INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS AND

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

By
Dr. T. Thyagaraj
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai – 600 036
 Introduction
 The engineering properties of soils which are of primary
interest to a geotechnical engineer are:
 permeability,
 compressibility, and

 shear strength.

 Laboratory tests for determining engineering properties

are often time consuming, expensive and requires
sophisticated equipments.
 More often geotechnical engineer is interested to have
some approximate assessment of the engineering
behaviour of soils without conducting the elaborate tests.
 The properties of soils which are not of primary interest
to the geotechnical engineer but which are indicative of
the engineering properties are called index properties.
 Index properties of soils can be divided into two categories:
• Soil grain properties
• Soil aggregate properties

 Soil grain properties are

• dependent on the individual grains of the soil
• independent of soil formation properties
• determined from a remoulded, disturbed soil sample
• Eg.: mineralogical composition, specific gravity of
solids, size and shape of grains.
 Soil aggregate properties have greater significance in
engineering practice.
• Obtained on: undistured samples or in-situ tests
• Depends on: mode of soil formation,
soil stress history, and
soil structure.

 Significant aggregate properties:

 relative density for cohesionless soils and

 consistency for cohesive soils

 In engineering practice the soil aggregate properties are of

greater significance, since the structures are founded on
undisturbed, natural soil deposits.
 MAIN INDEX PROPERTIES OF
COARSE GRAINED SOILS
 Grain size analysis and Grain shape (soil grain property)
 Relative Density (soil aggregate property )

MAIN INDEX PROPERTIES OF

FINE GRAINED SOILS
 Atterberg limits
 Consistency Indices
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
 The method of separation of soils into different fractions
based on the particle size is known as particle size
analysis.
 It expresses the proportions quantitatively, by mass, of
various sizes of particles present in a soil.
 Represented by a grain size distribution curve.
 The grain size analysis is carried out in two stages:
• Sieve analysis for coarse-grained soils ( > 75 μm)
• Sedimentation analysis for fine-grained soils ( < 75 μm)

 Most of the soils contain particles of both sizes hence a

combined analysis consisting of sieve analysis and
sedimentation analysis is more appropriate.
 IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985
 Grain Size Distribution

•Experiment
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Dry soil is sieved mechanically through a series of woven-
wire square-mesh sieves with successively smaller
openings.
 The coarse-grained soil is further divided into:
• Gravel fraction ( size > 4.75 mm)
• Sand fraction (75μm < size < 4.75 mm).
 A set of I.S. sieves of 80 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm and 4.75
mm size are required for further fractioning of gravel
fraction.
 The soil passing 4.75 mm sieve is further subjected to fine
sieve analysis if it is sand by using I.S. sieves of 2 mm, 1
mm, 600μm, 425 μm, 212μm, 150 μm and 75 μm size.
 The basis for selecting the number of sieves is to obtain a
good grain size distribution curve.
Mass of soil sample to be taken for sieve analysis
(Reproduced from I.S. 2720 (Part 4) – 1985).
Maximum size of Mass to be taken
materials present in for test (kg)
substantial quantity
(mm)
75 60
40 25
25 13
19 6.5
12.5 3.5
10 1.5
6.5 0.75
4.75 0.4
 The amount of shaking is decided based on the shape and
number of particles (minimum of 10 minutes for mechanical
shaker).
 The percent finer than each size is calculated as below:
Weight of soil retained on that sieve
% retained on a particular sieve = × 100
Total weight of soil taken

 Cumulative % retained on a particular sieve = sum of %

retained on all sieves of larger sizes and the % retained on
that sieve
 Percent finer than the reference sieve, N = 100% -
cumulative % retained
 If the amount of soil passing 75 μm is substantial wet
sieve analysis should be performed.
 In wet sieve analysis, soil should be first washed over
the 75 μm sieve to remove the fine particles sticking to
the sand particles.
 Wet sand retained on sieve should be oven dried and
dry sieve analysis should be carried on this portion.
 Sedimentation analysis carried out on the soil passing 75
μm sieve.
 SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS
 Carried out for fine-grained soils
 Stoke’s law: for falling spheres in a viscous fluid in which
the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain
diameter and the densities of the grains in suspension
and of the fluid.
 Performed by the hydrometer method or pipette
method.
 Pipette method, the weight of solids per cc of
suspension is directly determined.
 The hydrometer determines the specific gravity of the
suspension and this enables the percentage of
particles of a certain equivalent particle diameter to be
calculated.
 The grain diameter D (cm) corresponding to elapsed
time t and effective depth He can be calculated from
equation:
18η H e (cm)
D (cm) =
γ s − γ w 60t (min)

where η = viscosity (g-s/cm2)

γs = unit weight of soil grains (g/cm3)
γw = unit weight of liquid (g/cm3)
 The percentage finer (N) than D is calculated from
equation
GS Rc
N= . .100%
Gs − 1 Ws

where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

Rc = corrected hydrometer reading
Ws = weight of soil grains in 1000 cc soil suspension
 Limitations of hydrometer analysis
1. Analysis is based on the assumption that the falling grain is
spherical.
- fine grained soils are never truly spherical
2. Stoke’s law considers the velocity of free fall of a single
particle in a suspension of infinite extent, whereas the grain
size analysis is carried out in a glass jar in which the extent
of liquid is limited.
3. An average value of GS is used,
4. Fine grained soils carry charge on their surface and have a
tendency for floc formation.

Applicability of Stokes law: 0.2 mm (turbulence) to 0.0002 mm

(Brownian movement)
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES
 The particle size distribution curve, also known as a gradation
curve, represents the distribution of particles of different sizes
in the soil mass.
 The percentage finer ‘N’ than a given size is plotted as
ordinate (on natural scale) and the grain size is plotted as
abscissa (on log scale).
 IS 2720 (Part 4) – 1985
 The semi-log plot for the particle size distribution has the
following advantages over natural plots:
- soils of equal uniformity exhibits the same shape,
irrespective of the actual particle size.
- as the range of particle sizes is very large, for better
representation, a log scale is required.
The distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is
called grading

Fine grained soil

- Higher up & to left or
poorly graded
- Particles of
almost same size
Coarse grained
- Curve to the right

Well graded
- Different sizes in good proportion
- Flat shape curve, - Smooth curve

Typical grain size distribution curves

(after Holtz and Kovacs 1981).
Division of soil fractions based on grain size
 The position, shape and slope of the curve indicate the
type and gradation of the soil.
 Well graded soil has a good representation of grain sizes
over a wide range, and its gradation curve is smooth and
generally concave upward.
 Poorly graded soil has most of the grains of about the same
size or has either an excess or deficiency of certain grain
sizes.
 Uniformly graded soil is an example of poorly graded soil in
which most of the particles are of the same size.
 Skip-graded or gap-graded soil is also an example of poorly
graded soil in which some of the particle sizes are missing.
 The diameter D10 is called effective diameter, which
corresponds to 10% of the sample finer in weight on the
grain size distribution curve.
 The coefficient of uniformity ,Cu is a shape parameter
and is defined as
D60
Cu =
D10

where D60 = grain diameter (mm) corresponding to 60%

finer than this size.
 The coefficient of curvature, Cc is also a shape
parameter defined as

Cc =
(D30 )2

D10 .D60
where D30 = grain diameter (mm) corresponding to 30% finer
than this size
 For well graded soils:
 Cc lies between 1 and 3
 Cu > 4 for well graded gravels
 Cu > 6 for well graded sands

For uniformly graded soils:

 Cu < 2
Uses of particle size distribution curve
Particle size distribution curve is extremely useful for
coarse-gained soils.
 Used for classification of coarse grained soils
 Coeff. Of permeability can be calculated approximately
 Used for design of filters
 Provides an index to the shear strength of soils ex. Well
graded sand has high strength
 Uniform soil is more compressible than well-grades soil
 Indicates mode of deposition
Ex. Gap graded soils: indicates two different agencies for
deposition
As the behaviour of fine-grained soils depends on plasticity
characteristics, not the particle size, its use for fine-
grained soils is limited.
 Soil grain properties
Particle size & shape

Coarse- Subrounded
Rounded Generally
grained soils
formed by
mechanical
weathering

Subangular Angular

Important for granular soils

• Angular soil particle → higher friction
• Round soil particle → lower friction
 Grain shape
 The engineering properties of soils, especially coarse-
grained soils, depend upon the shape of particles.
Bulky grains: length, width & thickness are of the same
order. Ex. Sands and gravels

The shape of bulky grains is described by sphericity:

S = De/L
1/ 3
 6V 
where De = equivalent dia. of particle, De =  
 π 
L = length of the particle
V = volume of the particle
Flaky grains: or plate-shaped grains
 Thickness bears no relationship with other two
dimensions
- Like a sheet of paper or a leaf
 They are highly compressible
 Behaviour is different from that of bulky grains
 Requires microscope

Needle shaped grains:

- One dimension is fully developed, much larger than
other two.
- Resembles needle Ex. Kaolinite
RELATIVE DENSITY
 It is the most important soil aggregate property of
coarse-grained soil.
 The degree of denseness or looseness of in-situ coarse-
grained soil deposits can be known from relative density.
 ID is the better indicator of in-situ density in comparison
to void ratio.
e −e
 Relative density, Dr orI D = max × 100%
emax −e min
where emax = void ratio in the loosest state
e = in-situ void ratio of the cohesionless soil
emin = void ratio in the densest state.
IS 2720 (Part 14) -1983
 GS γ w
 Using e= −1
γd
 Relative density can also be expressed in the form of
(γ d ) max γ d − (γ d ) min
Dr = × ×100
γd (γ d ) max − (γ d ) min

Relative density of granular soils

Relative density Classification
(%)
< 15 Very loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium
65 – 85 Dense
>85 Very dense
Atterberg limits and consistency Indices
 The presence of water in the voids of a soil can
especially affect the engineering behaviour of fine-
grained soils.
 Atterberg limits were developed in the early
1900’s by a Swedish soil scientist, A. Atterberg
(1911). He was working in a ceramic industry.
 There were simple tests to describe the plasticity
of clay, which was important both in molding clay
into bricks and to avoid shrinkage and cracking
when fired.
 Atterberg developed simple laboratory tests to
define these limits:
1. upper limit of viscous flow
2. liquid limit – lower limit of viscous flow
3. sticky limit – clay loses its adhesion to a metal
blade
4. cohesion limit – grains cease to cohere to each
other
5. plastic limit – lower limit of the plastic state
6. shrinkage limit – lower limit of volume change
 Atterberg defined plasticity index, which is range
of water content where the soil is plastic and he
was the first to suggest that it could be used for
soil classification.
 Later in 1920’s K. Terzaghi and A. Casagrande
(1932) standardized the Atterberg limits, for using
them for soil classification

 In the present geotechnical engineering practice,

we use the liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage
limit.
CONSISTENCY LIMITS AND INDICES

 Consistency is a term used to describe the degree of

firmness of a soil in a qualitative manner (by using
descriptions such as soft, medium, firm, stiff or hard).
 Consistency is associated with fine-grained soils such as
clays only.
 Depending on the water content, a fine-grained soil can
exist in four states: liquid state, plastic state, semi-solid
state and solid state.
 The boundary water contents at which the soil changes
from one state to another is called as consistency limits
or Atterberg limits
 Liquid limit, wL

 Liquid limit is the water content at which a soil is

practically in a liquid state, but has infinitesimal
resistance against flow which can be measured by any
standard procedure.
 With reference to the standard procedure, LL is defined
as the water content at which a groove cut in a pat of soil
by grooving tool of standard dimensions will flow
together for a distance of 13 mm under the impact of 25
blows in a standard LL device.
 Liquid limit is determined in the laboratory by
Casagrande’s method and cone penetration method

 IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985

 Schematic Diagram of
Casagrande Liquid Limit
apparatus and grooving
tool

Fall Cone Apparatus

Casagrande Liquid Limit apparatus
Atterberg’s limits
 Maximum depth of soil is 10 mm in
Casagrande cup
 Rotation of handle is 2 revolutions/ second
 Count no. of blows required to close the
groove by a distance of 13 mm.
 Take about 10g of soil for water content
determination
 Repeat experiment for different water
contents to obtain blows between 10-40.
 100

90

80
75

70
Moisture content (%)

60
w1
Flow curve
50

40
w2

30

20

10

0
N1 25 N2
1 10 100 1000
No. of blows
Liquid limit: Cone Penetrometer Method
 Cone penetration method
 Cup size: 50 mm diameter x 50 mm height
 Water content at 20 mm penetration is LL

Advantages:
 Easier,
 Applicable to wide range of soils
 Reliable results, operator independent
results
 Plastic limit, wP
 The boundary water content between plastic
state to the semi-solid state is called the plastic
limit.
 Plastic limit is the water content at which the soil
would just starts to crumble when rolled into a
thread of approximately 3 mm diameter
 IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985
Shrinkage limit, wS
 The water content at which the soil
changes from the semi-solid state to the
solid state is known as the shrinkage limit.
 The shrinkage limit is the maximum water
content at which a decrease in water
content does not cause any decrease in
the volume of the soil mass.
 It is also the smallest value of water
content at complete saturation of the soil
mass.
 IS: 2720 (Part 6) – 1972
 Plasticity index
Ip = wL - wP
 Describes the range of water content over which soil
behaviour is plastic.
 Useful in engineering classification of fine-gained soils.
 Soils with higher liquid limit and plasticity index are called as
highly plastic clays and those with low values are called as
lean clays.
 When plastic limit is greater than the liquid limit, the plasticity
index is reported as zero.
 When LL or PL cannot be determined, the soil is non-plastic
(NP).
Shrinkage index (IS)
IS = wp – ws

Shrinkage ratio (SR) is defined as the ratio of a given

volume change, expressed as a percentage of dry
volume, to corresponding change in water content.
(V1 − V2 ) / Vd
SR = ×100
w1 − w2

Where V1 = vol. of soil mass at water content, w1

V2 = vol. of soil mass at water content, w2
Vd = vol. of dry soil mass
 SR can also be expressed as fraction
(V1 − V2 ) / Vd
SR =
w1 − w2

 At shrinkage limit, V2 = Vd & w2 = ws

(V1 − Vd ) / Vd
Hence SR = ×100
w1 − wS

(V1 − V2 )γ w
w1 − w2 =
From fig. (b) WS (1)

(V1 − V2 ) / Vd
We know SR =
w1 − w2
Ws γ
Substuting from eqn. 1 SR = = d
Vd γ w γ w
 Volumetric shrinkage (VS) is defined as
the change in volume expressed as a
percentage of the dry volume when the
water content is reduced from a given
value of the shrinkage limit. Thus
V1 − Vd
VS = ×100
Vd

= SR ( w1 − ws )
 Linear shrinkage (LS) is defined as the
change in length divided by the initial
length when the water content is reduced
to the shrinkage limit.
 Expressed as percentage & reported to
the nearest whole number.

 initiallength − finallength 
LS =   ×100
 initiallength 
Consistency index (Relative Consistency)
IC = (wL – w)/ IP
 Important soil aggregate property
 Used to study the in-situ behaviour of fine-grained soil
deposit at its natural water content
when w = wL, Ic = 0;
when w = wP, Ic = 1;
 If IC is negative the soil mass behaves like a fluid upon
disturbance.
 If IC is greater than 1, the soil exists in semi-solid state
or solid state and the soil is very stiff to hard.
Liquidity index, IL
 IL = (w – wP )/ IP
 purpose of liquidity index is same as that of consistency
index
Consistency of cohesive soils in terms of
unconfined compressive strength
Toughness Index, IT gives the idea about
the shear strength of a soil at plastic limit.
IP
IT =
IF

 Range: 0–3
 IT < 1: friable (easily crushable)
Sensitivity is a measure of loss in strength
of soils as a result of remoulding and is,
thus, indicative of the effect of remoulding
on the consistency of a cohesive soil.

It is observed that cohesive soils loose part

of their strength upon remoulding
- due to breaking of original structure
- due to disturbance caused to water
molecules in the absorbed layer
- Sensitivity, S =uq undisturbed (UCS )
t
qu disturbed (UCS )
 Sensitivity of clays
Sensitivity, St Classification
1-4 Normal
4-8 Sensitive
8-15 Extra-sensitive
>15 Quick
Thixotropy is the property of certain clays,
by virtue of which they regain, if left alone
for a time, a part of the strength lost due to
remoulding, at unaltered moisture content.

Activity = PI / % by wt finer than 2 micron

 Importance of consistency limits and
indices
 Engineering behaviour is influenced by the natural structure
of clay soil
 Atterberg limits are found to have good correlation with the
engineering properties of soils because both the properties
are influenced by the same factors such as the clay
minerals, the ions in pore water, the stress history of the soil
deposit etc.
 The plasticity of the soil is indicated by the liquid limit and
plastic limit and both are dependent on the amount and type
of clay in a soil, whereas plasticity index is mainly
dependent on the amount of clay.
 Liquid limit of the soil also indicates the compressibility of
the soil. Higher the liquid limit value greater the
compressibility of a soil.
 Soil Classification
 Soil classification system provides a systematic method of
categorizing soils according to their probable engineering
behaviour, and allows engineers to have access to the
accumulated experience of other engineers.

 A classification system must be simple to use and the number

of soil groups not too many in number.

 Most commonly used properties are the GSD and plasticity.

 However, a soil classification system does not eliminate the

need for detailed soil investigations and for testing for
engineering properties.
 Soil Classification Systems
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
(Prof. A. Casagrande, 1948)

 American Association of State Highway and Transport

Officials (AASHTO) system

 Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS)

(1959, Revised in 1970)

 Massachusets Institute of Technology (MIT)

 American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
 Developed by Prof. A. Casagrande (1948),for use in
airfield construction during World war II.
 Later modified in 1952 to make it applicable to
foundations, dams and other constructions.
 The basis for the USCS is that coarse-grained soils can
be classified according to their grain size
distributions, where as the engineering behaviour of fine-
grained soils is primarily related to their plasticity.
 Sieve Analysis and Atterberg limits are necessary to
classify the soil
 4 major divisions in USCS System are (i) coarse grained
(ii) fine grained (iii) organic soils (iv) peat
USCS Definitions of particle size, size ranges and symbols
Unified Soil Classification System
Coarse grained soils
Unified Soil Classification System
Coarse grained soils (cont.)
Gravels with 5 to 12% fines are given dual symbols

• GW-GM : Well graded gravel with silt

•GW-GC : Well graded gravel with clay
• GP-GM : Poorly graded gravel with silt
• GP-GC : Poorly graded gravel with clay

Sands with fines 5-12% are given dual symbols

•SW-SM : Well graded sand with silt
•SW-SC : Well graded sand with clay
•SP-SM : Poorly graded sand with silt
•SP-SC : Poorly graded sand with clay
Unified Soil Classification System
Fine grained soils
Unified Soil Classification System
Fine grained soils (cont.)
 FIELD IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE FOR
FINE GRAINED SOIL
 Performed on minus No.40 sieve size particles (0.4 mm)
 Sample thus obtained is tested for
• Dilatancy (reaction to shaking)
• Dry strength (crushing characteristics)
• Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)

DILATANCY TEST
 Pat of moist soil prepared
 Pat placed in the open palm of one hand and shaken
vigorously against the other hand several times
 Appearance of water on the surface indicate a positive
reaction
Rapidity of appearance of water during shaking and
disappearance when squeezed with fingers helps in identifying
character of fines
Clean fine sand gives quick and distinct reaction
DRY STRENGTH
Pat made to the consistency of putty and dried completely in
air, sun or oven
Test the strength by breaking and crumbling between fingers
Strength is a measure of the quantity and character of the
colloidal matter contained in the soil
Strength increases with increasing plasticity
Clays of the group CH has high dry strength
 TOUGHNESS
 Specimen spread out on a thin layer and allowed to lose
moisture by evaporation and rolled into 3mm diameter
threads
 Sample folded and refolded repeatedly
 Moisture content reduces and finally the specimen crumbles
at plastic limit losing its plasticity
 Threads are lumped together again and slight kneading
action is given till the lump crumbles
 Weakness of thread at plastic limit and quick loss of
coherence of lump below plastic limit indicate either
inorganic clay of low plasticity or kaolinite type clay and
organic clays
 Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at
plastic limit
Indian Standard Soil Classification System
 Based on USCS with modifications.

 The basis for the ISSCS is that coarse-grained soils can

be classified according to their grain size
distributions, where as the engineering behaviour of fine-
grained soils is primarily related to their plasticity.
 Method of classifying soils as per ISCS

Soil

Coarse grained soil Fine grained soil Highly organic soil

If 50% or more retains If 50% or more (Peat)
on 75 micron IS sieve pass through 75 Fibrous
micron IS sieve texture, colour, odou
r, very high
w, particle of
vegetative matter
Division of soil fractions based on grain size
Prefixes and Suffixes of IS Soil Classification System
Plasticity chart for classification of fine grained
soils
ASTM Soil Classification
 American Association of State Highway and
Transport Officials (AASHTO) system
• Based on both the particle size and the plasticity
characteristics.
• Classified into eight groups
• Group Index, GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
where
a = that part of the percent passing the 75 micron sieve greater than 35
and not exceeding 75, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 -
40).
b = that part of the percent passing the 75 micron sieve greater than 15
and not exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 -
40).
c = that part of liquid limit greater than 40 and not greater than
60, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 - 20).
d = that part of plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding
30, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 - 20).
Thank You