RATIONAL FUNCTION

Definition
A rational function is a function that is the ratio of polynomials. Any function of one
variable, x, is called a rational function if, it can be represented as f(x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x)
and q(x) are polynomials such that q(x) ≠ 0. For example, f(x) = (x2 + x - 2) / (2x2 - 2x - 3) is a
rational function and here, 2x2 - 2x - 3 ≠ 0.
We know that every constant is a polynomial and hence the numerators of a rational
function can be constants also. For example, f(x) = 1/(3x+1) can be a rational function. But note
that the denominators of rational functions cannot be constants. For example, f(x) = (2x
+ 3) / 4 is NOT a rational function, rather, it is a linear function.

How to Identify a Rational Function?

By the definition of the rational function (from the previous section), if either the
numerator or denominator is not a polynomial, then the fraction formed does NOT represent a
rational function. For example, f(x) = (4 + √x)/(2-x), g(x) = (3 + (1/x)) / (2 - x), etc are NOT
rational functions as numerators in these examples are NOT polynomials.
Domain and Range of Rational Function
Any fraction is not defined when its denominator is equal to 0. This is the key point that is
used in finding the domain and range of a rational function.
Domain of Rational Function
The domain of a rational function is the set of all x-values that the function can take. To find the
domain of a rational function y = f(x):
 Set the denominator ≠ 0 and solve it for x.
 Set of all real numbers other than the values of x mentioned in the last step is the domain.

Example: Find the domain of f(x) = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).

Solution:

We set the denominator not equal to zero.

3x - 2 ≠ 0
x ≠ 2/3

Thus, the domain = {x ∈ R | x ≠ 2/3}

Range of Rational Function

The range of a rational function is the set of all outputs (y-values) that it produces. To find
the range of a rational function y= f(x):
 If we have f(x) in the equation, replace it with y.
 Solve the equation for x.
 Set the denominator of the resultant equation ≠ 0 and solve it for y.
 Set of all real numbers other than the values of y mentioned in the last step is the range.
Example: Find the range of f(x) = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).
Solution:
Let us replace f(x) with y. Then y = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2). Now, we will solve this for x.
(3x - 2) y = (2x + 1)
3xy - 2y = 2x + 1
3xy - 2x = 2y + 1
x (3y - 2) = (2y + 1)
x = (2y + 1) / (3y - 2)
Now (3y - 2) ≠ 0
y ≠ 2/3

So the range = {y ∈ R | y ≠ 2/3}

Asymptotes of Rational Function

A rational function can have three types of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical, and slant
asymptotes. Apart from these, it can have holes as well. Let us see how to find each of them.
Holes of a Rational Function
The holes of a rational function are points that seem that they are present on the graph of
the rational function but they are actually not present. They can be obtained by setting the linear
factors that are common factors of both numerator and denominator of the function equal to
zero and solving for x. We can find the corresponding y-coordinates of the points by substituting
the x-values in the simplified function. Every rational function does NOT need to have holes.
Holes exist only when numerator and denominator have linear common factors.
Example: Find the holes of the function f(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6) / (x2 + x - 2).
Solution:
Let us factorize the numerator and denominator and see whether there are any common factors.
f(x) = [ (x + 2)(x + 3) ] / [ (x + 2) (x - 1) ]
= [ ̶(̶x̶ ̶+̶ ̶2̶)̶(x + 3) ] / [ ̶(̶x̶ ̶+̶ ̶2̶)̶ (x - 1) ]
= (x + 3) / (x - 1)
Since (x + 2) was strike off, there is a hole at x = -2. Its y-coordinate is f(-2) = (-2 + 3) / (-2 - 1) =
-1/3.
Thus, there is a hole at (-2, -1/3).

Vertical Asymptote of a Rational Function

A vertical asymptote (VA) of a function is an imaginary vertical line to which its graph
appears to be very close but never touch. It is of the form x = some number. Here, "some
number" is closely connected to the excluded values from the domain. But note that there
cannot be a vertical asymptote at x = some number if there is a hole at the same number. A
rational function may have one or more vertical asymptotes. So to find the vertical asymptotes of
a rational function:
 Simplify the function first to cancel all common factors (if any).
 Set the denominator = 0 and solve for (x) (or equivalently just get the excluded values
from the domain by avoiding the holes).
Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of the function f(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6) / (x2 + x - 2).
Solution:
We have already seen that this function simplifies to f(x) = (x + 3) / (x - 1).
Setting the denominator to 0, we get
x-1=0
x=1
Thus, there is a VA of the given rational function is, x = 1.

Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function

A horizontal asymptote (HA) of a function is an imaginary horizontal line to which its graph
appears to be very close but never touch. It is of the form y = some number. Here, "some
number" is closely connected to the excluded values from the range. A rational function can have
at most one horizontal asymptote. Easy way to find the horizontal asymptote of a rational
function is using the degrees of the numerator (N) and denominators (D).
 If N < D, then there is a HA at y = 0.
 If N > D, then there is no HA.
 If N = D, then the HA is y = ratio of the leading coefficients.
Example: Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of the function f(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6) / (x2 + x -
2).
Solution:
Here the degree of the numerator is, N = 2, and the degree of the denominator is, D = 2.
Since N = D, the HA is y = (leading coefficient of numerator) / (leading coefficient of
denominator) = 1/1 = 1.
Thus, the HA is y = 1.

Slant (Oblique) Asymptotes of a Rational Function

A slant asymptote is also an imaginary oblique line to which a part of the graph appears to
touch. A rational function has a slant asymptote only when the degree of the
numerator (N) is exactly one greater than the degree of the denominator (D). Its
equation is y = quotient that is obtained by dividing the numerator by denominator using the
long division.
Example: Find the slant asymptote of the function f(x) = x2/(x+1).
Solution:
Here the degree of numerator is 2 and that of denominator = 1. So it has a slant asymptote.
Let us divide x2 by (x + 1) by long division (or we can use synthetic division as well).

Thus, the slant asymptote is y = x - 1.

Graphing Rational Functions

Here are the steps for graphing a rational function:
 Identify and draw the vertical asymptote using a dotted line.
 Identify and draw the horizontal asymptote using a dotted line.
 Plot the holes (if any)
 Find x-intercept (by using y = 0) and y-intercept (by x = 0) and plot them.
 Draw a table of two columns x and y and place the x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes in
the table. Then take some random numbers in the x-column on either side of each of the
x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes.
 Compute the corresponding y-values by substituting each of them in the function.
 Plot all points from the table and join them curves without touching the asymptotes.
 Inverse of a Rational Function

To find the inverse of a rational function y = f(x):

 Replace f(x) with y.
 Interchange x and y.
 Solve the resultant equation for y.
 The result would give the inverse f-1(x).

Example: Find the inverse of the rational function f(x) = (2x - 1) / (x + 3).
Solution:
The given function can be written as:
y = (2x - 1) / (x + 3)
Interchanging x and y:
x = (2y - 1) / (y + 3)
Now, we will solve for y.
x(y + 3) = 2y - 1
xy + 3x = 2y - 1
3x + 1 = 2y - xy
3x + 1 = y (2 - x)
y = (3x + 1) / (2 - x) = f-1(x)

Important Notes on Rational Function:

 A rational function equation is of the form f(x) = P(x) / Q(x), where Q(x) ≠ 0.
 Every rational function has at least one vertical asymptote.
 Every rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote.
 Every rational function has at most one slant asymptote.
 The excluded values of the domain of a rational function help to identify the VAs.
 The excluded values of the range of a rational function help to identify the HAs.
 The linear factors that get canceled when a rational function is simplified would give us
the holes.

Solving Real-Life Problems Involving Rational Functions, Equations,

and Inequalities