Module -1 MECHANISMS

2.1 Introduction

• We know that, when two links or elements have surface contact while in motion, then the pair formed
is called as lower pair.

• In this chapter, the basic mechanisms are introduced. Inversions of mechanisms and some more
mechanisms with lower pair category will be discussed later.

• Usually, lower pairs comprise turning and sliding pairs.

• Mechanisms with pivoted links are widely used in machines, hence the required movements of the
links are produced by using them in different forms and methods.

• The mechanism which we are going to be discussed in this chapter are as follows

i) Inversions of mechanisms ii) Straight line motion mechanisms iii) Intermittent motion mechanisms iv)
Pantograph v) Steering gear mechanism

2.2 Inversion of Mechanism [ VTU Dec. 2013, June 2015, Dec. 2015]

• As discussed in previous chapter, when one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, then the chain is
called as mechanism.

• So, we can obtain as many mechanisms as the number of links in a kinematic chain by fixing different
links of a kinematic chain.

• This method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing various links in a kinematic chain is called as
inversion of mechanism.

• The mechanisms obtained by this method may be different in appearance and the purpose for which
they are used.

• Except original mechanism, all other mechanisms are termed as inversions of an original mechanism.

• From practical point of view, a kinematic chain with four lower pairs is very important.

• These four lower pairs may be sliding, turning or combination of both.

• It is found that, number of complicated machines is based on combinations of various inversions of

these simple chains.

• The classification of various possible mechanisms of kinematic chains with four lower pairs is as
follows :

 Four bar chain or quadric chain (consists of four turning pairs)

 Single slider crank chain (consists of three turning and one sliding pairs)
 Double slider crank chain (consists of two turning and two sliding pairs)

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2.2.1 Types of Inversions

2.2.2 Inversion of Four Bar Chain

• Four bar chain is the simplest and basic kinematic chain.

• It consists of four links which forms four turning pairs at A, B, C and D. Refer Fig. 2.1.

• The length of four links may be different.

• In a four bar chain, the shortest link will make a complete revolution relative to the other three links.
This link is called as driver or crank (link AB).

Fig. 2.1 : Four bar chain

• The link which makes a partial rotation or oscillates is called as lever or rocker (Link CD).

• The link which connects the crank and lever is called as coupler (Link BC).

• The fixed link of the mechanism is called as frame (link AD).

• Inversions of four bar chain arc as follows

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First Inversion: Beam engine (Crank and lever mechanisms)

• Beam engine is the popular example of crank and lever mechanism, which consists of our links as
shown in Fig. 2.2.

• In this mechanism, when the crank (link 2) rotates about a fixed centre 0, the lever (link 4) oscillates
about a fixed centre D.

• Due to the rotation of the crank, the end E of lever CDE connected to the piston rod, reciprocates in
the cylinder.

• This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

Fig. 2.2 Beam engine

Second Inversion : Coupling wheels of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism)

Coupled wheels of a locomotive is an example of double crank mechanism; which consists of four Link 2
links as shown in Fig. 2.3.

• In this mechanism, links AB and CD are of equal lengths, and act as cranks which are connected to the
respective wheels.

• The link BC acts as a coupler and link AD is fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to centre
distance between them.

• This mechanism is used to transmit rotary motion from one wheel to the another wheel.

Wheels Fig. 2.3 Coupled wheels of a locomotive

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Third Inversion : Watt's indicator (Double lever mechanism)

• Watt's indicator mechanism is also called as Watt's straight line mechanism which consists of four links
as shown in Fig. 2.4.

• The four links in the mechanism are as follows :

I. Fixed link at A 2. Link ABC 3. Lever CDE 4. lever BFD (BF and FD forms one link because these two
members do not have relative mono!' between them)

Fig. 2.4 : Watt's indicator mechanism

• The point F is connected to the piston whose displacement is directly proportional to the gas or steam
pressure in the cylinder.

• On any small displacement of point F, the point E at the end of the link CDE traces approximately a
straight line.

2.2.3 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain [ VTU : June 2014, June 2016, Dec. 2015]

• Single slider crank chain is a modification of the four bar chain.

• It consists of three turning pairs and one sliding pair.

• This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. For example, reciprocating
engine mechanism. (Refer Fig. 1.2).

• Inversions of single slider crank chain are as follows

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First Inversion : Reciprocating engine mechanism

• Reciprocating engine mechanism is the simplest type of single slider crank chain. Refer Fig. 2.5.

• It consists of three turning pairs and one sliding pair.

• The four links in a mechanism are as follows :

I. Frame and cylinder of the engine (Fixed link) 2. Crank 3. Connecting rod 4. Slider or piston.

Fig. 2.5 Reciprocating engine mechanism

• As the crank rotates, the slider reciprocates in the cylinder and hence converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion.

Second Inversion :

(i) Oscillating cylinder engine

• Oscillating cylinder engine is an example of second inversion of single slider crank chain, which consists
of four links as shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 : Oscillating cylinder engine

Oscillating cylinder engine is used to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

• In this mechanism, link 3 i.e. connecting rod forming turning pair is fixed.

• When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and then the
cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at point A.

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(ii) Crank and slotted lever mechanism

• The crank and slotted link mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.7 : Crank and slotted link mechanism

• The crank AB rotates about the fixed centre A, the end B having the form of a sliding block which fits
the slot in link CD.

• As B rotates about A, it slides up and down in link CD, and causes this to oscillate about the centre C
(pivot point of slotted link) so that as CD oscillates, the ram is operated backwards and forwards.

• The quick return feature is derived from the configuration of the mechanism.

• When the link in position CD1 is tangential to the pitch circle of B, the ram will be at extreme backward
position of its stroke and when it is at D2, the extreme forward position of the stroke will be reached.

• The time taken by cutting and idle stroke of the ram is proportional to the angles B 2 K B1 and B2 L B1
respectively.

• The ratio between cutting time and idle time may be determined by using following formula :

• Cutting time to return time ratio usually varies between 2:1 and practical limit is 3:2.

• The cutting speed and return speed is not constant through out the stroke. It is minimum when rocker
arm is at the two extremities and speed is maximum when the rocker arm is vertical.

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Third inversion (I) Rotary engine or Gnome engine .

Rotary engine is an example of third inversion of single slider crank chain which consists of four links as
shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 : Rotary or Gnome engine

• It is a rotary cylinder, V-type I.C. engine which consists of five, six or seven cylinders in one plane and
all revolve about a fixed centre A.

• In this mechanism, link 1 is cylinder (revolve), link 2 is crank (fixed), link 3 is connecting rod (oscillate)
and link 4 is piston (reciprocate).

• In old days, rotary engine was used in aviation but, now a days these engines have been replaced by
gas turbines.

(ii) Whitworth quick return mechanism

• The whitworth quick return mechanism is used in shaper machine which is shown in Fig. 2.9.

• In this mechanism driving crank 3 rotates in clockwise direction with uniform angular speed.

• The slider C which is attached at the end of driving link also reciprocates in slotted link 1 and causes it
to oscillate about pivot point B.

• The link 5 is attached at the end of slotted link 1 which carries the ram and tool

• When the driving crank moves from position ac" to ac' through an angle '' in clockwise direction then
the tool moves from f' to f ".

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 Fig. 2.9 Whitworth quick return mechanism

• Thus the angle turned by driving crank i.e. 0 will be for cutting stroke and or (3600 - ) will be for
return stroke.

Since driving link 3 rotates at uniform angular speed, the ratio of cutting stroke to return stroke
time will be given by,

• As  is always greater than 180°, therefore the ratio / (360°-) is always greater than 1. Hence time
required for cutting stroke is greater than return stroke.

• Thus, for return stroke no cutting operation is done in shaper machine. So it is quicker than cutting
stroke. Hence this mechanism is called as quick return mechanism.

Fourth Inversion: Hand pump

• Hand pump is an example of fourth inversion of single slider crank chain which consists of four links as
shown in Fig. 2.10.

• This inversion is obtained by keeping the slider as fixed.

• In this mechanism, link 1 reciprocate vertically in a cylinder i.e. link 4, at that time link 2 and link 3
oscillates about the respective pin joints.

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 Fig. 2.10: Hand-pump

2.2.4 Inversion of Double Slider Crank Chain VTU : June 2013, Dec. 2013, June 2014, Dec. 2014, June
2016, June 2015, Dec. 2015 ]

• Double slider crank chain is a kinematic chain which consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs.
• Inversions of double slider crank chain are as follows

First inversion : Elliptical trammel

• Elliptical trammel is an example of first inversion of double slider crank chain which consists of four
links as shown in Fig. 2.11.

• Elliptical trammel is an instrument used for drawing ellipses.

• This inversion is obtained by fixing the link 4 (slotted frame) which has two straight grooves cut in it, at
right angles to each other.

• Link 1 and link 3 are sliders which form sliding pairs with link 4; corresponding link 2 is bar AB which
form turning pairs with link 1 and 3.

• Any point such as P on the extension of link AB will trace the path of an ellipse, when the sliders A and
B slide along their respective slots.

• Let, (x, y) be the co-ordinates of point P and AP and BP are the semi-mayor and semi-minor axis of an-
ellipse respectively.

• If AP makes an angle  with the x-axis then,

x =AP cos 

cos =x/AP

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 Fig. 2.11 Elliptical trammel

Second Inversion : Scotch yoke mechanism

• This is an example of second inversion of double slider crank chain which consists of four links as
shown in Fig. 2.12.

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 Fig. 2.12: Scotch yoke mechanism

• This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

• This inversion is obtained by fixing either link 1 or link 3. In Fig. 2.12 link 1 is fixed.

• When the crank (link 2) rotates about point 0, then the frame (link 4 i.e. piston of large cylinder)
reciprocates and fixed link 1 guides the frame.

Third inversion :Oldham's coupling

• Oldham's coupling is an example of third inversion of double slider crank chain which consists of four
links as shown in Fig. 2.13

Fig. 2.13 : Oldham's coupling

• Oldham's coupling is used to connect two parallel shafts whose axes are at a small distance apart.

• Both the shafts are coupled in such a way that, if one shaft rotates then the other shaft also rotate
with the same speed.

• This type of inversion is obtained by fixing link 2

Mechanisms

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• The shafts to be connected consists of two flanges (link 1 and link3) rigidly fastened at their ends by
forging.

• These flanges have diametrical slots cut in their inner faces.

• The intermediate piece C i.e. link 4 is a circular disc, which have two tongues (diametrical projections)
X and Y on each face at right angles to each other.

• The link 4 can slide in the slots of the flanges.

• When the driving shaft A is rotated, the flange C causes the intermediate piece to rotate at the same
speed through which the flange has rotated.

• An intermediate piece will transmit the same motion to flange D and hence shaft B will also rotate
with the same speed.

• It means links 1, 3 and 4 will have the same angular velocity at every instant.

• If the centre distance between the axes of the shafts is constant, then the centre of intermediate piece
will trace a circle.

• The radius of a circle is equal to the centre distance between the axes of the shafts.

• Peripheral velocity of the centre of the disc along its circular path is given by,

VS = r.

Vs = Maximum sliding or peripheral velocity of the disc in m/sec

r = Distance between the axes of the two shafts in m

= Angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec.

2.3 Pantograph (VTU : June 2014, June 2016 ]

• Pantograph is a mechanism or kinematic arrangement used to reproduce drawings to different scale.

• This mechanism is generally used in copying devices like engraving or profile machines.

• Pantograph is made up of bars connected by turning pairs.

• It consists of four links Ali, BC, CD and DA which form a parallelogram. Refer Fig. 2.14.

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 Fig. 2.14 : Pantograph

• Link AB = Link CD and both are parallel; similarly Link BC = Link AD and both are parallel.

• Now extend any two adjacent links, let CB to O and CD to M in such a way that, both the points lie in a
straight line through point A. Hence points OAM lie in a straight line.

• Mark point O or M as the fixed pivot point. Here, point O is made as pivot point.

• It is important to note that, for all relative positions of the links OBA and OCM are similar and
hence points OAM lie on a straight line.

• It may be proved that, point M traces the same path as described by point A. From similar triangles
OBA and OCM,

• In Fig. 2.14, OB'C'A'D'M' shows another position of the mechanism.

• If point O is fixed and points A and M move to some new position A' and M' then,

• From Fig. 2.14 it is clear that, AA' is parallel to MM', hence if point O is fixed by means of turning pair
and A is attached to a point in the machine which has rectilinear motion (straight line), then point M will
also trace a straight line path

• If point M is constrained to move in a straight line, then point A will trace straight line which is parallel
to MM'

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Applications of pantograph

• It is most widely used fin the reproduction of plane areas and geometrical figures like maps, plans,
drawings, etc. on enlarged or reduced scale.

• It is used as an indicator rig to reproduce the displacement of the cross-head and hence the piston of a
reciprocating steam engine.

• Pantograph is also used to guide the cutting tools.

Drag Link Mechanism

This is a four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If the crank AB rotates
at uniform speed, the crank CD will rotate at non uniform speed. This rotation of link CD is transformed
to quick return reciprocatory motion of the ram E by the link CE as shown in Fig. below. When the crank
AB rotate through an angle a in ccw direction during working stroke, the link CD rotates through 180°.
When the crank AB continues to rotate through the angle during return stroke. the crank CD rotates
through another 180°.

We can observe that α>. Hence time of working stroke is α / times more or the return stroke is α /.
times quicker.

Shortest link is always the stationary link. Sum of the length of shortest and the longest links of the four
links 1, 2. 3 and 4 should be less than the sum of the other two links length. It is the necessary condition
for drag link quick return mechanism.

 Straight Line Motion Mechanisms

The easiest method to generate a straight line motion is by using a sliding pair but in precision machines
sliding pairs are not preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in such cases different methods are used
to generate straight line motion. The mechanism used for this purpose are called straight line motion
mechanisms.

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1. Exact Straight Line motion mechanism
Ex : Peaucellier mechanism.
Hart mechanism.
Scott-Russell mechanism.
2. Approximate straight line motion mechanism
Ex Watt mechanism Grasshopper mechanism
Robert's mechanism
Tchebicheffs mechanism.

 Condition for Exact straight line motion mechanism

The principle adopted for a mathematically correct or exact straight line motion is shown in Fig. 2.2.
Let A be a point on the circumference of circle of diameter AB. Let AC' be any chord and Q is a Point on
AC produced, such that the product AC'. AQ is constant. Then the path of Q will he a straight line
perpendicular to the diameter AB. This may be proved as follows
Draw QP perpendicular to OB produced.
Join CB. The triangles ACB and APQ are similar.

AB is constant as it is the diameter of the circle. Therefore if the product AC. AQ is constant, then AP will
also be constant. Hence the point Q moves along the straight path QP which is perpendicular A to AP.
Several mechanisms have been devised to connect A, C and Q in such a way as to satisfy the above
condition. One among them is Peaucellier mechanism.

 Peaucellier mechanism.
The pin Q is constrained to move along the circumference of a circle by means of the link OQ. The link
OQ and the fixed link OA are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite corners of a four-bar
chain which has all four links QC. CP, PB and BQ of equal length. The pins B and C are connected by links
of equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e.. link AB = link AC. The product AQ.AP remains constant as the link
OQ rotates may be proved as follows

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Since AB and BP are links of constant length, the product AQ.AP is constant. Therefore the point P traces
out a straight path normal to AR.

Robert's Mechanism
This is also a four-bar chain. The links PQ and RS are of equal length and the tracing point 'O' is rigidly
attached to the link QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles. The best position for O may be found
by making use of the instantaneous centre of QR. The path of O is clearly approximately horizontal in
the Robert's mechanism. This mechanism is shown in Fig. below. This mechanism is used for linear
guidance of the tracing point, coupler driver mode, etc

Intermittent Motion Mechanism

Intermittent motion means that the motion is not continuous but it is ceased at definite intervals. There
are many instances where it is necessary to convert continuous motion into intermittent motion. One of
the foremost examples is the indexing of a work table on a machine tool.

Ratchet & Pawl Mechanism

This mechanism is used in producing intermittent rotary motion from an oscillating or reciprocating
motion member. A ratchet & pawl mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in
Fig. below when the lever 4 carrying the pawl 3 is raised. The ratchet wheel rotates in counter clockwise

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direction (driven by the pawl 3). As the lever carrying the pawl 3 is lowered, the pawl 3 slides over the
ratchet teeth. One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in feed
mechanisms. lifting jacks. clocks, watches & counting devices.

Geneva Mechanism
Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion mechanism. It consists of a driving wheel D carrying a pin
P which engages in a slot of the follower F as shown in Fig. below. During one quarter revolution of the
driving plate. the pin & follower remain in contact and hence the follower is turned by one quarter turn.
During the remaining time of one revolution of driver. the follower remains at rest locked in position by
the circular arc. This mechanism is used in preventing overwinding of main springs in clocks and
watches. feeding of film roll in early motion-picture projectors and indexing of a work table on a
machine tool. For the motion to be free from shock the slot most be tangential to the path of the pin
upon engagement. This means that the angle O1PO2, will be a right angle. Also angle  is one half of the
angle turned by the follower during the index.ng period. Locking plate is provided to lock the follower
when it is not being indeed.

Toggle Mechanism
In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead - centre position the slider
approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement approaching infinity is
proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle used in toggle mechanism. A mechanism
is used when a large force act through a short distance is required. Fig. below shows a toggle
mechanism. Links CD and CE are of same length.

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Thus for a given value of P. as the links CD and CE approaches collinear position (i.e., α 0), the force F
rises rapidly (i.e., F ). Toggle Mechanisms are used in toggle clamps. rivetting machines, punch
presses, stone crushers, etc. The toggle principle is also used in switches. circuit breakers, etc.

Pantograph
Pantograph is used to copy the curves on reduced or enlarged scales. Hence this mechanism
finds its use in copying devices such as engraving or profiling machines.
1. Pantograph is used as geometrical instrument to reproduce geometrical figures and plane
areas of irregular shapes such as maps. Plans & drawings etc. on enlarged or reduced scale.
2. Pantograph is used to guide the cutting tools.
3. It is used as an indicator rig to reproduce the displacement of cross-head of reciprocating
engine which gives the displacement of piston

One form of Pantograph is shown in Fig. above. The links arc Pin jointed at A. B. C and D. AB is
Parallel to DC and AD is parallel to B
Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on the link AD. If the Motion of Q is to be
enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O. Q & P are in straight line.
Then it can be shown that points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each other over
any path straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distances front the fixed point.

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 Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1. Then all the links and the joints
will move to the new positions (such as A moves to A1. B to B1, C to C1, D to D1 & P to P1) and the new
configuration of the mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The movement of Q (QQ1) will get enlarged to
PP1 in a definite ratio.

It shows that as the mechanism is moved (displaced), the ratio of the distances of Q and P. from
the fixed point remain same or the two points displaced are proportional to their distances from the
fixed point. It is true for all positions of links.
Thus if P and P1 are the two positions of the same point P. then Q and Q1 will he the two
positions of the same point Q, such that PP1 is parallel to QQ1.
These paths are in the ratio of

By selecting proper position of P on link BC, the desired reduction or enlargement in the path of
P can be obtained.

Condition for Correct Steering in Motor Car

The relative motion between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface should be pure
rolling one
In order to satisfy this condition when the vehicle is moving along a curved path. the steering
gear mast he so designed that the paths of points of contact of each wheel with the ground are
concentric circular arcs. Steering is usually effected by turning the axes of rotation of the two front
wheels relative to the chassis or body of the vehicle, and, to satisfy the above condition, the axis of the
wheel on the inside of the curve must be turned through a larger angle than the axis of the wheel on the
outside of the curve.
The front wheels are mounted on short separate axles which are pivoted to the chassis of the
Car.

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 Fig. above shows the plan view in which AB and CD are the two axles with pivot, at A and C.
When turning to the right the axes AB and CD intersect the common axis EF of the rear wheels at the
point G, so that the path of contact of each wheel with the ground is a circular arc with centre G.
From Fig. above
AC = EF = EG- FG

So for correct steering, the steering gear must obey this equation whatever may be the radius of
curvature of the path followed by the car.

Ackermann Steering Gear Mechanism

This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is based on a 4 - bar mechanism. As this is
made of only turning pairs wear and tear of the parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross
link KL connects two short axles AC and BD of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which
forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL respectively as shown in Fig. above. ABLK forms a four bar
mechanism. In the mean position when the vehicle is moving along a straight path as shown in Fig.
below (a), the longer links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and BL are inclined at an angle
α.
When the vehicle steers to the right as shown in Fig. below (b), the short link BL is turned so as
to increase α, where as the long link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so as to reduce α.
The fundamental equation for correct steering is, cot - cot  =b/l

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 In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle , through which AK turns is less than the
angle  through which BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns through a smaller angle than the
right front axle.
For different angle of turn . the corresponding value of  are noted. This is done by actually
drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculation. Therefore for different value of , the
corresponding value of  and (cot - cot ) are tabulated. Approximate value of b/l for correct steering
should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear mechanism, the instantaneous centre
does not lie on the axis of rear axle but on a line parallel to the rear axle as, at an approximate distance
0.3l above it.

Three correct steering positions will be (i) When moving straight (ii) When moving at one correct
angle to the right corresponding to the link ratio AK/AB and angle α (iii) Similar position when moving to
the left. In all other positions, pure rolling is not obtainable.

Davis Steering Gear

In this mechanism the arms AK and CL are fixed to the axles so as to form bell crank level,
Angle BAK = Angle DCL.
The arms are slotted and slide relative to two die-blocks which are pivoted to the link MN. The
link MN is supported in guides. So it is constained to move parallel to the link AC. Steering is effected by
sliding MN either to the right or to the left.

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 When the gear is in the mid-position and the car is moving along a straight path, the steering
arms AK and CL are each inclined at an angle 'α' to the centre line of the car.
Assume that the car turned right. The new position is shown by the dotted lines. Now BA and CD
produced intersect at 'G'.
 and  he the angles through which the arms AK and CL are turned by the displacement of MN
Let ‘h’ the distance of MN from AC and 2b the difference between AC and MN.

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 The disadvantages of the Davis gear are that, owing to the number of sliding pairs, friction is
high and the wear which takes places at the contact surfaces rapidly impairs the accuracy of the
mechanism.

Hooke's Joint

Hooke's joint used to connect Iwo non-parallel intersecting shafts is shown in Fig. above. This can also
be used for shall with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not serve the purpose. Hence
Hooke's joint is a mean of connecting two rotating shafts whose axes lie in the same plane and their
directions making a small angle with each other. It is commonly km it universal joint. In Europe it is
called Cardan joint

Hooke's joint consists at two larks or U-shaped yokes which are the driving and driven members and a
cross shaped connecting link. The connecting link may have shapes such as cross, sphere or a square.
Hooke's joint is the inversion of 4-bar chain. There are two types of Hooke's joints in use. They are,
i) Single Hooke's joint ii) Double Hooke's joint
Following are the various applications of Hooke's joint. I) Transmission of power from the engine gear
box to the rear axle of the automobile. 2) Transmission of drives to different spindle in multiple drilling
machine. 3) Transmission of torque to the rolls in the rolling mills. 4) Knee joint in a milling machine.

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