Routledge Research in Language Education

PEDAGOGIES FOR
AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE
TEACHER EDUCATION
PERSPECTIVES ON PROFESSIONAL LEARNING,
IDENTITY, AND AGENCY
Edited by
Manuel Jiménez Raya, Borja Manzano Vázquez,
and Flávia Vieira
“Why does the nurturing of learner autonomy, essential in an increasingly
unpredictable world, remain so elusive in many contexts? This illuminating
volume offers a convincing way forward through teacher education case
studies demonstrating the links between the theory-practice nexus and
teacher autonomy – an essential element in pedagogy for autonomy.
Inspirational!”
Professor Terry Lamb, University of Westminster, UK

“In this timely addition to Jiménez Raya’s & Vieira’s previous Routledge
(2021) volume, the contributors (all teacher educator-researchers) present
a number of experience-based ideas, linking theory and practice... With a
particularly insightful focus on teacher education in general and reflective
practice specifically, the multi-layered field of language teacher education
for autonomy is amply covered from an internationally-diverse set of
teaching contexts.”
Graeme Porte, Editor, Language Teaching (CUP), Spain
Pedagogies for Autonomy in
Language Teacher Education

This book aims to challenge established teaching cultures to promote teacher

autonomy and autonomy-oriented pedagogies in language teacher education.
Offering a set of inspiring case studies that illustrate language teacher
education for autonomy as a space of multiple possibilities, the book fuses
theory and practice and gives a holistic view of the changing landscape of
language teacher education, accounting for the transformative power of
educational practices that help teachers think and act in informed, context-
specific, and learner-centred ways. It also demonstrates the importance of
autonomy in language teacher education contexts, specifically to foster
teachers’ professional learning, identity, and agency, as well as in assessing
and reshaping teacher education programmes.
This book will be particularly useful to researchers, scholars, and
postgraduate students in the fields of teaching and teacher education,
modern foreign languages, and teaching and learning language research
more broadly. Curriculum designers and language teacher education
programme directors may also find the volume of use.

Manuel Jiménez Raya is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of

Granada, Spain. He works in the fields of learner and teacher autonomy and
language teacher education.

Borja Manzano Vázquez is Lecturer at the Department of English and

German Philology, University of Granada, Spain. He works in the fields of
learner and teacher autonomy in language education and language teacher
education, and bilingual education.

Flávia Vieira is Professor at the University of Minho, Portugal. She works in

the fields of language teacher education, pedagogy for autonomy, and
pedagogy in HE.
Routledge Research in Language Education

The Routledge Research in Language Education series provides a platform

for established and emerging scholars to present their latest research and
discuss key issues in Language Education. This series welcomes books on
all areas of language teaching and learning, including but not limited to
language education policy and politics, multilingualism, literacy, L1, L2 or
foreign language acquisition, curriculum, classroom practice, pedagogy,
teaching materials, and language teacher education and development.
Books in the series are not limited to the discussion of the teaching and
learning of English only.
Books in the series include:
Language Teacher Identity Tensions
Nexus of Agency, Emotion, and Investment
Edited by Zia Tajeddin and Bedrettin Yazan
Building the Self-Efficacy Beliefs of English Language Learners and
Teachers
New Perspectives for Research, Teaching and Learning
Edited by Mark and Farahnaz Faez
Researching Educational Practices, Teacher Education and Professional
Development for Early Language Learning
Examples from Europe
Edited by Sandie Mourão and Carolyn Leslie
Mediation as Negotiation of Meanings, Plurilingualism and Language
Education
Edited by Bessie Dendrinos
Pedagogies for Autonomy in Language Teacher Education:
Perspectives on Professional Learning, Identity, and Agency
Edited by Manuel Jiménez Raya, Borja Manzano Vázquez, and Flávia Vieira
For more information about the series, please visit www.routledge.com/
Routledge-Research-in-Language-Education/book-series/RRLE
Pedagogies for Autonomy
in Language Teacher
Education
Perspectives on Professional
Learning, Identity, and Agency

Edited by Manuel Jiménez Raya,

Borja Manzano Vázquez, and
Flávia Vieira
First published 2024
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Names: Jiménez Raya, Manuel, editor. | Manzano Vázquez, Borja, editor.
|Vieira, Flávia, editor.
Title: Pedagogies for autonomy in language teacher education :
perspectiveson professional learning, identity, and agency / edited by
ManuelJimé nez Raya, Borja Manzano Vá zquez and Flá via Vieira.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. |
Series:Routledge research in language education | Includes
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ISBN9781032532035 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032534435 (paperback) |
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ISBN: 978-1-032-53203-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-53443-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-41202-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003412021
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by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents

List of contributors ix

1 Bridging the gap between theory and practice

in initial teacher education for autonomy 1
MANUEL JIMÉNEZ RAYA, BORJA MANZANO VÁZQUEZ,
AND FLÁVIA VIEIRA

2 Teacher education for autonomy: An analysis of

language teacher education initiatives for learner
and teacher autonomy 12
BORJA MANZANO VÁZQUEZ

3 Identity and autonomy development in learning to teach

EFL: Making sense of cognitive/emotional dissonance 29
JUAN DE DIOS MARTÍNEZ AGUDO

4 Linking principle and practice in initial language

teacher education for learner and teacher autonomy:
The case for student teacher case writing 45
MANUEL JIMÉNEZ RAYA

5 Enhancing autonomy through inquiry in practicum

settings: Insights from a narrative of practice in
primary English teaching 64
FLÁVIA VIEIRA

6 Language teacher education as a two-way autonomy

development process: Student teachers and teacher
educators as learners 80
MARCELLA MENEGALE
viii Contents

7 Developing collaborative teacher autonomy for learning

to teach English to young learners 97
YUNUS EMRE AKBANA AND KENAN DIKILITAŞ

8 Autonomous participation in post-observation

feedback discussions: Post-practicum teacher candidates
as relative old-timers in an ELT methods course 117
MASAKI KOBAYASHI AND EMI KOBAYASHI

9 Becoming a learner again: Implications for autonomy

teacher education 136
MIRA KIM AND BOSHENG JING

10 From university to schools: Insights from novice

language teachers into teacher autonomy 152
AYŞEGÜL OKAY AND CEM BALÇIKANLI

11 Learning to learn foreign languages:

Empowering pre-service EFL teachers 169
LARISSA DANTAS RODRIGUES BORGES AND
WALKYRIA MAGNO E SILVA

12 The use of a self-reflective instrument for pre-service

language teachers in Brazil: Discussions on autonomy,
agency, and the use of digital technologies 185
BRUNA QUARTAROLO VARGAS, CHRISTINE NICOLAIDES,
AND JUNIA BRAGA

13 Language teacher education for autonomy:

Critical issues and possible pathways 204
FLÁVIA VIEIRA, MANUEL JIMÉNEZ RAYA, AND
BORJA MANZANO VÁZQUEZ

Index 211
Contributors

Yunus Emre Akbana currently works as an Assistant Professor of English

language teaching at Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University, Türkiye,
where he teaches at the undergraduate program of education and conducts
research on integrating global issues into the language teaching classroom.
Cem Balçıkanlı works as a Professor of English Language Teaching at
Gazi University, Ankara (Turkey).
Junia Braga is a Professor in the School of Letters at the Federal University
of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Her research interests include computer assisted
language learning (CALL), mobile learning, and teacher agency.
Larissa Dantas Rodrigues Borges, PhD in Linguistics, researches autonomy,
empathy, and wellbeing in language teacher education under the complex
perspective.
Kenan Dikilitaş works as a Professor at the University of Stavanger, Norway,
where he teaches at the graduate program of education and mentors
university teachers for professional development.
Manuel Jiménez Raya is a Full Professor in Applied Linguistics at the
University of Granada (Spain) and his main research interests are learner
and teacher autonomy and teacher education.
Bosheng Jing is a Scientia PhD candidate and a casual academic at the School
of Humanities and Languages, University of New South Wales (Australia).
Mira Kim is an Associate Professor of Translation Studies at the School of
Humanities and Languages, University of New South Wales (Australia).
Emi Kobayashi is an educational linguist whose academic interests include
second language teacher education, dialogic education, and linguistic
ethnography. Emi works at Kyoai Gakuen University (Japan).
Masaki Kobayashi is a Professor in educational linguistics at Kanda
University of International Studies (Japan). His research interests include
second language teacher education, academic discourse socialization in
higher education, and task-based second language research.
x Contributors

Walkyria Magno e Silva, PhD in Language Sciences, researches autonomy,

motivation, and advising in language learning as complex dynamic adaptive
systems.
Borja Manzano Vázquez is a Permanent Lecturer in Applied Linguistics
at the University of Granada (Spain). His research interests are learner
and teacher autonomy in language education, pedagogy for autonomy,
bilingual education, and foreign language teacher education.
Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo is an Associate Professor of TEFL teacher
education at the Faculty of Education and Psychology of the University
of Extremadura (Spain).
Marcella Menegale is a Researcher in Educational Linguistics at the
Department of Linguistics and Comparative Cultural Studies, Ca’Foscari
University of Venice (Italy).
Christine Nicolaides is a PhD Research Collaborator at the Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro and an English Instructor at Osceola High
School, Florida.
Ayşegül Okay works as an English Language Instructor in the School of
Foreign Languages, Yıldız Technical University, İstanbul (Turkey).
Bruna Quartarolo Vargas is an English teacher in the Application School
that belongs to the Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil. Her research
interests include mediated learning experience, sociocultural theory, and
teaching and learning English as a foreign language.
Flávia Vieira is a Professor at the Institute of Education at the University
of Minho in Portugal. Her main research interests are language teacher
education, pedagogy for autonomy in language education, and the
scholarship of teaching and learning in higher education.
1 Bridging the gap between theory
and practice in initial teacher
education for autonomy
Manuel Jiménez Raya, Borja Manzano Vázquez,
and Flávia Vieira

For more than two hundred years, the ideal of the “autonomous individual”
has been associated with the liberal tradition in political theory and with
various moral philosophical frameworks. Certainly, autonomy holds a signifi-
cant place in notions of moral obligation and responsibility, theoretical
accounts of persons, social policies, and many other domains of political
philosophy. In education theory and policy, it also occupies a central place.
This explains why the ideal of the “autonomous citizen” has become the main
goal of education in many countries. From this standpoint, the ultimate
purpose of education is to develop in individuals the capacity to make their
own decisions about what they think and do (Boud, 1988), and develop
the autonomy of thought necessary to generate new, original ideas.
Nevertheless, the pivotal role of this idea in Western societies does not
suggest the lack of discussion, critique, and contention.1 The development of
personal autonomy is a social process, and autonomy can be understood as
a collective interest in service of democracy, which requires a critical stance
towards the “status quo” and collaborative engagement in building commu-
nities that are more just, equitable, and sustainable.
Literally, the term autonomy refers to regulation by the self. Its opposite,
heteronomy, refers to controlled regulation, or regulation that occurs without
self-endorsement. Despite differences in the conceptualisation of the term,
autonomy is integral to such key values as freedom, democracy, rights,
justice, and some versions of equality (Kerr, 2002). The notion of personal
autonomy is manifold and complex. It entails important psychological,
political, social, moral, ideological, and philosophical implications and
dimensions. The classical analysis of the autonomous person maintains that
an individual is autonomous if and only if they are self-governing (Morgan,
1996). From a critical rational perspective of autonomy, the autonomous
individual makes their own choices and subjects them to rational assessment
and criticism. Hence, autonomy denotes the individual’s capacity and
freedom to be psychologically, morally, and socially self-governing. It also
entails the freedom of an individual to make personal choices and mainly
the capacity to deal responsibly with that freedom of choice. The character
traits associated with the notion of autonomy usually encompass agency,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003412021-1
2 Manuel Jiménez Raya et al.

self-esteem, self-awareness, self-acceptance, self-responsibility, self-determination,

and social responsibility.
The promotion of learner autonomy requires the development of teacher
autonomy. Both involve critical thinking, self-determination, and social
responsibility. However, the notion of teacher autonomy is a very controver-
sial issue in education. Ironically, the development of autonomy is regarded
as the “central pillar of democracy” (Aviram, 1993, p. 420) and as the
main goal of education. To our understanding, the acceptance of autonomy
as an ideal involves the acceptance of the importance of self-rule in life.
However, in education, the theory and practice of autonomy have often
remained worlds apart. We strongly advocate the central relevance of
teacher autonomy as a personal construct, involving responsible self-
determination, choice, authenticity, rational reflection, and ability to face
and surpass constraints. Nevertheless, teacher autonomy is a competence for
which one must be educated and formed. Finally, among the many reasons for
autonomy, we would like to highlight the need to feel in control of what we
are and do as well as voice. Lack of responsible freedom and voice acts as a
significant obstacle to the professional freedom of teachers, as evidenced by
various experts in the field of education. In the realm of teaching, profession-
alism demands suitable practice and autonomy to find solutions to the
complex ethical and learning problems that arise during teaching instead of
conformity and standardisation. The exercise of professional autonomy fosters
a sense of ownership and empowerment, motivating professionals to pursue
greater responsibilities, namely the promotion of learner autonomy by
challenging and transforming practices based on transmission, obedience to
authority, and reproduction. In educational contexts, students vary consider-
ably in their engagement and interest for schoolwork and in the extent to
which they continue to demonstrate lifelong interest in learning and
education. Autonomy supportive contexts encourage engagement, motiva-
tion, and the outcomes associated with them. Moreover, such environments
foster not only the students’ academic competences but also their learning and
citizenship competences.
The focus of this volume is the integration of theory and practice in initial
language teacher education (TE) for learner and teacher autonomy, the
reason being that it is one of the greatest, most prevailing challenges that
TE has faced. Over the last three decades, the scholarship of TE has
produced relevant insights regarding the conceptualisation and integration
of theory and practice in TE programmes (Cochran-Smith, 2001;
Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Loughran, 2003; Loughran et al., 2016;
Smagorinsky et al., 2003). Nevertheless, these programmes are repeatedly
criticised for being over-theoretical and because there are suspicions about
the quality of the teachers that have completed them (Korthagen, 2010).
According to Hennissen et al. (2017), pre-service teachers apply theory only
to a limited degree in their teaching, which means that part of their learning
becomes apparently useless.
 Bridging the gap between theory and practice 3

Several authors have criticised the division between theory and practice,
referring to it as problematic because of the implication that they are separate
entities. In our view, theory may not inherently represent something
fundamentally distinct from practice. All in all, student teachers are expected
to develop theoretical and reflective abilities as well as practical skills and
knowledge.
Teaching theory is conceptual knowledge, which is universal, explicit, and
formal in nature (Heikkinen et al., 2011). Practical knowledge, however,
relates to what individuals actually do in a specific context and time, and
contributes to the formation of their professional identities. The relationship
between these two types of knowledge has been addressed from an
Aristotelian perspective, which distinguished between epistêmê (theoretical
knowledge or scientific knowledge), technê (practice/craft), and phronêsis
(practical knowledge/wisdom). Aristotle refers to technê as itself epistêmê
or knowledge too, because it is a practice that involves theoretical under-
standing. The two virtues of thought that deal with what is contingent are
technê and phronêsis. Practical knowledge is knowledge that is situated,
context-related, and embodied and encompasses the use of practical wisdom
to make ethical judgements in life and to acquire a strong moral character
and habits, underlining the way action requires the two elements of the
soul. In turn, practical thought controls productive action. Wisdom seems
to be acquired from the process of pedagogical thinking and reasoning
(Ellett, 2012). The idea is that it involves a cognitive process of reflecting
on practice in the process of doing. It employs a praxeological mode of
reasoning. Practices are characterised by “practical reasoning”, known as
phronesis:

using knowledge in the face of uncertainty, understanding that action

is always a kind of exploration of what might possibly be done, and
understanding that the historical consequences of practice in a particular
case will only become apparent in the future – and then only if people
reflect critically on what was done in particular cases of practice. (Kemmis,
2009, p. 23)

Practical reasoning is not the stuff of theoretical science, but the persistent,
educated ability to make wise, ethical choices in particular contexts. To do so,
an interaction between principle (the general) and the concrete becomes
necessary. In this sense,

(…) practical reasoning is deliberative, it takes into account local circum-

stances, it weighs tradeoffs, it is riddled with uncertainties, it depends
upon judgement, profits from wisdom, addresses particulars, it deals with
contingencies, is iterative and shifts aims in process when necessary.
Practical reasoning is the stuff of practical life. (Eisner, 2002, p. 375)
4 Manuel Jiménez Raya et al.

Research on TE has identified a number of problems responsible for the

lack of integration of theory and practice, highlighting the difficulty in
bridging the gap between the two, which poses serious challenges for TE.
In the field of education, the “apprenticeship of observation” problem,
coined by Lortie (1975), refers to the concept that prospective teachers,
previous to their formal training, have already been exposed to numerous
years of observing teachers in a classroom setting as students themselves.
This experience often shapes their understanding of teaching and learning,
beliefs, and attitudes, potentially leading to a rigid adherence to the methods
and practices they observed during their own learning experiences. This
poses a challenge for TE programmes, as these preconceived notions are
deeply ingrained and difficult to change. Furthermore, these preconceptions
rarely match the theories of TE. This can lead to a tendency to replicate the
teaching methods they have observed, regardless of whether these methods
are considered effective or not. The challenge for (modern language) TE
programmes lies, therefore, in recognising and addressing these deeply
ingrained preconceptions, encouraging prospective teachers to critically
examine and reflect on their beliefs and practices in light of current
educational research and best practices.
From a cognitive psychological standpoint, if theoretical knowledge is
conveyed without a direct link to practical teaching, it can lead to the
compartmentalisation of information in memory, causing the theories
learned during academic study to become challenging to apply in practical
teaching situations. This can explain why student teachers and teachers may
have trouble perceiving the relevance of theory. If theoretical knowledge is
taught without a direct connection to practical teaching, it implies that the
theoretical concepts are stored in the mind separately from the practical
teaching experiences, creating a mental gap between theory and practice.
As a result, when teachers try to apply this conceptual knowledge in real
teaching situations, the lack of integration can make it challenging to
effectively apply the learned theories. Hence, TE should aim to bridge the
gap between theory and practice, encouraging learners to integrate theoret-
ical knowledge with practical experiences to foster a deeper and more
meaningful understanding of the subject matter, which in the context of TE
represents a challenge.
Viewed through a sociological lens, the education of pre-service teachers is
significantly shaped by socialisation methods designed to familiarise them with
current school practices. However, the scope of the school environment
might be either too confined or overly broad (Anderson et al., 1996), or even
in clear contradiction with research insights into learning and teaching,
possibly failing to align with the requisites for addressing the theory-
practice gap successfully. Moreover, in actual teaching contexts, theoretical
or conceptual knowledge, as its nature suggests, does not readily apply
when quick, precise solutions are required within tight time constraints
(Mattsson et al., 2011). Often, specific teaching problems are too intricate,
 Bridging the gap between theory and practice 5

with numerous details and exceptions, making the application of a fixed set of
rules impractical (Kessels & Korthagen, 1996).
Another issue of concern is the tendency by teacher educators to
primarily emphasise rational or cognitive information processing. This
approach has a limited influence on the existing notions of pre-service
teachers, as practical experiences often give rise to a multitude of emotions,
concerns, anxieties, and contradictions (Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001). Pre-
service teachers also encounter difficulties in applying acquired knowledge
due to their limited firsthand experiences. This issue, known as a “feed-
forward problem”, arises from a lack of personal engagement and experience
of specific teaching/learning problems. For TE it involves equipping
teachers with the necessary skills, knowledge, and strategies to anticipate
and proactively address future educational challenges, rather than solely
focusing on current or past instructional practices. This problem under-
scores the need for TE programmes to incorporate forward-thinking
pedagogical approaches, technological advancements, and emerging educa-
tional theories to ensure that teachers are adequately prepared to meet the
dynamic needs of students and society. Research conducted by Emsheimer
and Ljunggren de Silva (2011) further suggests that the limited experiences
of pre-service teachers might impede the cultivation of accurate theoretical
understanding. As a result, these teachers contribute minimally to the
development of educational theories.
In addition, TE programmes are often perceived by the (student)
teachers in training as either overly theoretical and with little practical
relevance or as too progressive and unrealistic when compared to conven-
tional school practices. This often results in complaints that those pro-
grammes are detached from reality, which may lead them to dismiss previous
learning, comply with established school cultures, and reinforce the belief
that professional learning only takes place on the job. This challenge is
further enhanced when the goal is the promotion of pedagogical practices
that are alien to (student) teachers because they did not experience them
as learners. This is often the case of pedagogy for autonomy and learner-
centred pedagogies in modern language education in general. Since the
actual implementation of learner-centred, autonomy-oriented pedagogies is
still marginal in many formal (modern language) education settings despite
their growing centrality in theoretical and policy discourses, their promotion
is largely dependent on whether TE practices succeed in their efforts to
enhance the theory-practice nexus.
As teacher educators, we are fully aware that TE can hardly provide
teachers with clear rules for navigating through the teaching terrain, or
expect that they just need to apply theory to practice. Teaching is a highly
complex, context-dependent activity, and although teachers’ decisions and
actions can and should be inspired by theory, they are not determined by it.
What TE can do is to help (student) teachers develop the ability to think
critically about the complexity of teaching contexts and the factors that
6 Manuel Jiménez Raya et al.

might hinder or facilitate learner-centeredness, and provide opportunities

and support for the development and analysis of autonomy-oriented
experiences illuminated by sound theoretical assumptions and principles.
TE is mostly about helping teachers think and act in informed, critical,
purposeful, context-sensitive, and innovative ways. We can say that in TE
theory and practice are inseparable, hence TE programmes must aim at
providing opportunities to integrate the two.
Numerous pronouncements calling for data-based accounts of the impact
of specific TE strategies for enhancing our understanding on the contribution
of theory and practice have been made. In this volume, we present cases of
how different initial TE programmes/courses tackle the challenges presented
above. So, we present chapters written by renowned teacher educators
working in different contexts that illustrate the integration of theory and
practice in fostering autonomy in language education.

Overview of the book

The book portrays a naturalistic approach to pedagogical research in language
TE for autonomy and highlights the role of teacher educators in reshaping
and advancing their profession. A range of qualitative methods are used to
collect evidence on teacher development processes and outcomes, such as case
analysis, questionnaires, self-reflective records, interviews, observation, narra-
tive inquiry, and discourse analysis. The procedures and findings of naturalistic
inquiry are context-bound and not amenable to generalisation, yet their
ecological validity enhances their trustworthiness and they are expected to
resonate and inspire change in similar contexts.
Following different parameters (e.g., objectives, conceptual framework,
teacher development strategies and tools, outcomes, and constraints), Borja
Manzano Vázquez (Chapter 2) reviews empirical studies published from 2016
to 2022 reporting on language TE initiatives directed at encouraging teacher
and learner autonomy in different contexts. As observed in a previous review
(Manzano Vázquez, 2018), the analysis of these initiatives underlines that
pedagogical inquiry, experiential learning, and reflection are crucial for
enhancing initial and in-service teacher development towards autonomy. It
also emphasises that achieving this goal requires teacher educators to adopt
roles which are in line with the role of the teacher in autonomy-supporting
contexts (e.g., facilitator and mediator). The chapter concludes by drawing
relevant conclusions for future work on language TE for autonomy.
Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo (Chapter 3) focuses on the practicum of an
initial TE programme in Spain. The study addresses the lack of attention paid
to the relationship between teacher autonomy and teacher identity in the
language TE literature by examining whether EFL teacher candidates’
emerging professional identity and autonomy development may be shaped
by cognitive/emotional dissonance during their learning-to-teach experience
in a practicum context. Based on a narrative qualitative research design, the
 Bridging the gap between theory and practice 7

study provides evidence that there is a cognitive/emotional dissonance in

learning to teach due to the self-perceived mismatch between expectations
and classroom reality, which influences student teachers’ development of their
professional identity and autonomy. Drawing on the findings reported, the
author discusses different ways in which TE can support pre-service teachers
in effectively managing cognitive/emotional dissonance to enhance their
professional learning and growth.
Manuel Jiménez Raya (Chapter 4) reports on an initial TE course also
developed in Spain. He examines the role of case pedagogy in bridging the
gap between theory and practice and its contribution to language TE for
autonomy. He uses the framework for teacher and learner autonomy by
Jiménez Raya et al. (2017) to analyse whether the cases developed by student
teachers show evidence of teacher autonomy and of the implementation of
principles of pedagogy for autonomy. The analysis of the cases provides
evidence of how case writing does encourage teacher candidates to think and
act like a teacher in their school placement as it promotes active teaching,
assessment, observation, and reflection on practice as well as the application of
knowledge to practice and the generation of practical knowledge. He
concludes that case pedagogy plays an important role in expanding and
deepening pre-service language teachers’ knowledge of teaching, encouraging
them to analyse the context, frame teaching problems, and identify the
benefits and drawbacks of various alternatives. Finally, he argues that the
contribution of case construction as a TE strategy resides in its emphasis on
inquiry-based, pedagogical experimentation, and narrative writing by those in
training.
The role of pedagogical inquiry in an initial TE course in Portugal is the
major focus of Flávia Vieira (Chapter 5). Student teachers are engaged in
developing small-scale action research projects aimed at enhancing their
ability to articulate theory and practice, explore learner-centred pedagogies,
and build critical professional knowledge. The interpretative analysis of a
student teacher’s practicum report suggests that action research contributed
to promoting her ability to undertake learner-centred innovation within a
transformative vision of education. The author, however, underlines the
complexity of inquiry-based TE and the need to understand it as an interspace
between reality and ideals due to the potential constraints to autonomy in
school contexts.
Higher education has faced substantial challenges due to the COVID-19
pandemic, which forced many courses traditionally conducted in face-to-face
settings to be moved online. This was the case of an initial TE course in Italy
described by Marcella Menegale (Chapter 6). Despite the limitations
encountered, the shift to a new approach to teaching and learning provided
the opportunity to support the development of autonomy as a two-way
process involving the student teachers and the course lecturer. The findings
reveal that the course contributed to developing the student teachers’ ability
to reflect on teaching methodology and to enhancing the lecturer’s teaching
8 Manuel Jiménez Raya et al.

practice and professional development, even though some shortcomings were

observed regarding the promotion of the student teachers’ self-understanding
and professional identity as future teachers.
Yunus Emre Akbana and Kenan Dikilitaş (Chapter 7) report on a study
conducted in Turkey into the experiences of six pre-service teachers in a peer-
supported community as they engaged in micro-teaching by designing and
delivering an adaptive lesson plan. The pre-service teachers exchanged feed-
back through stimulated recall, reflected on their teaching in an iterative
manner, and incorporated feedback from educators. The results are discussed
in relation to themes focused on autonomy and common ELT principles:
promoting willingness and self-confidence, maximising learning opportuni-
ties, developing alternative strategies by literacy preparation, developing
willingness to communicate, fostering active participation, and fostering a
positive environment. They reveal that the participants gained autonomy,
demonstrating an increased preference for assuming responsibility for plan-
ning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning-to-teach process. The
authors offer insights into TE courses on how to create interactional spaces
which encourage the development of teacher autonomy.
Masaki Kobayashi and Emi Kobayashi (Chapter 8) focus on post-
observation feedback discussion as a tool for promoting professional appren-
ticeship within a methods course in Japan. Drawing on sociocultural theory,
the authors examine the affordances of intergenerational interactions among
currently enroled trainees, course completers, and graduates already working
as teachers. More specifically, they analyse the agency of two post-practicum
auditors, focusing on their investments in autonomous participation and
their contributions to the currently enroled trainees’ reflection. By means of
a microanalysis of the post-observation feedback interactions developed,
the chapter illustrates how the auditors exercised their initiative in a variety
of ways to encourage their less experienced counterparts’ reflection, which
mirrored the type of tutor-trainee interaction promoted in the course. The
findings also reveal that the auditors’ autonomous participation was an
investment in their emerging professional identities as teachers and apprentice
trainee leaders.
The chapter by Mira Kim and Bosheng Jing (Chapter 9) revolves around a
course titled “Personalised English Language Enhancement”, which has been
developed by one of the authors (Mira Kim). In the course, students can
enhance their English language skills and overcome language-related chal-
lenges by means of a Personalised Autonomous model. This model aims to
promote learner autonomy by guiding students to design a personal project
to identify and address their linguistic needs and to evaluate their own
progress. The chapter begins with a brief account of the development and
application of the Personalised Autonomous model in the course, followed by
a showcase of one of the authors’ reflective practice. The chapter describes
Kim’s experience in carrying out different personal projects working with
students and integrating theory and research into the course. It also explores
 Bridging the gap between theory and practice 9

its impact on students and concludes by discussing some implications for

TE in the field of learner autonomy.
Ayşegül Okay and Cem Balçikanli (Chapter 10) underline the increasing
need for language TE programmes to promote student teachers’ autonomy
and prepare them for the potential challenges they may face in their
classrooms. The authors report on a mixed-method study into a TE
programme in Turkey to explore how it enhances novice teachers’ compe-
tences for autonomous language teaching. Its major aim is to examine how
language teacher autonomy is put into practice, uncovering potential
discrepancies between the programme and the actual realisation of language
teacher autonomy. The authors then discuss the implications for practice,
research, and theory in relation to the gap between theory and practice
concerning language teacher autonomy. They also advocate the need to fully
explore language teacher autonomy and describe the opportunities offered by
the programme to encourage language teacher autonomy in informal settings.
The chapter by Larissa Dantas Rodrigues Borges and Walkyria Magno e
Silva (Chapter 11) is centred on a course titled “Learning to Learn Foreign
Languages” which has been taught in a Brazilian public university since 2010.
The course covers different topics, including autonomy which is introduced
to pre-service teachers by means of the Complex Dynamic Model of
Autonomy Development (Borges, 2019). This model is proposed as a tool
for reflection, self-awareness, and self-regulation of one’s own autonomization
process in language TE. The chapter discusses the model and the conceptua-
lisation of the course in the present day. It also presents some outcomes which
illustrate how the students develop their own autonomy during the course,
building a mental vision of their future teaching self and planning their future
career to fulfil their vision.
Bruna Quartarolo Vargas, Christine Nicolaides, and Junia Braga (Chapter
12) examine the relationship among autonomy, agency, and digital tech-
nology. More specifically, they report on a study aimed at analysing a group of
pre-service Brazilian teachers’ views on the concept of autonomy regarding
teaching practices and their views on digital technology in these teaching
practices, as well as discussing the role of autonomy and digital technology
in promoting agency towards empowerment and social transformation. The
study was conducted through a self-reflective instrument described in the
chapter. The findings reported by the authors emphasise the crucial role of
reflection in TE for autonomy as it can help student teachers reconsider
their conception of autonomy and gain awareness of the potential of specific
resources (e.g., digital technology) to create learning opportunities and
encourage social transformation.
Overall, the contributions included in the present volume illustrate the
variety of foci, strategies, and research approaches in language TE for
autonomy, which portrays the field as a multifaceted landscape. In the final
chapter, we highlight critical issues emerging from the cases and possible
pathways for future developments. We would add that more research is clearly
10 Manuel Jiménez Raya et al.

needed on the effectiveness of different TE strategies aiming at bridging the

gap between theory and practice, along with follow-up studies to understand
their impact on teachers’ careers.

Note
1 The criticisms against the idea of personal autonomy come basically from
communitarianism and feminism (see MacKenzie & Stoljar, 2000; Sandel, 1982;
Taylor, 1991).

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