B.Sc.

I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli

B.Sc. Physics

First Semester

Course: Mechanics and Properties of Matter Course Code: 21BSC1C1PH1T Teaching

Hours/Week (L-T-P): 4 - 0 - 0 No. of Credits: 04
Internal Assessment: 40 Marks Semester End Examination: 60 Marks

Module 2: Conservation laws 11 hours

Explanation of conservation of linear momentum, Center of mass – System of N particles, Motion of center of mass,
Centre of mass of a thin uniform rod and a thin triangular plate. Collision: Types of collision, Collision of two particles,
Elastic head on collision between two particles, Collision of two particles which stick together (inelastic collision).

Relation between momentum and torque, Explanation of Conservation of angular momentum, Examples of conservation
angular momentum - planetary or satellite motion, scattering of alpha particles by heavy nucleus. Explanation of
conservation of energy, Applications: Motion of a body near the surface of the earth, Linear restoring force (spring).

Conservation laws
Linear Momentum:

Linear momentum of the particle is the product of mass and velocity of the particle.

𝑖𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Suppose the body consisting of ‘n’ number of particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 … … … . . 𝑚𝑛 moving with
velocities 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … … … … … . , 𝑣𝑛 , then the linear momentum of the system of particles is the vector sum of
momentum of individual particles

𝑖𝑒 𝑃 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑝𝑛

𝑃 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
𝑃=∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑖=1

∴ 𝑃 = 𝑀𝑉𝐶𝑀

Where M is the total mass of the system and 𝑉𝐶𝑀 is the velocity of the Centre of mass. Thus the linear
momentum of the system of particles is defined as the product of mass of the system and velocity of the Centre
of mass.

Conservation of Linear Momentum:

It states that “When no external force acting on the system of particles, then the total linear momentum
of the system remains constant”.
Linear momentum of the system of particles is given by,
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
𝑃 = 𝑀𝑉𝐶𝑀

On differentiating we get,

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑉𝐶𝑀
=𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝐶𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
= 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
When 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, then = 0, which implies that P= a constant. Hence the proof.
𝑑𝑡

Centre of mass:

Centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as a point where the

entire mass of all the particles may supposed to be concentrated. The motion of
the Centre of mass would be the same as if the external forces acting on the
system were applied directly to it.

Consider the case of a system of two particles of mass m1 and m2. Let r1
and r2 be their position vectors respectively with respect to some origin. The
position vector of Centre of mass of this system is given by
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑅=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑟1 +𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑅= 𝑀

Where 𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 , the total mass of the system.

Suppose we have a system of total mass 𝑀 consisting of ‘n’ particles of masses

𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 … … … . . 𝑚𝑛 whose position vectors are represented by 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 … … … … . 𝑟𝑛 respectively, then the
Centre of mass of the system is defined as the point whose position vector 𝑅 is given by
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛
𝑅=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ … … . +𝑚𝑛

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑅= 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑅=
𝑀
Where 𝑀 is the total mass of the system.

If the particles are distributed in three dimensions, the Centre of mass must be identified by three co-
ordinates. They are,
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑚𝑛

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑌𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖
𝑍𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀
Thus the Position of the Centre of mass of a system of particles is given by

𝑅⃗ = 𝑋𝐶𝑀 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝐶𝑀 𝑗̂ + 𝑍𝐶𝑀 𝑘̂

Velocity of the Centre of mass:

Let us consider the motion of the system consisting of ‘n’ particles and total mass M assuming that
the mass of the system remains constant. We know that, the position of the Centre of mass of the system of
particles is given by

𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛
𝑅⃗ =
𝑀

∴ 𝑀𝑅⃗ = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟𝑛 ………. (1)
𝑟2 + ⋯ … … . +𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗

Differentiating eqn (1) with respect to time, we get

⃗
𝑑𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝑑𝑟
𝑀 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛 ……… (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗
𝑑𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝑑𝑟
Substituting = 𝑉, the velocity of the Centre of mass and = 𝑣1 , = 𝑣2 , …….. & = 𝑣𝑛 , which
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
represents the velocities of individual particles. Therefore equation (2) becomes,

⃗ = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑉 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑛

𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑛
⃗ =
𝑉
𝑀
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 ⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒊
⃗𝑽 =
𝑴

This is expression for velocity of the Centre of mass.

Acceleration of the Centre of mass: (Motion of Centre of mass):

We know that, the position of the Centre of mass of the system of particles is given by

𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛
𝑅⃗ =
𝑀

∴ 𝑀𝑅⃗ = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟𝑛 ………. (1)
𝑟2 + ⋯ … … . +𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗

Differentiating eqn (1) with respect to time, we get

⃗
𝑑𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝑑𝑟
𝑀 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛 ……… (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
⃗
𝑑𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝑑𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
𝑑𝑟
Substituting = 𝑉, the velocity of the Centre of mass and = 𝑣1 , = 𝑣2 , …….. & = 𝑣𝑛 , which
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
represents the velocities of individual particles. Therefore equation (2) becomes,

⃗ = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑉 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣𝑛 ………. (3)
𝑣2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Differentiating eqn (3) with respect to time, we get

⃗
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑣1 𝑑𝑣2 𝑑𝑣𝑛
𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑚𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑚2 𝑎2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑛

Where 𝑎 is the acceleration of the Centre of mass, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 etc are the acceleration of the individual particles.
From Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 , hence eqn (4) becomes

𝑀𝑎 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝐹𝑛

⃗
∴ 𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑴𝒂

Centre of mass of a thin uniform rod:

Consider a rod of length L and mass M. The mass per unit length of the
𝑀
rod is 𝑚 = 𝐿 . Consider a small elemental length 𝑑𝑥 of the rod at a distance 𝑥
𝑀
from the axis. Then mass of the element dx is . 𝑑𝑥.Therefore the center of mass of the rod is given by,
𝐿

∑𝑖=𝑛
𝑖=0 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑋𝐶𝑀 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀

𝐿 𝑀
∫0 𝑥. 𝐿 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀

𝐿
1 𝐿
𝑋𝐶𝑀 = ∫ 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 =
𝐿 2
0

That is the center of mass of the uniform rod lies exactly at the center of the rod.

Centre of mass of a triangular plate:

The lamina (ΔLMN) may be subdivided into narrow strips each parallel to the
base (MN) as shown in Fig., by symmetry each strip has its center of mass at its
midpoint. If we join the midpoint of all the strips we get the median LP. The center of
mass of the triangle as a whole therefore, has to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we
can argue that it lies on the median MQ and NR. This means the center of mass lies on
the point of concurrence of the medians, i.e. on the centroid G of the triangle.
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
Collision:

In physics collision means a redistribution of the total momentum of the bodies or particles when they
approach each other. Following are the limiting cases of collision.
Perfectly elastic collision: When the kinetic energy of the particles remains conserved in the collision, the
collision is said to be elastic.
Example: The collision between atomic, nuclear and fundamental particles are usually elastic.
Inelastic collision: When the kinetic energy is changed in the collision, the collision is said to be inelastic. It
should be remembered that in inelastic collision, the momentum as well as the total energy is still conserved.
Example: Collision between gross bodies are always inelastic. A bullet remaining embedded in a target is one
such example.
In inelastic collision between large particles, the loss of kinetic energy occurs in the form of heat energy.
Elastic Collision in one dimension (head-on collision):
Let us consider an elastic one dimensional collision
between two particles. Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two
particles. Suppose u1, u2 and v1, v2 be their respective
velocities before and after collision.
Applying the law of conservation of linear momentum, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) ………… (1)
According to law of conservation of kinetic energy, we have
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2 2 2

𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣22 − 𝑢22 ) ………….. (2)

Dividing equation 2 by 1, we get

(𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) (𝑣22 − 𝑢22 )

=
(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )

(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )(𝑣2 + 𝑢2 )

=
(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )

𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ……….. (3)

From eqn (3), 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 , substituting the value of 𝑣1 in eqn (1), we get

𝑚1 [𝑢1 − (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )] = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )

𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣2 − 𝑚1 𝑢2 + 𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2

2𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣2 − 𝑚1 𝑢2 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
2𝑚1 𝑢1 + (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑢2 = (𝑚2 + 𝑚1 )𝑣2

2𝑚1 𝑢1 +(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )𝑢2

𝑣2 = (𝑚1 +𝑚2 )
…………. (4)

Further from eqn (3), 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2 , substituting the value of 𝑣2 in eqn (1), we get

𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 [(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2 ) − 𝑢2 ]

𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2

𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1 − 2𝑚2 𝑢2

𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 2𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣1

(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑢1 + 2𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣1

(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑢1 2𝑚2 𝑢2

∴ 𝑣1 = + … … … (5)
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the final velocities of the particles after collision.

Special cases:
Case (i):- When m1 = m2 = m, then from eqns (4) and (5) 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣1 = 𝑢2
Hence in case of an elastic collision of two bodies of equal masses, the bodies simply exchange their velocities
after collision.
Case (ii):- When 𝑢2 = 0, that is when the second body is at rest, we have
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑢1 2𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(a) If m1 = m2 = m, then 𝑣1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
In this case, the first (colliding) body comes to rest and the second body which is initially at rest moves
with the velocity of the first body.
(b) If m2 ≫ m1, then 𝑣1 = −𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 ≅ 0
Thus when a lighter particle collides with a much heavier particle at rest, the lighter particle rebounds
with the same velocity, while the heavier particle remains approximately at rest.
(c) If m1 ≫ m2, then 𝑣1 = 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = 2𝑢1
Thus when a heavy particle, collides with a much lighter particle at rest, the velocity of the heavy
particle remains practically unchanged but the lighter particle moves with double the velocity of the
heavier particle.
Inelastic Collision in one Dimension:
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
Let us consider the perfectly inelastic collision of two particles of masses m1 and m2. Let u1 and u2 be
their velocities respectively before collision. Suppose two particles stick together after collision and moves
with a velocity ‘v’.
Applying the law of conservation of momentum, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣= … … … . (1)
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

Let 𝑢2 = 0, that is the second particle is at rest, then equation (1) reduces to
𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣= … … … … (2)
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
The loss of kinetic energy in an inelastic collision can be calculated as follows.
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑢2
2 1 1

1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑚 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2
2 1

1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2
= 2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 2
2 𝑚1 𝑢1

Substituting the value of 𝑣 from equation (2), we get

1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝑚12 𝑢12
= 2 ×
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )2
𝑚 𝑢
2 1 1

𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚1

= <1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

This shows that the Kinetic energy after collision is less than the kinetic energy before collision
1 1
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2
2 2
1 1 𝑚12 𝑢12
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) ×
2 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )2

1 1 𝑚12 𝑢12
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 −
2 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

𝑚1 𝑢12 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) − 𝑚12 𝑢12

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 =
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
𝑚12 𝑢12 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑢12 − 𝑚12 𝑢12
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 =
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑢12
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾. 𝐸 =
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

This is always positive.

Angular Momentum:

Consider a particle of mass m located at the vector position 𝑟 and

moving with linear velocity 𝑣. Then the angular momentum of the
particle is the product of position vector 𝑟 and linear momentum 𝑝. That
is 𝐿⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑝
Since 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣, the magnitude of the angular momentum is given
by 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Where 𝜃 is the angle between r and p. If
𝜃= 0, then L=0, implies that if particle moving along the line passing
through the origin, then particle will not possess angular momentum. On the other hand if 𝜃 = 900 , then 𝐿 =
𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔, that is the particle will rotate about the origin in XY plane. Thus “the angular momentum of the body
consisting of n number of particles can be defined as the vector sum of angular momentum of individual
particles. 𝑖=𝑛
⃗ =∑
𝑖𝑒 𝐿 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

Conservation of Angular Momentum: (Relation between Torque and angular momentum)

It states that “When no external torque acting on the system of particles, then the total angular
momentum of the system of particles remains constant”.

Angular Momentum of the system of particles is given by

𝑖=𝑛
⃗ =∑
𝐿 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

On differentiating we get,

𝑑𝐿 𝑖=𝑛 𝑑𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑟𝑖

= ∑ {𝑟𝑖 × + 𝑝𝑖 × }
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿 𝑖=𝑛 𝑑𝑝𝑖
= ∑ 𝑟𝑖 ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿 𝑖=𝑛
= ∑ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
𝑑𝐿
= 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿
When 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0, which implies L= a constant, hence the proof.

Illustrations:

1. Motion of a Planet around the Sun: We know that planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun,
with sun at one of the foci. The gravitational force on the planet is directed towards the Centre of the
sun. So the force is central force. Due to this fact, the angular momentum of the planet will be constant.
2. Diving, Skating, Ballet dancing: In all these cases the performer uses the principle of conservation
of angular momentum. The angular momentum of a body is given by
𝐿 = 𝑟 × 𝑝 = 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑟𝜔 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔 = 𝐼𝜔

Where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis, 𝜔 is its angular velocity. In all the cases I should
1
be constant, that is 𝐼𝜔 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or ∝ 𝜔 .

Conservation of Energy:

Law of conservation of energy states that “The total mechanical energy (sum of K.E+P.E) of the
particle remains constant”.

There are various forms of energy such as mechanical energy, heat energy, light energy, sound energy
etc. when one form of energy disappears then it appears in some other form. In these cases, the total energy
of the system remains constant.

Applications conservation of energy:

Motion of a body near the surface of the earth:

We know that the radius of the earth id nearly 6.4 × 106 𝑚. Hence we can have practically the value
of acceleration due to gravity (g) to be the same for a height of few kilometers from the earth’s surface.

Let us consider a body of mass 𝑚 be situated at a height ℎ in the rest position above
the earth’s surface (𝐴). Since the body is at rest at 𝐴, its 𝐾. 𝐸 at 𝐴 is zero. Its potential energy
at 𝐴 is 𝑚𝑔ℎ. Therefore the total energy of the body at A is

𝐸𝐴 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ … … … (1)

If a body starts to fall down and at any instant its height above the earth’s surface is
𝑥 at 𝐵, then work done by the gravitational force –mg on the body is
𝑥

𝑊 = ∫(−𝑚𝑔). 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑚𝑔(𝑥 − ℎ) = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥)

ℎ
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
This amount of work done on the body will increase its kinetic energy that is,

1
𝑊= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥) … … … (2)
2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥)

𝑃. 𝐸 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥

Therefore the total energy at 𝐵 is

𝐸𝐵 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ … … … (3)

At 𝐶 (𝑥 = 0), the P.E is zero and K.E is 𝑚𝑔ℎ (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 2). Therefore the total energy at 𝐶 is

𝐸𝐶 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ … … … (4)

From eqns (1), (3) and (4) it follows that total energy of the freely falling body is constant at all points in its
path.

Linear restoring force (spring):

A force is said to be a linear restoring force, if it is proportional to the

displacement of the particle from a fixed point and is directed opposite to the
displacement.

Consider a helical light spiral spring placed vertically. The upper end is
clamped and load ‘m’ is attached to the lower end as shown in figure. If load ‘m’ is
displaced by ‘y’ the spring exerts a restoring force 𝑘𝑦 on the load.

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 … … … (1)

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐹 = 𝑚 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

From equations (1) and (2), we have

𝑑2𝑦
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝑦 𝑘
+ ( )𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 2

The solution of the differential equation (3) is

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
B.Sc. I Semester Conservation Laws A D B F G College, H Halli
The velocity of the load is
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑑𝑡
1 1
∴ 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚[𝑎𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]2
2 2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
2
1 1
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑦 2 = 𝑘[𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]2
2 2
1
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
2
1 𝑘
𝑃. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) ∵ 𝜔2 = 𝑚

∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
1 1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
2 2
1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑎2 𝜔2
2
𝐸 is independent of 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡. Therefore energy is conserved in the case of mass suspended to light spiral
spring.