h is the domain of g and the codomain is the codomain of f.

1. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 2x + 1.

Answer: The inverse function is f^(-1)(x) = (x - 1)/2

1. Determine whether the function f(x) = x^2 has an inverse.

Answer: No, the function does not have an inverse because it is not one-to-one
(injective).
 WEEK 8-9 CSC235
GRAPH THEORY
1. Basic graph concepts (vertices, edges, adjacency)

2. Graph representations (adjacency matrix, adjacency list)

3. Graph traversals (DFS, BFS)

1. Basic Graph Concepts

1.1 Vertices

A vertex (also called a node) is a fundamental element of a graph. It represents an

entity or an object.

1.2 Edges

An edge is a connection between two vertices. It represents a relationship between

the entities or objects represented by the vertices.

1.3 Adjacency

Two vertices are said to be adjacent if there is an edge between them.

1.4 Other Basic Concepts

Degree of a vertex: The number of edges incident on a vertex.

-Weighted graph: A graph where each edge has a weight or label associated with it.

- Directed graph: A graph where edges have direction.

- Undirected graph: A graph where edges do not have direction.

2. Graph Representations

2.1 Adjacency Matrix

An adjacency matrix is a square matrix used to represent a graph. The entry at row
i and column j represents the weight of the edge between vertex i and vertex j.

Example:

| |A|B|C|

| --- | --- | --- | --- |

|A|0|1|1|

|B|1|0|1|

|C|1|1|0|

2.2 Adjacency List

An adjacency list is a collection of lists, one for each vertex in the graph. Each list
contains the vertices adjacent to the corresponding vertex.

Example:

A -> [B, C]

B -> [A, C]

C -> [A, B]

3. Graph Traversals

3.1 Depth-First Search (DFS)

DFS is a traversal algorithm that visits a graph or tree by exploring as far as
possible along each branch before backtracking.

Example:

Given the graph:

```A

```

B C

/\

D E F

A DFS traversal starting from A might visit the vertices in the following order: A,
B, D, E, C, F

3.2 Breadth-First Search (BFS)

BFS is a traversal algorithm that visits a graph or tree by exploring all the vertices
at the current depth level before moving on to the next depth level.

Example:

Given the graph:

```A

```

B C

/\

D E F

A BFS traversal starting from A might visit the vertices in the following order: A,
B, C, D, E, F

CLASS EXERCISE FIVE:

Here are some potential exam questions and answers for the above topics:

Basic Graph Concepts

Vertices, Edges, Adjacency

1. Define a graph and its components.

Answer: A graph is a non-linear data structure consisting of vertices (nodes)

connected by edges.

1. Determine whether the following graph is directed or undirected:

Answer: Directed, because the edges have direction.

1. Define adjacency in a graph.

Answer: Two vertices are adjacent if they are connected by an edge.

Graph Representations

Adjacency Matrix, Adjacency List

1. Describe the adjacency matrix representation of a graph.

Answer: An adjacency matrix is a square matrix where the entry at row i and
column j represents the number of edges between vertices i and j.

1. Describe the adjacency list representation of a graph.

Answer: An adjacency list is a collection of lists, where each list represents a

vertex and contains its adjacent vertices.

1. Compare the adjacency matrix and adjacency list representations.

Answer: Adjacency matrix: efficient for dense graphs, slow for sparse graphs.
Adjacency list: efficient for sparse graphs, slow for dense graphs.

Graph Traversals

DFS, BFS

1. Describe the Depth-First Search (DFS) traversal algorithm.

Answer: DFS explores a graph by traversing as far as possible along each branch
before backtracking.

1. Describe the Breadth-First Search (BFS) traversal algorithm.

Answer: BFS explores a graph by traversing all vertices at a given depth before
moving to the next depth.

1. Compare DFS and BFS traversal algorithms.

Answer: DFS: efficient for searching, slow for finding shortest paths. BFS:
efficient for finding shortest paths, slow for searching.