SCHOOL OF HIGHER STUDIES OF YECAPIXTLA

TOPICS UNIT 1 & 2

NAME OF THE STUDENT:

Portillo Urueña Yael Alonso 10056726

NAME OF THE TEACHER:

PORTILLO CONTRERAS SAMUEL

DATE OF COMPLETION:

February 25, 2025

Content
Unit 1. Control Basics ........................................................................................ 3
1.1 Definitions ................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Transfer Function ...................................................................................... 7
1.3 Block Diagram .......................................................................................... 9
1.4 Types of Entry Signals. ............................................................................. 12
Unit 2. Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems ........................................... 14
2.1 Electrical and electronic systems ............................................................. 14
2.2 Mechanical translation and rotation systems ............................................ 19
2.3 Hydraulic systems .................................................................................. 20
2.4 Pneumatic systems ................................................................................. 23
2.5 Transfer function and analogies ............................................................... 24
References .................................................................................................. 27
Unit 1. Control Basics
1.1 Definitions
Input: It is the signal or variable that is introduced into a system to generate a
response. It can be a control signal or an external disturbance.

Output: This is the response of the system after processing the input. In a control
system, the output can be measured and compared to a reference to adjust the
behavior of the system.

Plant: In the context of control, the plant is the physical system that you want to
control, such as a motor, a thermal system or an industrial process.
System: A set of interconnected components that work together to perform a
specific function. It can be mechanical, electrical, chemical, among others.

Control: A technique used to modify the behavior of a system in order to achieve a

desired performance, such as stability or baseline tracking.

Control system: A set of devices that regulate the behavior of a system, whether
open or closed, by manipulating input variables.
Linearization: Mathematical process to approximate a nonlinear system to a linear
model around a specific point of operation, facilitating its analysis and control.

Open loop: A type of control system in which the output is not fed back to the
controller. There is no correction based on the difference between the actual and
desired output.

Closed loop: Control system that uses feedback to adjust the input and minimize the
difference between the actual and desired output.
Linear system: System whose response is directly proportional to the input and
complies with the principles of superposition and homogeneity.

Nonlinear system: A system whose relationship between input and output is not
proportional, which implies more complex behaviors, such as saturations, hysteresis
or instabilities.
Controlled variable: It is the output variable of a system that you want to keep at a
specific value or within a certain range.
Manipulated Variable: It is the input variable that can be adjusted to influence the
controlled variable and achieve the desired behavior.

Hysteresis: A phenomenon in which the response of a system depends not only on

the current state of the input, but also on its history. It is commonly observed in
magnetic materials and in control systems with delays.

1.2 Transfer Function

The transfer function is a mathematical tool used in the analysis and design of
dynamic systems, especially in automatic control and systems engineering. It is
defined as the relationship between the Laplace transform of the output of a system
and the Laplace transform of the input, assuming zero initial conditions.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
𝑌(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑋(𝑠)

Where:

• Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output.

• X(s) is the Laplace transform of the entrance.
• s is Laplace's complex variable.

Transfer Function Properties

1. Linearity: Only applies to linear and time-invariant (LTI) systems.

2. Poles and zeros:
• Poles: Values of s that cause H(s) to tend to infinity. They determine
the stability of the system.
• Zeros: Values of s that make H(s) zero.
3. Stability Analysis: The poles of the transfer function indicate the stability of the
system. If all poles have a negative real part, the system is stable.
4. Frequency Response: By evaluating H(s) at s=jw (pure imaginary axis), the
frequency response of the system is obtained.
5. System Combination: Systems can be combined in series or in parallel by
simply multiplying or adding their transfer functions.

Calculating the Transfer Function

For a system defined by linear differential equations, the transfer function is
obtained by applying the Laplace transform and solving for H(s).
Example for a first-order system:

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝜏 + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Applying the Laplace transform and assuming zero initial conditions:

(𝜏𝑠 + 1)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌(𝑠) 𝐾
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1

where is the time constant and K is the static gain.𝜏

This feature provides key information about the behavior of the system,
including stability, frequency response, and transient characteristics. It can be
expressed in terms of poles and zeros, both of which influence the stability
and performance of the system. In addition, it allows the system's response
to various inputs, such as step, impulse or sine inputs, to be analyzed.
1.3 Block Diagram
Block diagrams are a fundamental tool in the modelling of dynamic and control
systems. They visually represent the relationship between the different parts of a
system using blocks interconnected by arrows that indicate the flow of information.
Each block represents a mathematical operation, such as a gain, integration, or
transfer function, while connections represent the transmission of signals between
elements of the system.

The main purpose of a block diagram is to provide a clear view of how the
components of a system interact without the need to detail complex mathematical
equations at each stage. This makes it easier to analyze the system's behavior,
identify feedback loops, and implement control strategies. In many cases, these
diagrams are simplified using algebraic rules and the block diagram reduction
technique.

In addition to block diagrams, another important representation in system modeling

is the use of bond graphs. These graphs emphasize the transfer of energy within the
system and can be useful in the representation of more complex physical systems,
such as mechanical, electrical, and thermal systems. Unlike block diagrams, bond
graphs focus on energetic interactions rather than signal transformation.
Elements of a block diagram.

In a block diagram for control systems, each element has a crucial function that must
be understood in order to properly analyze the system. The following is a breakdown
of the main components of a block diagram:

• Signals: These are all the arrows that make up the diagram, in this case we
have the X signal (input signal), Y signal (output signal) and E signal (error
signal). It can be seen that each signal only has a single direction and that it
usually begins in one element and ends in another element.
• Blocks: They represent a transfer function of some component within the
control structure, such as a valve, motor, sensor, process, controller, etc. In
this case we have two blocks: the G block and the H block.
• Addition Point: It is represented as a circle (most often with a cross in the
middle) that indicates an addition or subtraction operation. In this case, the X
signal is being subtracted from the output signal produced by the H block.
• Bifurcation: It is a point from which the signal coming from one block can take
different paths in parallel to reach other blocks.

There are three different forms of model equations that are different and require
different operators.
Version 1:

Version 2:

Version 3:
1.4 Types of Entry Signals.
Types of input signals refer to the different mathematical functions or physical signals
that are applied to a system to analyze its dynamic response. These signals allow
the behavior of the system to be evaluated under various conditions. The main types
of entry signals include:

• Step Input: It is a signal that changes instantly from an initial value to another
constant value. It is commonly used to analyze the transient and stable
response of a system.

• Ramp Input: It is a signal whose magnitude increases linearly with time. It is

used to evaluate error in control systems when subjected to constant velocity
input.
• Parabolic input: Represents constant acceleration and is useful for analyzing
system performance in terms of trajectory tracking and stability.

• Sine input: Used in the analysis of the frequency response of a system. It

allows the stability and ability of the system to handle oscillatory
disturbances to be studied.
 • Impulse input: A signal with an extremely high value in a very short time, used
to determine the complete dynamic response of a system.

These types of signals make it possible to study the performance of the system in
terms of stability, accuracy and response time.

Unit 2. Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems

2.1 Electrical and electronic systems
The current is the actual flow of electric charges, while the potential difference is the
force that causes that flow. Potential is a single-value function that can be defined
on the nodes of a network, while current flows through the branches of the network.
The topology of the network, i.e. the interconnection of its elements, together with
the voltage and current restrictions imposed by the elements themselves, determine
its operation and the distribution of voltages and currents throughout the circuit.

Two key concepts in power grids are the loop and the node. A loop in a network is
any path closed through two or more elements. A node, on the other hand, is a point
where two or more elements are interconnected.

The fundamental laws of network theory are:

• Kirchoff's Law of Voltages: In any loop of a network, the sum of all voltages,
taken in the same direction, is zero:
 ∑𝑣𝑘 = 0

• Kirchoff's Law of Currents: In any node of a network, the sum of all incoming
currents is zero:

∑𝑖𝑘 = 0

Elements of a network affect voltages and currents in three ways:

1. Voltage sources: They impose a fixed potential difference between their

terminals.
2. Current sources: They set a constant value of current across a branch.
3. Other elements: They impose a relationship between voltage and current,
either linear or non-linear.

Voltage and current dividers allow you to determine how these parameters are
distributed in a network. For example, in a voltage divider, the voltage drop in a
resistor R2 within a series circuit is calculated as:

𝑅2
𝑣2 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

To solve electrical circuits in a systematic way, the methods of nodes and loops can
be used. In the node method, KCL is applied to each node and the currents are
expressed in terms of the nodal voltages. In the loop method, KVL is used in closed
loops, defining loop currents and expressing branch voltages based on them.

Another important technique in circuit analysis is the principle of superposition, which

states that, in a linear lattice with multiple sources, the total response can be found
by adding up the individual responses of each source, considering the other sources
turned off (voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and current sources by
open circuits).
Thevenin's theorem states that any linear lattice can be represented as a voltage
source Vth in series with a resistor Rth. Similarly, Norton's theorem describes a
lattice with a current source In parallel with a resistor Req, where:

𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼𝑁

Two-port networks are characterized by impedance or admittance arrays. For a

resistive network, the relationship between voltages and currents is expressed as:

𝑣1 𝑅 𝑅12 𝑖1
[𝑣 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
2 𝑅21 𝑅22 𝑖2
Or in terms of admittance:

𝑖 𝐺 𝐺12 𝑣1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
𝑖2 𝐺21 𝐺22 𝑣2
Finally, energy storage elements, such as capacitors and inductors, are studied. Its
differential equations are:

• For a capacitor:

𝑑𝑣𝐶
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
 • For an inducer:

𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

These elements introduce memory into the circuits, which generates transient
responses that can be modeled using differential equations. A classic example is the
R-C circuit, whose transient response when connected to a voltage source follows
the equation:

𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
Circuits with multiple inductors and resistors are also presented, which require more
advanced methods for their analysis, such as the use of second-order differential
equations.
2.2 Mechanical translation and rotation systems
In a translational movement, all the points of a body move in the same direction and
with the same speed. This type of motion is described by Newton's laws and is
characterized by variables such as position x(t), velocity v(t), and acceleration a(t).

Newton's second law for a body in translation states that:

𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑎(𝑡)
Where:

• F(t) is the net force applied to the body at time t.

• m is the mass of the body.
• a(t) is the acceleration of the body at time t.
This equation indicates that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the
net force applied and inversely proportional to its mass.

Rotational motion refers to the rotation of a body around a fixed axis. Unlike
translation, in rotation different points of the body describe circular trajectories with
radii that depend on their position relative to the axis of rotation.
The main variables that describe rotational motion are:

• Angular position 𝜃(𝑡): : an angle that describes the orientation of the body as
a function of time.
• Angular velocity rate of change in angular position, defined as 𝜔(𝑡): 𝜔(𝑡) =
𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔(𝑡)
• Angular acceleration rate of change of angular velocity, 𝛼 (𝑡): 𝛼 (𝑡) = .
𝑑𝑡

The fundamental equation that governs rotational motion is analogous to Newton's

second law and is expressed as:

𝜏(𝑡) = 𝐼 ∙ 𝛼(𝑡)

Where:

• 𝜏(𝑡) It is the torque or moment applied to the body at time t.

• 𝐼 It is the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the axis of rotation.
• 𝛼(𝑡) is the angular acceleration at time t.

The moment of inertia I depends on the mass distribution of the body with respect to
the axis of rotation and is calculated as:
 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚

where:

• r is the distance of a mass element dm to the axis of rotation.

2.3 Hydraulic systems

A hydraulic system is a set of interconnected components that uses an
incompressible fluid, usually oil, to transmit power from a generation source (such
as a pump) to an actuator (such as a hydraulic cylinder or motor), where it is
converted into mechanical work. These types of systems are widely employed in
industrial machinery and mobile equipment due to their ability to handle heavy loads
and provide precise movements.

Working Principle

The operation of a hydraulic system is based on Pascal's Law, which states that the
pressure applied at one point of an incompressible fluid is transmitted uniformly in
all directions within the fluid. This means that a force applied in a small area can be
transformed into a larger force in a larger area, allowing the amplification of the force
in the system.
Main Components

Hydraulic systems consist of several essential components:

• Hydraulic Pump: Generates the flow of fluid necessary for the system,
converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

• Control Valves: They regulate the direction, pressure and flow of the fluid
within the system.

• Hydraulic Actuators: They transform hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.

They can be hydraulic cylinders (linear motion) or hydraulic motors (rotary
motion).

• Reservoir: Stores hydraulic fluid and helps dissipate heat generated in the
system.

• Pipes and Hoses: They channel the fluid between the different components
of the system.
 Common Applications

Hydraulic systems are used in a wide range of applications due to their

versatility and efficiency. Some of the most common include:

• Construction Machinery: Excavators, cranes, and loaders use hydraulic

systems to move booms and other heavy components.

• Industrial Equipment: Hydraulic presses, injection molding machines, and

elevators rely on hydraulic systems to operate.

• Aircraft: Flight control systems and landing gears employ hydraulics to ensure
smooth and precise movements.

• Automobiles: Brake and power steering systems in modern vehicles use

hydraulic principles to improve performance and safety.
2.4 Pneumatic systems
A pneumatic system is a set of components that uses compressed air to transmit
and control energy. These systems are valued for their cleanliness, safety, and ease
of maintenance, making them ideal for a variety of industrial applications.

Main Components of a Pneumatic System

1. Compressor: Generates and supplies compressed air to the system.

2. Reservoir (Storage Tank): Stores compressed air for on-demand use.

3. Control valves: They regulate the flow and direction of compressed air.

4. Actuators: Converts the energy of compressed air into mechanical motion;

They can be cylinders (linear motion) or air motors (rotary motion).

5. Pipes and hoses: They channel compressed air through the system.

6. Filters, Regulators, and Lubricators (FRLs): Condition compressed air to

ensure optimal operation and extend component life.

Working Principle
The operation of a pneumatic system is based on the compression of air and its
subsequent expansion to perform mechanical work. The compressor takes air from
the environment, compresses it and stores it in the reservoir. When power is
required, compressed air is released and directed through valves to the actuators,
which perform the desired movement.

Common Applications
Pneumatic systems are used in a wide range of applications, including:

• Industrial Automation: Operation of robotic arms, assembly systems, and

material handling.

• Transportation: Brake systems in heavy vehicles and automatic doors.

• Packaging: Filling, sealing and labeling machines.

• Medical sector: Dental equipment and respiratory assistance devices.

Advantages of Pneumatic Systems

• Safety: Compressed air is non-flammable, reducing fire hazards.

• Cleaning: Suitable for environments that require high levels of hygiene.

• Simplicity: Relatively simple design and maintenance.

• Speed: Capable of fast and precise movements.

2.5 Transfer function and analogies

The transfer function G(s) of a system is defined as the quotient between the Laplace
transform of the output Y(s) and the Laplace transform of the input U(s), under null
initial conditions:
 𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑈(𝑠)

This representation is valid for linear and time-invariant systems and provides a
complete view of how the system responds to different input frequencies.

Transfer Function Bypass

Consider a system described by a linear differential equation of order n:
𝑑𝑚 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 +∙∙∙ +𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯+
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Applying the Laplace transform to both sides of the equation and assuming null initial
conditions, we get:

𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑌(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎0 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 𝑈(𝑠) +
⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏0 𝑈(𝑠)

Factoring Y(s) and U(s):

𝑌(𝑠)[𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0 ] = 𝑈(𝑠)[𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0 ]

Therefore, the transfer function is:

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0

𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0

Transfer Function Properties

1. Linearity: The transfer function assumes that the system is linear, implying
that the response to a linear combination of inputs is the linear combination
of the individual responses.

2. Invariance over time: The coefficients of the differential equation that

describes the system are constant, meaning that the properties of the system
do not change over time.

3. Null initial conditions: The derivation of the transfer function assumes that all
initial conditions are zero. If there are non-zero initial conditions, they should
be considered separately.

4. Poles and zeros: The values of s that cancel out the denominator of G(s) are
called poles and determine the stability and dynamics of the system. The
 values of s that cancel the numerator are called zeros and affect the frequency
response of the system.
The transfer function is a versatile tool that is applied in various engineering
domains, allowing analogies to be established between systems of different nature:

1. Translational Mechanical Systems: Let's consider a mass-spring-shock

absorber system. The equation of motion is:
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑚 2
+𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying the Laplace transform:
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)

The transfer function is:

𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘
2. Electrical Systems: For a series RLC circuit, the equation that describes the
relationship between the applied voltage V(t) and the current I(t) is:

𝑑2 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)

𝐿 2
+𝑅 + 𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Applying the Laplace transform:
1
(𝐿𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝑠 + ) 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑉(𝑠)
𝐶
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