Discrete Mathematics   
Tutorial sheet  Predicate Logic
 

Question 1.
Let P (x) be the predicate “x2 > x” with the domain the set R of all real num-
bers. Write P (2), P ( 12 ), and P (− 21 ) and indicate which of these statements
are true and which are false.
Solution:

• P(2): 22 > 2 or 4 > 2 is true

• P ( 12 ) : ( 21 )2 > 1
2 or 1
4 > 1
2 is false
• P (− 12 ) : (− 12 )2 > − 12 or 1
4 > − 21 is true

Question 2.
Let P (x) be the predicate “x2 > x” with the domain the set R of all real
numbers. What are the values P (2) ∧ P ( 21 ), and P (2) ∨ P ( 21 ) ?
Solution:

• P (2) ∧ P ( 12 ) : (22 > 2) ∧ (( 12 )2 > 21 ) = (4 > 2) ∧ ( 14 > 12 ) = T ∧ F = F

• P (2) ∨ P ( 12 ) : (22 > 2) ∨ (( 12 )2 > 21 ) = (4 > 2) ∨ ( 14 > 12 ) = T ∨ F = T

Question 3.

1. Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and consider the following statement:

∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x.

Write one way to read this statement, and show that is it true.

2. Show that the following statement is false.

∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x

Solution:

1. “For every x in the set D, x2 is greater than or equal to x”. The inequalities below
show that that ” x2 ≥ x” is true for each individual x in D.

12 ≥ 1, 22 ≥ 2, 32 ≥ 3, 42 ≥ 4

Hence, ”∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x” is true.

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 2. the statement claims that x2 ≥ x for every real number x, however, this is not true
as for x = 12 for example ( 21 )2 = 14 6≥ 12 .
Hence, ”∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x” is false.

Question 4.

1. Consider the following statement:

∃n ∈ Z+ such that n2 = n

Write one way to read this statement, and show that is it true.

2. Let E = {5, 6, 7, 8}, and consider the following statement:

∃n ∈ E, n2 = n.

Show that this statement is false.

Solution:

1. There exists at least one positive integer n such that n2 = n. 1 is positive integer
and 1= 1. Thus n2 = n is true for a positive integer. Hence, ”∃n ∈ E, n2 = n” is
true.
2. 52 = 25 6= 5, 62 = 36 6= 6, 72 = 49 6= 7, 82 = 64 6= 8. Thus ”∃n ∈ E, n2 = n” is false.

Question 5.
Rewrite each of the following statements formally, Use quantifiers and vari-
ables.

1. All triangles have three sides.

2. No dogs have wings.

3. Some programs are structured.

Solution:

1. All triangles have three sides: ∀ triangle t, t has three sides.

Or, ∀t ∈ T , t has three sides (where T is set of all triangles)
2. No dogs have wings: ∀ dog d, d does not have wings.
Or, ∀d ∈ D, d does not have wings (where D is set of all dogs).
3. Some programs are structured: ∃ a program p such such that p is structured
Or: ∃p ∈ P, p is structured (where P is the set of all programs).

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Question 6.
Rewrite the following statements in form of ∀ if then

1. If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational number

2. All bytes have eight bits

3. No fire trucks are green

Solution:

1. If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational number: ∀ real number x, if x is

an integer, then x is a rational number
Or: ∀x ∈ R, if x ∈ Z then x ∈ Q.
2. All bytes have eight bits: ∀x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.
3. No fire trucks are green: ∀x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.
it is common for (1) and (2) above, to omit explicit identification of the domain of
the predicate variables in universal conditional statements.

Question 7.
A prime number is an integer greater than 1 whose only positive integer
factors are itself and 1. Consider the following predicate Prime(n): “n is is
prime ” and Even(n): “n is even”. Use the notation Prime(n) and Even(n)
to rewrite the following statement:
“There is an integer that is both prime and even ”
Solution:
The statement “There is an integer that is both prime and even ” can be written in two
ways
∃n such that P rime(n) ∧ Even(n)
or
∃ an even number n such that P rime(n)
Question 8.
Determine the truth value each of the following where P (x, y) : y < x2 , where
x and y are real numbers:

1. (∀x)(∀y)P (x, y)

2. (∃x)(∃y)P (x, y)

3. (∀y)(∃x)P (x, y)

4. (∃x)(∀y)P (x, y)
Solution:

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 1. (∀x)(∀y)P (x, y) : this is false as there exists, x, y ∈ R where x = 2, and y = 5 such
that P (2, 5) is false.
2. (∃x)(∃y)P (x, y) : this true as there exists x=2 and y = 3 for example such that
P (2, 3) = 3 < 22 is true.
p
3. (∀y)(∃x)P (x, y) for all y ∈ mathbbR there is exists x = 2| |y|| with x2 = 4|y| > y.
this is true.
4. (∃x)(∀y)P (x, y) this is false as there exists x, y ∈ R where x = 1 and y = 5 such
that P (1, 5) is false as 5 > 12

Question 9.
Let P (x) denote the statement x is taking discrete mathematics course. The
domain of discourse is the set of all students. Write each of the following
statements in words.

∀xP (x), ∀x¬P (x), ¬(∀xP (x)), ∃xP (x), ∃x¬P (x), ¬(∃xP (x)).

Solution:
∀xP (x) : every students is taking discrete mathematics course.
∀x¬P (x) every student is not taking discrete mathematics course.
¬(∀xP (x)) some student is not taking discrete mathematics course.
∃xP (x) some student is taking discrete mathematics course.
∃x¬P (x) some student is not taking discrete mathematics course.
¬(∃xP (x)) every student is not taking mathematics course.

Question 10.
Let P (x) denote the statement ‘x is a professional athlete’, and let Q(x)
denote the statement ‘x plays football’. The domain of discourse is the set
of all people. Write each of the following in words.

1. ∀x(P (x) → Q(x))

2. ∃x(Q(x) → P (x))

3. ∀x(P (x) ∧ Q(x))

Solution:

1. ∀x(P (x) → Q(x)) : every professional athlete plays football.

2. ∃x(Q(x) → P (x)) : either someone does not play football or some football player is
a professional athlete.
3. ∀x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) : everyone is a professional athlete and plays football.

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Question 11.
Let P (x) denote the statement ‘x is a professional athlete’, and let Q(x)
denote the statement ‘x plays football’. The domain of dis- course is the
set of all people. Write the negation of each proposition symbolically and in
words.

1. ∀x(P (x) → Q(x))

2. ∃x(Q(x) → P (x))

3. ∀x(P (x) ∧ Q(x))

Solution:

1. ∀x(P (x) → Q(x)) : its negation is ∃x¬(P (x) → Q(x)) = ∃x(P (x) ∧ ¬Q(x)) :
2. ∃x(Q(x) → P (x)) : its negation is ∀x¬(Q(x) → P (x)) = ∀x(Q(x) ∧ ¬P (x)) :
3. ∀x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) : its negation is ∃x¬(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) = ∃x(¬P (x) ∨ ¬Q(x)) :

Question 12.
Let P and Q denote the following propositional functions:

• P (x) : “x is greater than 2”

• Q(x) : “x2 is greater than 4 ”

where, the universe of discourse for both P (x) and Q(x) is the set of real
number, R.

1. Use quantifiers and logical operators to write the following statement

formally
“ if a real number is greater 2, then its square is greater than 4.”

2. Write a formal and informal contrapositive, converse and inverse of the

statement above in (1).
Solution:

1. “ if a real number is greater 2, then its square is greater than 4” can be written
formally as ∀x(P (x)) → Q(x)).
2. The contrapositive of “if a real number is greater 2, then its square is greater than 4”
is the statement ”if the square of a real number is less or equal to 4 then the number
is less or equal to 2” . this can be written using quantifiers as ∀x(¬Q(x)) → ¬P (x)).

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 3. The converse of “ if a real number is greater 2, then its square is greater than 4” is
the statement ” if the square of a real number is greater than 4, then the number
is greater than 2” is the statement ∀x(Q(x(→ P (x)).
The inverse of “ if a real number is greater 2, then its square is greater than 4”
is the statement ” if a real number is less or equal to 2 , then its square is less or
equal 4” is the statement ∀x(¬(P ) → ¬Q(x)).
Question 13.

1. Rewrite each of the following statements in English as simply as possi-

ble without using the symbols ∀ or ∃ or variables.
(a) ∀ color c, ∃ an animal a such that a is colored c.
(b) ∃ a book b such that ∀ person p, p has read b.
(c) ∀ odd integer n, ∃ an integer k such that n = 2k + 1.
(d) . ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ a real number y such that x + y = 0.
2. Write a negation for each of the statements above.
Solution:

1. (a) ∀ color c, ∃ an animal a such that a is colored c. This can written as “For
every color, there is an animal of that color”.
(b) ∃ a book b such that ∀ person p, p has read b. This can written as “There is
a book that every person has read”.
(c) ∀ odd integer n, ∃ an integer k such that n = 2k + 1. This can be written as
“For every odd number n, we can find an integer k with n = 2k + 1”.
(d) ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ a real number y such that x + y = 0. This can be written as
“ Given any real, we can find another real number (possibly the same) such
that the sum of both numbers is equal to 0”.
2. (a) ∃ a color c, ∀ animal a, a is NOT colored c.
(b) ∀ book b, ∀ a person p, p has NOT read b.
(c) ∃ an odd integer n, such that ∀ integer k, n 6= 2k + 1.
(d) . ∃ x ∈ R, such that ∀ real number y, x + y 6= 0.
Question 14.
Rewrite the statement “No good cars are cheap ” in the form “∀x,if P (x)
then ¬Q(x)”. Indicate whether each of the following arguments is valid or
invalid, and justify your answers.
1. No good care are cheap
A Ferrari is a good car
∴ A Ferrari is not cheap

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 2. No good cars are cheap
A BMW is not cheap
∴ A BMW is no a good car
Solution:

∀x, if x is a good car, then x is NOT cheap.

1. No good cars are cheap

A Ferrari is a good car
∴ A Ferrari is not cheap
This is a valid argument, universal modus or universal instantiation.
2. No good cars are cheap
A BMW is not cheap
∴ A BMW is not a good car
This is invalid, converse error.

Question 15.
Let x be any student and C(x), B(x) and P(x) be the following statements:
C(x): “x is in this class“.
B(x): “x has read the book”.
P (x): “x has passed the first exam”.
Rewrite the following symbolically and state whether it a valid argument.
A student in this class has not read the book
Everyone in this class passed the first exam
∴ Someone who passed the first exam has not read the book
Solution:

(1) ∃x(C(x) ∧ ¬B(x))

(2) ∀x(C(x) → P (x))
∴ ∃x(C(x) → ¬B(x))
This a valid argument!.

End of questions