IPV4 ADDRESS

IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 2 32.

Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal
notation and hexadecimal notation.
Dotted Decimal Notation:

Hexadecimal Notation:

Classful IP Addressing

The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:

• Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E
Classes D and E are reserved for multicast and experimental purposes
respectively.
The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes of IP address.

IPv4 address is divided into two parts:

• Network ID
• Host ID

The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and
host ID and the number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular
class.

IP addresses are globally managed by Internet Assigned Numbers

Authority(IANA) and regional Internet registries(RIR).
Class A
Therefore, class A has a total of:
• 2^7-2= 126 network ID(Here 2 address is subtracted because 0.0.0.0 and
127.x.y.z are special address. )
• 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
Class B

Class B has a total of:

• 2^14 = 16384 network address
• 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
Class C

The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set
to 110.
Class C has a total of:
• 2^21 = 2097152 network address
• 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
Class D
IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher
order bits of the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set
to 1110.
Class E
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research
purposes. IP addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254.
Range of special IP addresses:
169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link local addresses
127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 : Loop-back addresses
0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 : used to communicate within the current network.

In c1assfnl addressing, a large part of the available addresses were

wasted.

Rules for assigning Host ID:

Host ID’s are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID are
assigned based on the following rules:
• Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that
network.
 • Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned
because this host ID is used to represent the network ID of the
IP address.
• Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned
because this host ID is reserved as a broadcast address to send
packets to all the hosts present on that particular network.
Rules for assigning Network ID:
Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the
network ID, as all host on the same physical network is assigned the
same network ID. The network ID is assigned based on the following
rules:
• The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to
class A address and is reserved for internal loop-back
functions.
• All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP
broadcast address and therefore, cannot be used.
• All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific
host on the local network and are not routed and therefore,
aren’t used.

CLASSLESS ADDRESSING
To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to the
Internet, classless addressing was designed and implemented. In this scheme,
there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks.
Address Blocks
In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to
the
Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses. The size of the block (the
number of
addresses) varies based on the nature and size of the entity.

Restriction To simplify the handling of addresses, the Internet authorities

impose
three restrictions on classless address blocks:
1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another.
2. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (I, 2, 4, 8, ... ).
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-decimal

notation, granted to a
small business that needs 16 addresses.
In 1Pv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as x.y.z.tln in which
x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the In defines the mask.
Mask
a mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost bits are Is and the 32 - n
rightmost bits are ZEROS.
The address and the In notation completely define the whole block (the first
address, the last address, and the number of addresses).

First Address The first address in the block can be found by setting the 32 - n
rightmost
bits in the binary notation of the address to Os.

The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 - n bits to
Is.
The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the formula 232- n•

Find the number of addresses in 205.16.37.39/28.

The value of n is 28, which means that number of addresses is 232- 28 or 16.
The binary representation of the given address is 11001101
000100000010010100100111.

If we set 32 - 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get 11001101 00010000 001001010010

1111 or 205.16.37.47.

If we set 32 - 28 rightmost bits to 0, we get 11001101 00010000 001001010010

0000 or 205.16.37.32.

Network Addresses
The first address is called the network address and defines the organization
network.
The first address in a block is normally not assigned to any device; it is used as
the network address that represents the organization to the rest of the world.

Introduction of Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

VLSM stands for Variable Length Subnet Mask where the subnet design uses
more than one mask in the same network which means more than one mask is
used for different subnets of a single class A, B, C or a network. It is used to
increase the usability of subnets as they can be of variable size. It is also defined
as the process of subnetting of a subnet.

Procedure of implementing VLSM –

In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so subnetting is required

multiple times. Suppose there is an administrator that has four departments to
manage. These are sales and purchase department with 120 computers,
development department with 50 computers, accounts department with 26
computers and management department with 5 computers.
If the administrator has IP 192.168.1.0/24, department wise IPs can be allocated
by following these steps:
1. For each segment select the block size that is greater than or equal to the
actual requirement which is the sum of host addresses, broadcast addresses
and network addresses. Make a list of subnets possible:
 Arrange all the segments in descending order based on the block size that is
from highest to lowest requirement.
• Sales and Purchase: 120
• Development: 50
• Accounts: 26
• Management: 5
2. The highest IP available has to be allocated to highest requirement so the
sales and purchase department gets 192.168.1.0/25 which has 126 valid
addresses that can easily be available for 120 hosts. The subnet mask used is
255.255.255.128
3. The next segment requires an IP to handle 50 hosts. The IP subnet with
network number 192.168.1.128/26 is the next highest which can be assigned
to 62 hosts thus fulfilling the requirement of development department. The
subnet mask used is 255.255.255.192
4. Similarly the next IP subnet 192.168.1.192/27 can fulfill the requirements of
the accounts department as it has 30 valid hosts IP which can be assigned to
26 computers. The mask used is 255.255.255.224
5. The last segment requires 5 valid hosts IP which can be fulfilled by the subnet
192.168.1.224/29 which has the mask as 255.255.255.248 is chosen as per
the requirement.

NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION (NAT)

NAT enables a user to have a large set of addresses internally and one address, or a small
set of addresses, externally.
To separate the addresses used inside the home or business and the ones used for
the Internet, the Internet authorities have reserved three sets of addresses as private
addresses, shown in Table 19.3.
these reserved addresses are for private networks.
They are unique inside the organization, but they are not unique globally. No
router will forward a packet that has one of these addresses as the destination address.
The router that
connects the network to the global address uses one private address and one global
address. the rest of the Internet sees only the NAT router with the global address 200.24.5.8. as
shown in the following figure.

Address Translation
All the outgoing packets go through the NAT router, which replaces the source address
in the packet with the global NAT address. All incoming packets also pass through the
NAT router, which replaces the destination address in the packet (the NAT router global
address) with the appropriate private address.

Translation Table
a translation table has only two columns: the private' address and the external address
Using a Pool of IP Addresses Since the NAT router has only one global address, only
one private network host can access the same external host. To remove this restriction, the
NAT router uses a pool of global addresses.
Using Both IP Addresses and Port Numbers To allow a many-to-many relationship
between private-network hosts and external server programs

IPv6 ADDRESSES
An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is 128 bits long.
Hexadecimal Colon Notation
the address consists of 32 hexadecimal digits, with every four digits separated by a colon.
Address Space
IPv6 has a much larger address space; 2128 addresses are available. The designers of
IPv6 divided the address into several categories. A few leftmost bits, called the type
prefix, in each address define its category.

NETWORK DEVICES

Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.

Network Devices :Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over
the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length
to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted
about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they
copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other
words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do
not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies
and wastage.
Types of Hub
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as
a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and
boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub :- It works like active hubs and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in
the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It
is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input
and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from
the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of
two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the
frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the
entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link
layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it
very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain
of hosts, but broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together
that may work upon different networking models. They basically work as the messenger
agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways
are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switches or routers. Gateway is also called a protocol
converter.
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a
router, it is capable of routing packets across networks, and working as the bridge, it is
capable of filtering local area network traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique
id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts
as an interface between the computer and router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device
which means that it works on both physical and data link layer of the network model.