Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering

(BME-101 / 201)
SYLLABUS
Normal and shear Stress, strain, Hooke's law, Poisson’s ratio,elastic constants and their
relationship, stress-strain diagram for ductile and brittle materials, factor of safety.
Basic Numerical problems.

Types of beams under various loads, Statically Determinate Beams, Shear force
and bending moment in beams, Shear force and bending moment
diagrams, Relationships between load, shear and bending moment.

Basic Numerical problems. 2

Q .1 Define Stress? (V.Imp)
Ans: Stress is defined as
the internal resisting force
per unit cross-sectional
area.

𝑹 𝑷
σ= =
𝑨 𝑨

Unit- N/m2

3
Q.2 What are the types of Stress?
Ans: Stress

Shear Stress
Q.3 What is Normal Stress? (V.Imp)
Ans : Stress is said to be Normal stress when the direction of the deforming
force is perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the body.
Q.4 Define Tensile and Compressive Stress
Ans : When a structural member is subjected to two equal and opposite
tensile forces, the stress produced is called tensile stress. The tensile stress at
𝑷
any cross-section X-X is given as 𝝈𝒕 = .
𝑨

6
 Compressive Stress(𝝈𝒄 )
When a structural member is subjected to two equal and opposite
compressive forces, the stress produced is called compressive stress. The
𝑷
compressive stress at any cross-section X-X is given as 𝝈𝒄 = .
𝑨

7
Q .5 Define Volumetric Stress.
Ans: When the deforming force or applied force acts from all
dimension resulting in the change of volume of the object then such
stress in called volumetric stress or Bulk stress.
In short, When the volume of body changes due to the deforming
force it is termed as Volume stress.

8
Q.6 Define Shear Stress. (V.Imp)
Ans: Stress produced by a force tangential to the surface of a body is known
as shear stress.

 It is represented by .
 Consider a rectangular block
ABCD fixed at the bottom plane
and subjected to tangential force
P at the upper plane.
Then

9
Q.7 What is strain? (V.Imp)
Ans: A body is said be strained when the relative position of the particles
is changed due to loads acting on the member.

This is deformation per unit original length.

It can be defined as the ratio of change in dimension and original

dimension.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = ,
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

Note: Strain is dimensionless quantity.

10
Q .8 What are the types of strain?
Ans: Strain

Normal Strain Shear Strain

Lateral
Strain
Longitudinal Volumetric
Strain Strain 11
Q.9 What is the difference between Longitudinal strain and
Lateral strain ?
Ans: Strain in the direction of applied load is called primary strain or
longitudinal strain or linear strain.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ẟ𝒍
longitudinal 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = , 𝜺𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍

Strain in the perpendicular direction of applied load is called lateral

strain.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 ẟ𝒅
lateral 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = , 𝜺𝒍𝒂𝒕 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅 12
Q.10 Explain Volumetric Strain.
Ans: When a body is immersed in a fluid to a large depth, the body is subjected
to equal external pressure at all points on the body.
Due to this external pressure, stress is produced within the body which is
called hydrostatic stress.
This external pressure causes change in
volume of the body.
This change in volume per unit volume is
called volumetric strain, 𝜺v.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 δ𝑉
𝜺𝑉 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

13
Q.11 Define Shear Strain.
Ans: Strain produced by a force tangential to the surface of a body is
known as Shear strain.

Under the action of tangential force, the

block ABCD gets distorted and takes the
shape ABC’D’ by deforming through an
angle φ.

𝑪𝑪′
tan φ = φ =
𝑩𝑪

The angular deformation φ in radians

represents the shear strain. 14
Q .12 State the Hooke’s Law. (V.Imp)
Ans: Hooke’s law states that when a material is loaded within proportional limit,
stress is directly proportional to strain,

Mathematically

Where the constant of proportionality E is called Young’s modulus or modulus of

elasticity. 15
Unit of Young’s modulus is same as unit of stress because
strain is dimensionless quantity.
N/m2, Pa, Kpa, Mpa, Gpa
E is a property of the material

16
Q .13 What is the expression for elongation or contraction in a bar
when it subjected to external load P.
Ans:

17
Q .14 How many no. of elastic constants are there.
Ans: For homogenous and isotropic material no. of elastic
constants are 4(μ, E, G, K).

1) Poisson’s Ratio(μ)
2) Modulus Of Elasticity or Young’smodulus(E)
3) Modulus Of Rigidity or Shear Modulus(G)
4) Bulk Modulus(K)

Elastic constants
i. are used to determine strain theoretically
ii. are used obtain relationship between stress and strain
18
 Q.15 Define Poisson’s Ratio. (V.Imp)

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to

longitudinal strain.
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Poisson’s Ratio(μ) =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless.

The value of μ lies between 0.25 to 0.33 for most of the
engineering materials.

19
Q.16 Define Modulus Of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus. (V.Imp.)
Ans: It is defined as the ratio of normal stress and normal strain, when
material is loaded within elastic limit.

Unit of Young’s modulus is same as unit

of stress because strain is dimensionless
quantity.
N/m2, Pa, Kpa, Mpa, Gpa
E is a property of the material.

20
Q.17 Define Modulus Of Rigidity or Shear Modulus. (V.Imp.)
Ans: It is defined as the ratio of shear stress
and shear strain, when material is loaded
within elastic limit.

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 
G= =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 φ

Unit of shear modulus is same as

unit of stress because strain is
dimensionless quantity.
N/m2, Pa, Kpa, Mpa, Gpa
21
Q.18 Define Bulk Modulus. (V.Imp.)
Ans: It is defined as the ratio of volumetric stress and
volumetric strain, when material is loaded within elastic
limit.

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈v
K= =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜺v

Unit of Bulk modulus is same as unit of stress because

strain is dimensionless quantity.
N/m2, Pa, Kpa, Mpa, Gpa
22
Q .19 What is the relation between, E, K and µ ?

Ans:
E = 3K (1-2µ)

where E is modulus of elasticity, K is bulk modulus

and µ is Poisson's ratio.

23
Proof that E = 3K (1-2µ), where E is modulus of elasticity, K is
bulk modulus and µ is Poisson's ratio. (V.Imp.)

Consider a cubical element subjected to volumetric stress  which acts

simultaneously along mutually perpendicular x , y and z direction.
Strain in x direction-

24
25
Q .20 What is the relation between, E, G and µ ?

Ans:
E = 2G (1 + µ)

where E is modulus of elasticity, G is shear modulus

and µ is Poisson's ratio.

26
Proof that E = 2G (1+µ), where E is modulus of elasticity, G is
modulus of rigidity and µ is Poisson's ratio. (V.Imp.)

Consider a cubic element ABCD

When the block is subjected to tangential force it distorts to a new shape
ABC’D’.

Longitudinal stain in diagonal AC

= =

27
Extension CC’ is very small , AC’B is assumed to be equal to ACB =45 Degree.
EC’ = CC’ COS 45
= CC’/ √2

F
rom triangle BCC’


2
Where  represents the shear strain.
28
In terms of shear stress  and modulus of rigidity G
Shear strain() = /G
Longitudinal stain for diagonal AC = /2G

The strain in diagonal AC is also given by =

Strain due to tensile stress in AC – strain due to compressive stress in BD
Note: In case of pure shear stress (σ = )

/2G

29
Q.21 Draw stress-strain diagram for mild steel. (V.Imp.)

Ans

30
 Proportional limit(A):
 Upto this limit, stress is a linear function of strain and
material obeys Hook’s law.
 0-A is a straight line of the curve and its slope
represents the value of modulus of elasticity.

 Elastic limit(B):
 It represents maximum stress upto which material is
still able to regain its original shape and size after
removal of load i.e. upto this point deformation is
recoverable.
31
 Upper yield point(C) and Lower yield point(D):
 Beyond elastic limit, the material shows considerable strain
even though there is no increase in load or stress.
 Deformation is not fully recoverable i.e. the behaviour of
material is inelastic.
 This phenomenon from C to D is called yielding.

 Ultimate stress point(E):

 After yielding has taken place, the material becomes hardened
and increase in load is required to take the material to its
maximum stress at point E.
 Point E represents the maximum stress of this curve and this
point is known as ultimate stress point. 32
 Breaking point(F):

 In the portion EF, there is falling off the load(stress) from the
maximum until fracture takes place at F.

 The point F is known as fracture or breaking point and

corresponding stress is called the breaking stress.

33
Q.22 Draw stress-strain diagram for brittle material.

Ans:
For brittle materials, like cast
Iron, no appreciable
deformation is obtained and
the failure occurs
without yielding.

34
Q.23 Define Factor of Safety. (V.Imp.)

Ans:
FoS is defined as Ultimate stress to working stress.

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
FOS =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

 For safe design FoS must be greater than unity.

35
Q.24 What is the importance of FoS?
Ans:
 A factor of safety increases the safety of people and reduces the risk
of failure of a product.

 If a structure fails there is a risk of injury and death as well as a

company's financial loss.

 How much FoS is required depends on the materials and its

applications.

 As the FoS increases, the cost of the product also increases therefore
cost is also a considerable parameter.
36
Q.25 What are the types of Supports in beam.
Ans:
1. Roller support
2. Hinge(Pin) Support
3. Fixed (Built-in) Support

37
 Roller support:-
Axial motion is permitted
Rotation is permitted
Only vertical motion is restricted

No of reaction = 1, RV

38
 Hinge support

Vertical motion is restricted

Axial motion is restricted
Rotation is permitted

No of reaction = 2, RAV and RAH 39

 Fixed support/Built-in Support

Vertical motion is restricted

Axial motion is restricted
Rotation is restricted

No of reaction = 3,
RAV, RAH and Mz
40
Q .26 What do you mean by Statically Determinate beam.
(V.Imp.)

Ans:
Statically Determinate beam:-
If no. of reactions ≤ no. of useful static equations [ƹFx=0, ƹFy=0, ƹM=0]

Ex. i) Simple Supported Beam

ii) Cantilever Beam
iii) Overhanging Beam

41
 Types of Beams

2) Statically In-determinate beam:-

If no. of reactions > no. of useful static equations [ƹFx=0, ƹFy=0, ƹM=0]

Ex. i) Fixed Beam

ii) Propped Cantilever Beam
iii) Continuous Beam

42
Q .27 What are various types of Beams. (V.Imp.)
Ans:

I. Cantilever Beam
II. Propped Cantilever Beam
III. Fixed Beam
IV. Simple Supported Beam
V. Overhanging Beam
VI. Continuous Beam

43
 Cantilever Beam

A beam having its one is fixed or built-in and other end is free to deflect.
There no deflection or rotation at its fixed end.

44
 Propped Cantilever Beam

It is the modification of cantilever beam to reduce the deflection at its

free end.

45
 Fixed Beam

A beam having both the ends fixed or built-in.

46
 Simple Supported Beam

A beam having two supports either roller or hinge at both the ends of beam.

47
 Over Hanging Beam

A beam having one or both the ends extended over the supports.

48
 Continuous Beam

A beam having at least three simple supports not only at ends but at the
intermediate location in order to reduce deflection.

49
Q.28 Explain types of loads acting on the beam. (V.Imp.)
Ans:
Concentrated load(point load)
Uniformly Distributed load(udl)
Uniformly Varying load(uvl)
Moment

50
Concentrated Loads:
This load acts at a point.
It is represented by an arrow as
shown in Fig.

51
Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL):
 Load acts over a certain length
 Intensity of load is uniform
 It is represented as shown in Fig
 Total load = Area of plane fig
(rectangle)
 Total load acting at middle of the
loaded length
 Given load may be replaced by a
20 × 4 = 80 kN, concentrated load acting
at a distance 2 m from the left support.
52
Uniformly Varying Load(UVL):
 The load varies Uniformly from C to D.
Its intensity is zero at C and is 20 kN/m
(maximum) at D.
 Total load = Area of plane fig (triangle)
Centroid of the triangle represents the
center of gravity of the load. (1/3rd
from D or 2/3rd from C)
Total load is 1 /2 × 3 × 20 = 30 kN
This load is equivalent to 30 kN acting
at 3 m from A.
53
External Moment:
A beam may be subjected to
external moment at certain
points.
In Fig. the beam is subjected to
clockwise moment of 30 kN-m at
a distance of 2 m from the left
support.

54
Q.29 Relationship between Load Intensity, Shear Force and Bending
Moment.
 Consider the beam AB subject to a general
loading as shown in Fig.
 The free body diagram of a segment of beam
at a distance x from A and of length dx is
shown in Fig.
 The intensity of loading on this elemental
length may be taken as constant.
 Let the intensity is w/unit length.
 Let F is shear force and M is bending
moment acting on the section at a distance x
from A.
 At section at a distance x + dx, these values
are F + dF and M + dM respectively.
55
Now from the equilibrium of the element.

56
Q .30 What is Sagging and hogging bending moment?
Ans:

57
Q .31 What is point of contra-flexure in beam?

Ans:
A point of contra-flexure is
a point where bending is
zero(BMD changes its sign).

 It is sometimes referred to as
a point of inflexion.

 Point “D” is point of contra-

flexure as shown in fig..
58
Q.32 What is the Concept of Shear Force and bending moment ?

59
Shear Force:
It is defined as the
algebraic sum of
vertical forces(including
reactions) acting either
on LHS of the section
or RHS of the section.
consider the section at C at a
distance of 3 m from A
LHS of the section
FLeft = 40 - 20 = 20 Upward
RHS of the section
FRight = 80 – 60 - 40 = -20 Downward 60
Bending Moment:
It is defined as the
algebraic sum of
moments acting either
on LHS of the section
or RHS of the section.

LHS of the section

MLeft = 40x3 – 20X1 = 100kN-m Clockwise
RHS of the section
MRight = 80x4 – 60x3 – 40x1 = 100 Anti-Clockwise 61
 Fundamentals
of
Mechanical Engineering

O BME 101-T/201-T
के ए ह

Unit-2 & 3
Introduction to IC Engines and RAC

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, VARANASI 1
UNIT - 2 Syllabus
IC Engine: Basic Components, Construction and Working of Two stroke
and four stroke SI & CI engine, merits and demerits, scavenging process;
Introduction to electric, and hybrid electric vehicles.
UNIT - 3
Refrigeration: Its meaning and application, unit of refrigeration;
Coefficient of performance, methods of refrigeration, construction and
working of domestic refrigerator, concept of heat pump. Formula based
numerical problems on cooling load.

Air-Conditioning: Its meaning and application, humidity, dry

bulb, wet bulb, and dew point temperatures, comfort
conditions, construction and working of window 2 air
 I.C. Engine
Q.1 Define an engine.
 It is a device which converts one form of energy into
another form of useful energy.

Based on combustion engines are classified into

 Internal Combustion Engine (I.C. Engine)

 External Combustion Engine (E.C. Engine)

3
 I.C. Engine
Q.2 Define an Internal Combustion Engine.

 In internal combustion engine the

burning or combustion of the fuel
takes place inside the cylinder.
Example- Automobile engines
 Petrol engine
 Diesel engine

4
 I.C. Engine
Q .3 What is External Combustion Engine?

 In external combustion engine the combustion of the fuel

takes place outside the engine.
Example- Steam engine, Closed gas turbine etc.

5
Q .4 What is the difference between ICE and ECE ?
I.C. Engine
Ans:

6
 I.C. Engine
Q.5 What are Advantages of I.C. Engine ?
These are the following advantages of an I.C. Engine
 Mechanical Simplicity
 Low initial cost due to absence of boiler, turbine
condenser etc
 High efficiency than external combustion engine
 Power to weight ratio is high
 Very suitable for small power requirement applications
 Starting time is very less
 Requires less maintenance
7
Q. 6 What are the Disadvantages
I.C. Engineof I.C. Engine?
These are the following disadvantages of an I.C.
Engine
 Variety of fuels that can be used is limited to very fine
quality gaseous and liquid fuel.
 Fuel used is very costly like gasoline or diesel.
 Engine emissions are generally high compared to
external combustion engine.
 Not suitable of large scale power generation.
 In case of reciprocating internal combustion noise is
generated due to detonation.
8
 I.C. Engine
Q.7 Give the Classification of I.C. Engine.
 On the basis of strokes used
 Two Stroke cycle Engines
 Four Stroke Cycle Engines

 On the basis of cycle used

 Otto Cycle Engines
 Diesel Cycle Engines
 Dual Cycle Engines

9
 On the basis of types of fuel used
 Petrol Engines
 Diesel Engines
 Gas Engines

 On the basis types of Ignition Method :

 Spark Ignition (SI)
 Compression Ignition (CI)

10
 On the basis types of cooling system used:
 Air cooled engines
 Water cooled engines

 On the basis types of different position of cylinder

engines:
 Horizontal cylinder engines
 Vertical cylinder engines
 Inclined cylinder engines
11
Q .8 What are the main
I.C.Components
Engine of I.C.E. ?

12
Q.9 Define TDC andI.C.
BDCEngine
in an I.C.E.
Top-Dead-Center (TDC): It is position of the piston when it is farthest from the
crank shaft.

Note:-In case of horizontal engine TDC is known as inner dead center(IDC)

Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): It is the position of the piston when it is nearest

to the crankshaft.

Note:-In case of horizontal engine BDC is known as outer dead center(ODC) .

13
Q .10 What do meanI.C.
by stroke
Enginein an IC Engine?

Stroke: When piston moves

from TDC to BDC or BDC to
TDC is known as stoke.

Stroke Length (L): It is the

distance between TDC and
BDC.

14
 I.C. Engine
Q .11 Define Bore, Swept volume and clearance Vol..
Bore (D): Inner diameter of the cylinder or diameter
of the piston face.

Swept Volume (VS): Volume displaced by the

piston as it travels through one stroke.
𝝅 𝟐
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑫 L
𝟒

If there are K no. of cylinders then total swept

volume
𝝅
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑲 𝑫𝟐 L
𝟒

Clearance Volume (VC): It is the volume of the

cylinder when piston is at TDC or IDC, therefore it is
minimum volume.
15
Q .12 Define Compression ratio in an ICE.
I.C. Engine
Compression ration (r): It is
defined as the ratio of volume
before compression to the
volume of after compression.

volume before compression =

V C + VS

volume after compression = VC

𝑽𝑪 +𝑽𝑺
r=
𝑽𝑪
16
Q.13 What do you I.C.
meanEngine
by Four Stroke Engines?

 Cycle operations (Intake, Compression,

Expansion or power and Exhaust) completed in
four strokes of the piston or two revolution (720o)
of the crank.

 Four Stroke Engines may SI or CI.

17
Q.14 Explain with suitable sketches the working of
Four Stroke SI Engines.

18
Working:
Suction Stroke:
 Piston moves down from TDC to BDC.
 Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
 Pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric
pressure.
 The mixture of air fuel is sucked into the cylinder through
the inlet valve.
Compression Stroke:
 Piston moves up from BDC to TDC.
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
 Temperature and pressure increased due to compression of air
fuel mixture in the cylinder.
19
Power or Expansion Stroke:
 The burning gases expand rapidly.
 Gases exert an impulse (thrust or force) on the piston.
 The piston is pushed from TDC to BDC.
 This reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of
the crankshaft through connecting rod.
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.

Exhaust Stroke:
 Piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.
 Exhaust valve is opened and the inlet valve is closed.
 The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust
valve.
 The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to
receive fresh charge to start a new cycle.
20
Q.15 Explain with suitable sketches the working of
Four Stroke CI Engines.

21
Working:
Suction Stroke:
 Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
 Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
 The pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric
pressure.
 Fresh air from the atmosphere is sucked into the engine cylinder
through air cleaner and inlet valve.

Compression stroke:
 Piston moves from BDC to TDC.
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
 The only air is drawn during suction stroke is compressed to a high
pressure and temperature.
22
Power or expansion stroke:
 Fuel (diesel) is injected inside the cylinder with the help of fuel
injector.
 The burning gases expand rapidly and push the piston from TDC to
BDC.
 This movement of piston is converted into rotary motion of the crank
shaft through connecting rod.
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
Exhaust Stroke:
 Piston moves from BDC to TDC.
 Exhaust valve is opened the inlet valve is closed.
 The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust
valve.
 The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to
receive fresh air to start a new cycle. 23
Q.16 Write down the differences between SI and CI Engines.
I.C. Engine
S. No. SI Engine CI Engine
It works on OTTO Cycle or constant volume heat It works on DIESEL Cycle or constant pressure
1
addition. heat addition.
During the intake or suction process, air and fuel During the intake or suction process, only air is
2
are used. used.
The fuel used Petrol which is highly volatile. Self The fuel used Diesel which is low volatile. Self-
3
Ignition temperature is high. ignition temperature is low.
4 The fuel is supplied by Carburetor. The fuel is supplied by Injector.
5 The maintenance cost is low. The maintenance cost is high.
6 It is used in Small Vehicles. It is used in Heavy Vehicles.
7 The compression ratio is 6 to 10. The compression ratio is 16 to 22.

8 The starting of this engine is easy. Starting is a little difficult comparatively SI engine.

9 It produces less noise. It produces high noise.

Lower thermal efficiency because of the low High thermal efficiency because of the high
10
compression ratio. compression ratio.
24
Q.17 What do you mean
I.C. by Two Stroke Engines?
Engine
 Cycle operations (Intake, Compression, Expansion or
power and Exhaust) completed in two strokes of the
piston or one revolution (360o) of the crank.

 Two Stroke Engines may SI or CI.

25
Q.18 Explain with suitable sketches the working of
Two Stroke SI Engines.
Working:
Compression and Ignition:
 The piston moves from (BDC) to
(TDC).
 Both transfer and exhaust
ports are covered by the
piston.
 Air fuel mixture is compressed
by moving piston. The pressure
and temperature increases at
the end of compression. 26
 As piston almost reaches the top dead center. The air
fuel mixture inside the cylinder is ignited by means of
an electric spark produced by a spark plug.

 At the same time, the inlet port is uncovered by the

piston. Fresh air fuel mixture enters the crankcase
through the inlet port.

27
Expansion and Exhaust:
 The burning gases expand in the cylinder. The burning
gases force the piston to move down. Thus useful work
is obtained.
 When the piston moves down, the air fuel mixture
in the crankcase is partially compressed.
 This compression is known as crank case
compression.
 At the end of expansion, exhaust port is
uncovered. Burnt gases escape to the atmosphere.
Transfer port is also opened.
28
Q.19 Explain with suitable sketches the working of
Two Stroke CI Engines.
Working:
Compression and ignition:
 The piston moves upwards from
(BDC) to (TDC). Both transfer and
exhaust ports are covered.
 Air which is transferred already into
the engine cylinder is compressed by
moving piston.
 The pressure and temperature of the
air increases. 29
 Piston almost reaches the top dead center. The
fuel is injected into the hot compressed air inside
the cylinder.

 The fuel mixed with hot air and burns.

 The admission of fresh air into the crankcase

continues till the piston reaches the top dead
center.

30
Expansion and Exhaust:
 The burning gases expand in the cylinder.
 Burning gases force the piston to move down. Thus
useful work is obtained.

 At the same time, the air in the crank case is compressed

by the movement of the piston from BDC to TDC.

 At the end of expansion, the exhaust port is uncovered.

 The burnt gases escape to the atmosphere through the

exhaust port.
31
Q.20 Write down the differences between
engines. I.C. Engine 4 strokes and 2 strokes

S. No. 4-stroke 2-Stroke

Four stroke of the piston and two revolution of Two stroke of the piston and one revolution of
1
crankshaft crankshaft
One power stroke in every two revolution of One power stroke in each revolution of
2
crankshaft crankshaft
3 Power produce is less Theoretically twice power
Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform turning Lighter flywheel due to more uniform turning
4
movement movement
Lesser cooling and lubrication requirements Greater cooling and lubrication requirements
5

Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement

6

Volumetric efficiency and Thermal efficiency is Volumetric efficiency and Thermal efficiency is
7
high low
8 Heavy and bulky Light and compact
32
 Q.21 What is Scavenging process?
 Scavenging is a process of
pushing exhaust gases out of the
cylinder.

 This action takes place in the two

stroke engine.

 The charge (air fuel mixture or air)

enters the engine cylinder from the
crank case at a pressure higher
than the exhaust gases. 33
 This fresh charge forces the burnt gases to the atmosphere
through the exhaust port. During the period both the
transfer and exhaust ports are kept open for a short period.

 Hence there is a possibility of the fresh charge escaping

out with the burnt gases.

 This is over- come by designing the piston to have a

deflected shape.

 This shape of piston deflects the fresh charge upward in

the engine cylinder. It also helps out in forcing out the burnt
gases to atmosphere. 34
35
36
37
38
39
Q.22 What is electric vehicle? What are the main components
of electric vehicle?
 An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric
motor for propulsion.
 The electric motors are the replacement of ICE.
 Main components of electric vehicle are Battery, Electric motor,
Battery charger, Power electric converter.

40
 I.C. Engine
Electric Vehicles
 Advantages:
 Better for the environment.
 Electricity is less expensive than fuels.
 Less maintenance at a lower cost.
 Produce less noise.

 Disadvantages:
 EVs have short ranges for driving.(100 to 400 km)
 Charging can take a lot of time.
 Initial investment is high.
 Charging stations are not available everywhere.
41
Q.23 What is hybrid vehicle? Give the classification of hybrid
vehicles?
 A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that
combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE)
system with an electric propulsion system .

 Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving

technologies such as regenerative brakes which convert
the vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy, which is
stored in a battery or super-capacitor.

42
HybridI.C. Engine
Electric Vehicles

43
 Types of Hybrid Vehicles
Parallel Hybrid
Toyota Camry, Honda Accord, Toyota Prius, Hyundai Sonata,
etc.

Series Hybrid
BMW i3, Kia Optima, Ford Fusion, Chevrolet Volt, etc.

Plug-in Hybrid
BMW 330e, Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in Hybrid, Volvo XC40

Mild-Hybrid
Maruti Suzuki Ertiga, Ciaz, Baleno, etc.
44
 I.C. Engine
Advantages of Hybrid Cars
 Cleaner Emission: Compared to the ICE engine, hybrid
cars produce less emissions and it is environmental friendly.

 Less Fuel Dependency: With an electric motor to support

the primary petrol engine, there is additional power
available. Hence, there is less dependency on fossil fuel.

 Smaller and Efficient Engine: Petrol engines used in

hybrid cars are smaller in size and comparatively fuel
efficient.
45
 I.C. Engine
Disadvantages of Hybrid Cars
 Lower Performance: Since the main motive is to increase the
fuel efficiency or range of the hybrid car, the power or
acceleration can lag behind a conventional internal combustion
engine car.

 Expensive to Buy: Although car companies are trying to bridge

the gap in pricing between a conventional vehicle and hybrid,
hybrids continue to demand higher costs.

 High Maintenance Cost: With several mechanical parts in the

cars and with two sets of engines powering the hybrids, the
maintenance continues to be on the higher side. Also, not all
mechanics are trained to repair a hybrid car. 46
Q.24 Compare the relative advantages and disadvantages
among IC engine, Electric and Hybrid vehicles.

47
 KME 101-T
Refrigeration
Its meaning and application, unit of refrigeration;
Coefficient of performance, methods of refrigeration,
construction and working of domestic refrigerator,
concept of heat pump. Formula based numerical
problems on cooling load.

48
Q.1 Define refrigeration and refrigerant. What are the
applications of refrigeration in different fields.
 Refrigeration is a process of maintaining lower temperature compare to
surrounding temperature.

 In order to maintain temperature continuously refrigeration system must run

on a cycle.

 Refrigerant is a substance used for producing lower temperature.

 Example are NH3, water, air, R-11, R-12, R-134 etc.

 Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and reject heat at a higher

temperature . 49
 Applications of Refrigeration
I.C. Engine
1. Domestic refrigeration

2. Chemical refrigeration

3. Industrial refrigeration

4. Transport refrigeration

5. Air-conditioning

50
Q.2 Give the name of any four environment friendly
refrigerants.

 These include ethane, propane, isobutane,

difluoromethane (HFC-32), and a blend of four alkanes
called R-441A (ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane).

 These refrigerants are already being used in some places

around the world

51
Q.3 Explain the term 1 tonne of refrigeration. What are the
methods of refrigeration.

 It is the amount of heat that is to be removed from one

tonne of water at zero (0oC) in order to convert it into ice
at 0 oC in one day (24 hours).

 Tonne of refrigeration represents heat transfer rate.

1 T.R. = 3.5 kJ/s = 3.5 kW = 210 kJ/min

52
 Methods
I.C.for Refrigeration
Engine
 Natural Refrigeration Methods
 Natural ice for refrigeration
 Evaporative Cooling
 Artificial Refrigeration Methods
 Gas refrigeration system
 Vapour Compression refrigeration system
 Vapour absorption system
 Artificial Refrigeration Methods
 Gas refrigeration system
 Vapour Compression refrigeration system
 Vapour absorption system 53
Q.4 Define refrigerator and heat pump.
 Clausius Statement: “It is impossible to construct a
device which operates on a cycle and transfer heat from
low temperature body to high temperature body without
any external work.”High Temperature
Reservoir TH
QH

R
QL
Low Temperature
Reservoir
TL
 Refrigerator
High Temperature  Refrigerator works on the Clausius
Reservoir
statement.
TH  It absorb the heat from the low
QH temperature medium and rejects
heat into high temperature medium
R W
by consuming external work.
QL
 Refrigerator used to maintain low
TL temperature as compared to
Low Temperature surrounding.
Reservoir
 Refrigerator
High Temperature
Reservoir 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
TH
𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
QH 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅

R W
QL

TL
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Heat Pump
High Temperature
 Heat Pump works on the Clausius
Reservoir
statement.
TH  It absorb the heat from the low
QH temperature medium and rejects
heat into high temperature medium
H.P W
by consuming external work.
QL  Heat pump used to maintain High
TL temperature as compared to
surrounding.
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Heat Pump
High Temperature
Reservoir 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯.𝑷. =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
TH
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
QH 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯.𝑷. =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅

H.P W
QL

TL
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Refrigerator & Heat Pump
High Temperature High Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir

TH = Tatm. TH TH
QH QH

R W H.P. W
QL QL

TL TL TL = Tatm.
Low Temperature Low Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir
Q.5 Derive the relation between &
Refrigerator theHeat
COP of refrigerator
Pump
and heat pump.
 Coefficient of Performance
 The efficiency of a refrigerator and heat pump is expressed in
terms of the coefficient of performance (COP).

 The value of COP can be greater than unity.

 Thermal efficiency can never be greater than 1.

 The COP represents the running cost of refrigerator and heat

pump.

 Higher the value of COP lower the running cost.

Q.6 Explain construction and working of domestic
refrigerator.
 Refrigerator is a cyclic device which is used to maintain
lower temperature as compared to surrounding
temperature.

62
1. COMPRESSOR:

 It is a mechanical device which transfers mechanical

energy to working fluids i.e. refrigerant which is coming
from evaporator.
 Compressor raises the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant.

63
2. CONDENSER

 It is a type of heat exchanger.

 The refrigerant enters into the condenser from the
compressor.
 Condenser rejects the heat from working fluid (refrigerant)
by means cooling coils made up of copper into the
atmosphere.
 Due to heat rejection from refrigerant, it converts from
gaseous state to liquid state.
 After condensing refrigerant goes into the expansion
devices.
64
3. THROTTLING/EXPANSION DEVICES

 In expansion valve the pressure and temperature

decreases which comes from condenser.

 It also regulates the flow of refrigerant into the

evaporator and maintains the flow rate equal to the rate
of evaporation in the evaporator.

 We can regulate and control the temperature of refrigerator

using expansion devices by varying the opening as per our
requirements.
65
4. EVAPORATOR

 Refrigerant comes from throttling device enters into the evaporator at very
low temp and pressure.

 In evaporator refrigerant goes through cooling coils and heat is

absorbed by the refrigerant.

 Due to this temperature of the refrigerant increases and liquid refrigerant

expends and converts into vapours after that refrigerant goes to the
compressor.

 Evaporator works as a heat exchanger between storage space and

cooling coils.

 This cycle repeats continuously. 66

Good practices to minimize the amount of energy
consumed by refrigerator
1. Open the refrigerator door the fewest times
possible for the shortest duration possible.

2. Cool the hot foods to room temperature

first before putting them into the refrigerator.

3. Check the door gasket for leaks

4. Avoid unnecessarily low temperature settings.

5. Avoid excessive ice build-up on the interior
surfaces of the evaporator. 67
 KME 101-T

Air-Conditioning
Its meaning and application, humidity, dry bulb, wet
bulb, and dew point temperatures, comfort
conditions, construction and working of window air
conditioner.

68
 Q.1 Define the term ‘air-conditioning’. What are
the different applications of air- conditioning.?
 Air-Conditioning is a process of controlling air
temperature, humidity, ventilation, filtration and air
circulation in a space (Building or Vehicle).
Applications of air- conditioning:
 Residential and office buildings
 Hospitals and cinema halls
 Libraries, museums, computer canters
 Transport vehicles : Car, bus, aircraft etc
 Food and process industries
 Production shop laboratories. 69
Q.2 Define the following
(i) Dry Air (ii) Atmospheric air (iii) Saturated air
(i) Dry air : It is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small
amounts of some other gases.

(ii) Atmospheric air : Air in the atmosphere normally

contains some water vapor (or moisture), number of
pollutants and referred as atmospheric air.

(iii) Saturated air : Saturated air is air that holds water

vapor at its highest level i.e. just about to condense.
70
Q.3 Define the following
(i) specific humidity (ii) relative humidity
(i) specific humidity:
 It is also known as absolute humidity or humidity ratio and
denoted by 𝜔.

 Specific humidity can be defined as the mass of water vapor

present in a unit mass of dry air.

71
(ii) Relative Humidity(ϕ):

 Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of how much water

vapor is in a water-air mixture compared to the maximum
amount possible.

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

ϕ=
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

 RH is a ratio of the humidity ratio of a particular water-air

mixture compared to the saturation humidity ratio at a
given temperature.
72
 Q.4 What is Psychrometry?
I.C. Engine

 Moist air is the mixture of water vapour and dry air.

 The properties of moist air are called Psychrometric

properties.

 The science in which we deal with the Psychrometric

properties is known as psychrometry.

73
Q.5 Define the following: (i) Dry Bulb Temperature
(ii)Wet Bulb Temperature (iii) Dew point Temperature

 In psychrometry, a
psychrometer comprises
of a dry bulb and a wet
bulb thermometer.

74
(i) Dry Bulb Temperature (Tdb or T)

 The dry bulb thermometer has bare bulb which is directly

exposed to air and measure the actual temperature.

(ii) Wet Bulb Temperature (Twb)

 The bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a wick
thoroughly wetted by water.

 The temperature which is measured by the wet wick

covered bulb is known as wet bulb temperature. 75
(iii) Dew point Temperature

T
Pv
Tdb
1

Tdp 2

S
76
 The air in atmosphere contain moisture (water vapour).

 If we reduce the temperature of the air, moisture get condense.

 The temperature at which first drop of dew is formed or

condensation begins when the air is cooled at
constant pressure is known as dew point temperature.

 Denoted by Tdp.

77
 Q.6 Explain the human comfort. What are the conditions
for comfort air conditioning?
 Human Comfort refers to the control of temperature and
humidity of air and its circulation.

 So that the resulting environment becomes human friendly.

 General human comfort conditions are to maintained in the

range of
• Temperatures 22 °C to 27 °C
• Relative humidity 40% to 60%
• Air velocity 5 m/min to 8 m/min
78
Q.7 With the help of neat sketch describe the working of
window type air-conditioner.

 Air-Conditioning is a process of controlling air temperature,

humidity, quality and ventilation in a space (Building or Vehicle).

 Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and

commercial environments.

 This process is most commonly used to achieve a more

comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and other
animals.

79
 I.C.Air
Window Engine
Conditioner
 Window air conditioner is
sometimes referred to as room
air conditioner.

 It is the simplest form of an

air conditioning system and is
mounted on windows or
walls.

 It is a single unit that is

assembled in a casing where all
the components are located.
80
Window
WindowAir
Air Conditioner
Conditioner

81
 Window
I.C.AirEngine
Conditioner

Compressor

 The refrigerant enters the compressor at low temperature and

pressure in a gaseous state.

 In compressor temperature and pressure of refrigerant
increases.

 The refrigerant leaves the compressor and enters to the

condenser.

 Since this process requires work, an electric motor may be used.

82
Condenser

 It is a kind of heat exchanger in which refrigerant of high

pressure and temperature enters which coming from
compressor. .

 The function of the condenser in a refrigeration system is

to transfer heat from the refrigerant to another medium,
such as air.

 By rejecting heat, the gaseous refrigerant condenses to liquid

inside the condenser.
83
Throttling/Expansion valve

 High pressure refrigerant from the condenser enters the

throttling device, the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant drops down suddenly.

 Throttling valve also controls the amount of the refrigerant

flowing through it.

84
Evaporator

 It is a kind of heat exchanger in which refrigerant of low

pressure and temperature enters which is coming from
throttling valve.

 The function of the evaporator is to absorb heat by the

refrigerant from the space to be cooled.

 By absorbing heat, the refrigerant converts from liquid

state to gaseous state.
85
 Filter Drier is used to remove the moisture from the
refrigerant.

 Drain Pan is used to contain the water that condensate from

the cooling coil and is discharged out to the outdoor.

 Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled condenser to help move

the air molecules over the surface of the condensing coil.

 Fan Motor is located here. It has a double shaft where the

indoor blower and outdoor propeller fan are connected
together.
86
 Specification
A window air-c conditioner is normally specified by the
following parameters:

 Capacity : 1, 1.5 and 2 ton etc

 Overall dimensions : length x width x height

 Power supply : AC, 220-240 volts

 Control : site or remote

87
 UNIT - 5 (I)
Measurements and Control System:
Concept of Measurement, Error in measurements, Calibration,
measurements of pressure, temperature, mass flow rate, strain, force
and torques; Concept of accuracy, precision and resolution, Basic
Numerical problems.
System of Geometric Limit, Fit, Tolerance and gauges, Basic Numerical
problems.
Control System Concepts: Introduction to Control Systems,
Elements of control system, Basics of open and closed loop
control with example. 2
 MEASUREMENT

Measurand : A physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to

be measured.

Standard/Reference: A physical quantity to which quantitative

comparisons are to be made, which is internationally accepted.
 Measurement
 It is the process of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and measurand (i.e the quantity being
measured)
 Measurements are always made using an instrument of some
kind.
 Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the
required accuracy at a minimum cost.
 The result of a measurement is normally in two parts: a number
and a unit of measurement, e.g.
'How long is it? ... 2 meters.’

5
Example of measuring instrument or tool:

 Ruler
 Thermometer
 Stop watch or watch
 Weighing Machine etc

6
Methods of Measurement:

 In precision measurement various methods of measurement

are adopted depending upon the accuracy required and the
amount of permissible error.

1. Direct Measurement Method

2. In-Direct Measurement Method

7
1.Direct Measurement Method :
 In this method the value of the physical
parameter(measurand) is determined by comparing it directly
with reference standards.
Example: Measurement of length with the help of scale.

8
2. In-Direct Measurement Method:

 In this method the value of the physical parameter(measurand) is

determined by indirect comparison with secondary standards
through calibration.

 The measurand is converted into an analogous signal which is

subsequently processed and fed to end device that presents the
result of measurement.

9
Based upon the complexity of measurement system, the
measurement are generally grouped into three basic categories.

1. Primary Measurement ( direct comparison)

2. Secondary Measurement (Involved one conversion)

3. Tertiary Measurement (Involved two conversion)

 1. Primary Measurement:

 The primary measurements provide subjective information only.

 Observer can indicates only that the content of one container is

hotter than the content of other container.

 One rod is longer than other rod.

 One object contains more or less mass than other.

 2. Secondary Measurement:

Conversion of pressure into displacement by means of bellows and

the conversion of force into displacement by means of spring are
simple examples of secondary measurement.
 3.Tertiary Measurement

The measurement of
pressure by a bourdon
tube pressure gauge is an
example of tertiary
measurement.
 Error in Measurement
 It is defined as a difference between indicated or measured value and true
value.
Error = True Value – Measured Value

 It is impossible to made measurement with perfect accuracy.

 No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy but it is important to

find out what accuracy actually is and how different errors have entered in
to measurement.

 Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as under

14
15
Gross Error: It mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement results.

Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures, and

they are written below:

 Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also,

the calculation of error should be done accurately.

 By increasing the number of experiments, we can reduce the

gross error. If each experimenter takes different points, then by
taking the average of more readings we can reduce the gross
error. 16
Systematic Error: Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide it into
subgroups.
(i) Instrumental Error : These errors arise due to three main reasons:
(a) Due to inherent short coming in the instruments: These errors arise due to faulty
construction and calibration of the measuring instruments. These errors may cause the
instrument to read too low or too high.
(b)Due to misuse of the instruments
(c)Due to loading effects of instruments

(ii) Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of
the external conditions includes temperature, pressure, and humidity and can also include
an external magnetic field.
(iii) Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to:
(a) An individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus, or an individual’s
carelessness in taking observations.
(b)The measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax errors.
17
Random Error:

(a) The random errors are those errors, which occur

irregularly and hence are random.

(b) The random errors are accidental, small and independent.

(c) They vary in an unpredictable manner.

18
19
 Accuracy and Precision
 In a set of measurements, accuracy is closeness of the
measurements to a true value.

 In a set of measurements precision is the closeness of the

measurements to each other.
 Calibration in Measurement
 Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain
instrument accuracy.
Or
 Calibration is an activity of checking the accuracy and precision of
measuring instrument by comparing it with the standard.
 Calibration provides consistency in readings and reduces errors, thus
validating the measurement universally.
The procedure of calibration involves a comparison of the particular
instrument with either:
(a) A primary standard
(b) A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
calibrated
(c) An instrument of known accuracy. 21
 Calibration Standards:

IS0- Makes globally acceptable rules.

NSO-(Primary Level Standard) - Makes country
level rules and parameter.
Standard Laboratory-(Secondary Level
Standard) - Check and Certified.
Company Standard Laboratory- (Working
Standard)
Process Instruments- Industry Floor Standard 22
 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
“It is defined as normal force per
unit area.”
𝐹
P=
𝐴
It is a scalar quantity.

Units of Pressure :
 N/m2

 Pascal (Pa) (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)

 atm (1 atm = 101325 Pa =

101.325 kPa)
Bar (1 bar =105 Pa = 105 N/m2 23
 Manometer
 It is an instrument used for measuring the pressure at a point in
a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by same or another fluid
column.
 They are classified as
1. Simple Manometers
(a) Piezometers
(b) U-tube monomer
(c) Single column manometer

2. Differential manometers
(a) U-Tube differential manometer
(b) Inverted U-Tube differential manometer 24
 U-Tube Manometer

This manometer consists of U- shaped

glass-tube as shown in figure.

One end of the U-tube is connected

to the point where pressure has to be
measured while other end remains
open to the atmospheric pressure.

Water and mercury are used as a

manometric fluid.
25
Advantages of Manometer
 Simple & time-proven
 High accuracy & sensitivity
 Wide range of filling

Disadvantages of Manometer
 No over-range protection
 Large & bulky
 Measured fluids must be compatible with the manometer fluids
 Need for levelling

26
 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tube pressure gauge is used

to measure the pressure from 0.6 bar
to 7000 bar.

It is a mechanical pressure

measuring instrument.

 It operates without any electric

power.

27
 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge……..

When bourdon tube is subjected to

applied pressure then it deflects.

This deflection is proportional

applied pressure.

C-type bourdon tube consists of a long thin wall cylinder which is sealed at
one end.

Other end of tube is fixed and open at the application where pressure is be
measured.

28
 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge……….

Tip of tube is connected to a segmental liver through an adjustable link.

 segmental liver is provided with a rack which meshes with a suitable

pinion.

 This pinion is mounted on spindle.

 This spindle holds a pointer.

 Resulting movement of free end of tube causes the pointer to move over a
scale

29
Advantages of Bourdon Tube
 Low cost & simple construction
 Wide range ability
 Good accuracy
 Adaptable to transducer designs

Disadvantages of Bourdon Tube

 Low spring gradient below 50psig
 Subject to Hysteresis
 Susceptible to shock & vibration

30
 Measurement of Temperature
 Temperature of a body is defined as degree of hotness or coldness of
the body measured on a definite scale.

 The principle of temperature measurement is based on Zeroth law of

thermodynamics.

 To measure the temperature quantitatively, we use some property of

matter that change with temperature

 The instrument which is used for measuring temperature is a

thermometer.

 The SI unit used to measure the temperature is Kelvin (K). 31

The commonly used scales for measuring temperature are:

 Kelvin scale (K)

 Centigrade scale (OC)

 Fahrenheit scale (OF)

 Rankine scale (R)

32
Methods of Temperature Measurement

33
 Liquid in Glass Thermometer

 The liquid in glass thermometer is one of the most common types of temperature
measuring device.
 In 1974, Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the mercury thermometer.
 The basis of the thermometer’s operation is the thermal expansion of a working fluid
(mercury in this case). The volume of mercury changes slightly with temperature; the
small change in volume drives the narrow mercury column a relatively long way up the
tube
 A mercury thermometer consists of a long, narrow and uniform glass tube called the
stem. The scales on which temperature is measured are marked on the stem.
 A capillary tube is there inside glass stem in which mercury gets expanded when a
thermometer comes in contact with a hot body. 34
 Thermocouple
 It is the most popular electrical method for
temperature measurement in industrial
applications.
 The temperature range of this instrument
depends upon the type of thermocouple
materials used.
 The major reasons behind their popularity are:
(i) Readings are consistent,
(ii) They can measure over a wide range of
temperature.
(iii) Their characteristics are almost linear with an
accuracy of about 0.05%.
 The working of thermocouple is based on
principle of Seeback Effect. 35
 When two dissimilar metals are joined together as shown in fig.

 An emf will exist between the two points A and B, which is

primarily a function of the junction temperature. This
phenomenon is called Seeback Effect.

 The actual value being dependent on the materials used and

the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions.

 The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the
combination of two effects: Peltier effect and Thomson effect
36
 Bimetallic Thermometer
 Bimetallic Thermometer are extensively used in process industries for local
temperature measurements
 These thermometers used two fundamental principles:
(i) All metals expand or contract with change in temperature
(ii) The temperature co-efficient of expansion is not same for all metals and
their rate of expansion or contraction are different. The difference in thermal
expansion rates is used to produce deflections proportional to temperature
changes.

37
 A Bimetallic Thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip which is constructed
by bonding together two thin strips of two different metals such that they
cannot move relative to each other.
 Since all metals try to change their physical dimensions at different rates
when subjected to same change in temperature, these two metallic strips
change their lengths at different rates.
 The different rate of expansion of two metals results in bending of the
bimetallic strip with change in temperature.
 Figure shows a bimetallic strip in the form of a straight cantilever beam. With
one end fixed, the temperature changes cause the free end to deflect. This
movement or the deflection of the free end can be read out by attaching a
pointer to it.
 This reading will indicate the value of temperature. Bimetallic strips are
available in different forms like helix type, cantilever, spiral, and also flat
type. 38
 Measurement of Mass Flow Rate

 Various types of flow meter

1. Venturi-meteter
2. Orifice meter
3. Magnetic flow meter
4. Ultrasonic flow meter
5. Thermal flow meter
6. Turbine flow meter

39
 Venturi Meter
 It is a gradually converging-diverging device that is used to measure the
discharge of fluid flow.

 Venturi meter is work on Bernoulli’s equation.

 It is one of the costlier device to measure discharge.

 Accuracy is high.

 Losses are less.

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
 Value of Cd is high (0.94 to 0.98) [Coefficient of discharge ,Cd = ]
𝑄𝑡ℎ
40
Main parts of Venturimeter:-
1. Converging part
2. Throat
3. Diverging Part

 Cross sectional area of throat section is smaller than inlet section due to this the
velocity of flow at throat section is higher than velocity at inlet section, this happen
according to continuity equation.
 The increases in velocity at the throat result in decreases in pressure at this section ,
due to this pressure difference is developed between inlet valve and throat of the
venturi-meter.
 This difference in pressure is measured by manometer by placing this between the inlet
section and throat.
 Using pressure difference value we can easily calculate flow rate through the pipe. 41
 Orifice Meter
 Orifice Meter is a cheapest device to measure discharge.
 Losses are high.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
 Value of Cd is low (0.60 to 0.65) [Coefficient of discharge ,Cd = ]
𝑄𝑡ℎ

42
 Measurement of Force
Various devices have been developed to measure force. Some of them are
1. Elastic force transducers

2. Hydraulic cell

3. Pneumatic load cell

4. Strain gauge load cell

5. Piezoelectric load cell

6. LVDT force transducer

7. Analytical balance
43
 Hydraulic Load Cell
 It can be used to measure force of very high
magnitude (of the order of millions of
newtons)
 It consists of a closed container filled with oil
and covered with diaphragm as shown in
figure.
 A pressure measuring device such as
Bourdon tube pressure gauge is connected
to the container.
 When load acts on the diaphragm, it gets
deflected and transmits force to the oil as a
result of which pressure develops in the oil.
 The magnitude of pressure developed is
indicated by the pressure gauge which can
be converted into force
 The pressure gauge can also be directly
44
calibrated in units of force.
 Pneumatic Load Cell

 It is used to measure force up to 20,000 N.

 It consists of a chamber with a nozzle as

shown in figure and covered with elastic
diaphragm.

 Pressurized air is supplied through a pipe to

the chamber.

 The pressure in the chamber is detected by

the pressure gauge.

 This pressure measure the applied unknown

force.
45
 Measurement of Strain
Strain Gauge
 The transducers used for measurement of strain are generally referred as Strain Gauge.
 We shall confine our self to measurement of longitudinal strain because all other types of
strain can be computed from it.
 The main challenge in strain measurement is to measure the change in dimension which
is usually very small.
 The change in length is so small that is difficult to detect it using ordinary means. This has
led to development of strain gauges.
 Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force.
 The following are the major types of strain gauges
i. Unbounded metal strain gauges
ii. Bonded metal wire strain gauges
iii. Bonded metal foil strain gauges
iv. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
v. Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
vi. Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
46
vii. Diffused metal strain gauges
Strain Rosette
 It is a combination of strain gauges with various angular orientations.

 Rosette gauges are used for measuring strain in complex parts.

 When strain gets developed in more then one direction, a three

element gauge is required which is generally called three-element
rosette.

 There are three types of strain gauge rosettes.

a) Rectangular rosette
b) Delta rosette
c) T-Delta rosette
47
 Rectangular strain gauge rosette

 The three strain gauges are oriented as shown in figure

 The strain measured by the three strain gauges are ɛ1 ɛ2 and ɛ3

48
 Measurement of Torque
 Torque and power transmitted by a shaft is measured by a device known
as dynamometer.

 A dynamometer can be defined as a device that is used to measure

torque and the rotational speed of a machine.

 Various types of dynamometer are

1. Power Absorption Dynamometers
(a) Prony Brake Dynamometer
(b) Rope Brake Dynamometer

2. Transmission Dynamometers
(a) Belt Transmission Dynamometer
(b) Torsion Dynamometer 49
 Power absorption dynamometer

 Power Absorption dynamometers measure and absorb the power

output of the engine to which they are coupled.

 The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means.

 Examples of power absorption dynamometers are Prony brake

dynamometer, Rope brake dynamometer, Eddy current
dynamometer, Hydraulic dynamometer, etc.

50
 Prony brake dynamometer

 It is the simplest form of absorption type

dynamometer.

 It has two wooden blocks that are placed on

a pulley which is fixed on the shaft of
the engine whose power is to be measured.

 The wooden blocks are clamped together

with two sets of bolts and nuts.

 To control the speed of pulley, the pressure

is adjusted over a pulley with the help of a
helical spring present between the nut and
the upper block.
51
 Prony brake dynamometer…..
 A long lever is attached to the upper block which carries weight on its outer end. This
weight placed on the lever balances the brake when unloaded.

 To measure shaft power using Prony brake dynamometer, the lever is loaded with
suitable load L and nuts tightened such that the engine shaft runs at a constant speed
and the lever is in horizontal position.

 The movement because of the weight loaded on the outer end of lever balances the
movement of frictional resistance between the pulley and wooden block. The power
absorbed during friction is converted into heat which is why this dynamometer needs to
be cooled down often.

 Under such working condition, moment due to load L balances moment due to frictional
resistance force (F) between wooden blocks and the pulley

 Torque on the shaft is given by the relation, T=Fxr 52

 Rope brake dynamometer
 It consists flywheel of one or more ropes (of
diameter d) wound around pulley (of diameter
D) which is keyed to the shaft of the engine.

 Upper end of the rope is connected to a spring

balance and lower end carries load (L).
 The power is absorbed when friction is produced
between rope and drum.

 This type of dynamometer is cheap and can be

made quickly.

 However, braking power is not accurately

measured due to change in the friction
coefficient of the rope with the change in
temperature. 53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Question
Shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of 40 ± 0.02 mm.
The shaft has a basic size of 40 mm.

It will be acceptable if its diameter lies between the limits of sizes.

Upper limit of 40+0.02 = 40.02 mm

Lower limit of 40-0.02 = 39.98 mm.

Then, permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.04 mm.

61
62
63
64
 FIT
The degree of tightness and or looseness between
the two mating parts.

65
Upper limit of shaft is less than the lower limit of the hole.
66
Upper limit of shaft is greater than the lower limit of the
hole. 67
• Lower limit of shaft is greater than the Upper limit of the hole.
• No gap between the faces and intersecting of material will occur.
• Shaft need additional force to fit into the hole. 68
 Numerical-1
For the following hole and shaft assembly, determine (a) hole
and shaft tolerance and (b) type of fit.

69
 Numerical-2
For the following hole and shaft assembly, determine (a) hole
and shaft tolerance and (b) type of fit

70
 Numerical-3
The tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal
size of 50 mm are as follows:

Determine
(a) maximum and minimum clearances
(b) tolerances on shaft and hole
(c) allowance
(d) type of fit

71
 Gauges
 “Limit gauging is a method of checking dimensions in which a
fixed gauge is applied to the work in order to determine whether a
given component lies within its limits.”

 Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without a scale, which

used to check the dimensions of manufactured components.
 Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the dimensions of the
component. They are only used to check whether the inspected
part has been made within the specified limits.

 Thus, a limit gauge, unlike a conventional measuring tool, simply

determines whether, the part is inside or outside the tolerance
zone.

 The gauge neither measures a value of dimensions, nor shows

the value of error evolved in the component. It simply checks
that part is correct or not.
73
74
75
Need of Limit Gauges

There are two methods to ensure whether the components being

produced on the shop floor are as per the pre-decided
specifications or not.

(i) Measurement by measuring instruments.

(ii) Limit Gauging by fixed design limit gauges.

76
Obviously, measurement is the best method, but is not practical to
check every dimension on each manufactured part. On the other
hand, Limit gauging is faster, easier, and does not required skill
inspector.

Hence, in mass production where inter changeability is to be

maintained at relatively low cost, the dimensional tolerance (high
and low limits) are controlled by the limit gauges.

77
Advantages of Gauges Limit Gauges

1. Quicker Inspection Method

2. Used In-Mass Production
3. Ensure Interchangeability
4. Need Semiskilled Operator
5. Check both Linear and Geometric Features
6. Economical

78
Limitations or Disadvantages of Limit Gauges

1. Do not Indicate Exact Size

2. Errors due to Wear
3. Difficulty in Checking of Finer Tolerance

79
 Control System
Introduction
 A system is a group of physical components which gives Proper output for
a given input.

 A control system is a group of physical components which gives

controlled output for a given input.

 The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.
81
Example − Traffic lights control system
 Traffic lights system is an example of control
system.
 Here, a sequence of input signal is applied to
this control system and the output is one of the
three lights that will be on for some duration of
time.
 During this time, the other two lights will be off.
 Based on the traffic study at a particular
junction, the on and off times of the lights can
be determined.
 Accordingly, the input signal controls the output.
So, the traffic lights system is a control system.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
There are four basic elements of a typical motion control system.
• Controller
• Amplifier
• Actuator
• Feedback

INPUT OUTPUT
Controller Amplifier Actuator

Feedback
1. Controller: The controller is the brain of control system. It
typically consists of a microprocessor based CPU and memory
that is used to process data once it is collected and stored.
2. Amplifier: The amplifier receives the commands from the
control section then generates the power signal necessary for the
actuator to perform its function.
3. Actuator: Actuator converts the amplified signal in to
necessary action which is the output.
4. Feedback device: The information of performed output is sent
back to the controller and an error detector detects the error.
Accordingly controller takes action to rectify it.
 Types of control system

 In general there are two types of control system.

1. Open Loop Control System

2. Closed Loop Control System

85
 Open Loop Control System
 A control system in which the control action is totally independent of
output of the system then it is called open loop control system.

 Practical Examples
1.Fan with regulator
2.Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how much your hands are dried.
3.Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.
4.Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
Advantages of Open Loop Control System
i. Simple in construction and design.
ii. Economical.
iii. Easy to maintain.
iv. Generally stable.
v. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

i. They are inaccurate.

ii. They are unreliable.
iii. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
 Closed Loop Control System
 Control system in which the output has an effect on the input
quantity in such a manner that the input quantity will adjust
itself based on the output generated is called closed loop
control system.
 Figure below shows the block diagram of closed loop control
system in which feedback is taken from output and fed in to
input.
Practical Examples

1. Automatic Electric Iron – Heating elements are controlled

by output temperature of the iron.

2. Servo Voltage Stabilizer – Voltage controller operates

depending upon output voltage of the system.

3. An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions

depending upon the temperature of the room.
Advantages

i. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to

presence of feedback signal.
ii. Facilitates automation.
iii. his system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages
i. They are costlier.
ii. They are complicated to design.
iii. Required more maintenance.
S. N. Open loop control system Closed loop control system

1 The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always present.

2 An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.

3 It is stable one. It may become unstable.

4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.
5 It is an economical. It is costly.
6 Having small bandwidth. Having large bandwidth.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.
Examples: Hand drier, Fan with
Examples: An Air Conditioner, Servo
10 regulator
voltage stabilizer
 UNIT - 5
Introduction to Mechatronics: Evolution, Scope, Advantages and
disadvantages of Mechatronics, Industrial applications of Mechatronics,
Introduction to autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their applications. Sensors
and Transducers: Types of sensors, types of transducers and their
characteristics.
Overview of Mechanical Actuation System – Kinematic Chains, Cam,
Train Ratchet Mechanism, Gears and its type, Belt, Bearing
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems: Overview:
Pressure Control Valves, Cylinders, Direction Control Valves,
Rotary Actuators, Accumulators, Amplifiers, and Pneumatic
Sequencing Problems. 2
 Q.1 What is “Mechatronics”?
Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin (1970’s) and
can be defined as the application of electronics and
computer technology to control the motions of mechanical
systems.

3
 Mechatronics......
 It is a multidisciplinary approach to
product and manufacturing system
design (Figure).

 It involves application of electrical,

mechanical, control and computer
engineering to develop products,
processes and systems with greater
flexibility, ease in redesign and ability
of reprogramming.

 It concurrently includes all these

disciplines.
4
 Mechatronics......

 Mechatronics can also be termed as replacement

of mechanics with electronics or enhance
mechanics with electronics.

 For example, in modern automobiles,

mechanical fuel injection systems are now
replaced with electronic fuel injection systems.

 This replacement made the automobiles more

efficient and less pollutant.
5
 Mechatronics.....

 By employment of reprogrammable
microcontrollers/microcomputers, it is now easy to add
new functions and capabilities to a product or a system.

 Today’s domestic washing machines are

“intelligent” and four-wheel passenger automobiles
are equipped with safety installations such as air-
bags, parking (proximity) sensors, antitheft
electronic keys etc.
6
 Q.2 What are the Advantages of Mechatronics?

1. Mechatronics enhances functionality and features.

2. It brings more efficiency.
3. Mechatronics adds intelligence to design of the system.
4. Mechatronics solutions are less expensive when compared to mechanical
solutions.
5. A mechatronic solution improves design and reliability.
6. It is also more user-friendly and safer to use.
7. Mechatronic uses microcontroller, by which precision, position, speed, flow
rate, and variables can be controlled.
7
Q.3 What are the Dis-advantages of Mechatronics?

1. High initial cost of the system.

2. Imperative to have knowledge of different engineering field for design and
implementation.
3. Specific problem for various system would have to be addressed separately
and properly.
4. It is expensive to incorporate mechatronic approach to an existing/old
system.
5. Maintenance and servicing are costly .

8
Q.4 What are the Industrial application of
Mechatronics?

 Mechatronics based automated systems such as automatic

inspection and quality assurance, automatic packaging, record
making, and automatic dispatch help to expedite the entire
manufacturing operation.
 It is widely used in aeronautics engineering for unmanned
aerial vehicles and automatic pilots. In the defense industry it is
used for automatically guided vehicles and mine detection
robots. 9
 Q.5 Write short notes on Autotronics.
Definition: Autotronics can be defined as the combination of automobile
and electronics or we can say that the use of electronics science in
automobile vehicles is called autotronics.
Major Areas:
 The use of electronics in the automobile field makes the system safe, improved and
efficient.
 At present, in the new generation automobiles almost 75%-85% of automobile parts are
embedded with electronics system.
 The main areas of automobiles using autotronics are engine controlling system, airbags,
antilock braking system, lightening interiors, GPS, music systems etc.
 In the autotronics systems the use of control units like sensors, motors and digital
equipment establishes a communication between the various essential system and
components of the vehicle. 10
 Q.6 Write short notes on Bionics.

 Bionics is a field of technology that combines the study of biology

in nature and its patterns, with mechatronics, which combines
mechanical, electronics and software.
 Bionics consists of many different subject areas, but one of the most
eye-catching and popular is bionic implants.
 These implants aim to improve the standard of living for people
who have damaged body parts such as arms, legs, eyes, or even
ears.
11
 Working of bionic implants
 It’s extremely hard to mimic the actions created by regular limbs. It’s something that
software and hardware engineers have a lot of trouble working with.
 To solve this, all the successful bionics systems use machine learning to mimic physical
movements.
 Myoelectric (Myo = muscles) sensors are used in bionic limbs to generate an electrical
signal from muscle contractions.
 This is useful because it can get signals from the still functional nerve endings of the
amputated limb. This means that the sensors can pick up when the user wants to
move that area.
 In some cases, to improve the accuracy of myoelectric sensors, small incisions are
made to place them closer to the muscle/nerve endings.
12
 Q.7 Write short notes on Avionics.
 Avionics are the electronics systems used in aircraft, artificial satellite,
and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the
display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems
that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions.

 Avionics grew in 1950’s and 1960 as electronic devices which replaces the
mechanical or analog equipment in the aircraft.
 Avionics equipment on a modern military or civil aircraft account for around;
• 30% of the total cost of the aircraft
• 40% in the case of a maritime patrol/antisubmarine aircraft or helicopter.
• Over 75% of the total cost in the case of an airborne early warning aircraft
(AWACS).
13
NEED FOR AVIONICS:
 To enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and
efficiently. For civil airliner the mission is carrying passengers to their
destination. For military aircraft the mission is intercepting a hostile
aircraft, attacking a ground target, reconnaissance or maritime patrol.
Advantages
 Increased safety
 Air traffic control requirements
 All weather operation
 Reduction in fuel consumption
 Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in
maintenance costs
14
 Q.8 Define Sensor with an example.
 Sensor: A sensor is a device that provides usable output in response to
change in a specified physical quantity which is measured. A device that
receives and responds to a signal .
 The physical quantity may be temperature, force, pressure, displacement,
flow etc.
 For example, the bulb of a thermometer senses the temperature of the body
in contact

15
 Q.9 Define transducer with an example.
 The transducer is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-
electrical signal into an electrical signal which is easily measurable. The
process of energy conversion in the transducer is known as the
transduction(figure). It consists of two parts:
1. Sensing element/detector
For example : thermometer
2. Transduction element

16
 Q.10 List the types of sensors.
• Temperature Sensor
• Proximity Sensor
• Accelerometer
• IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
• Pressure Sensor
• Light Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
• Touch Sensor, colour sensor
• Humidity Sensor
• Flow and Level Sensor
17
 Q.11 List the types of transducers.

Types of transducers:
There are of many different types of transducer, they can be classified
based on various criteria as:
1. Transducer based on Quantity to be Measured
• Temperature Transducers (e.g thermocouple)
• Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
• Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
• Oscillator transducers
• Flow transducers
18
2. Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
• Capacitive
• Inductive
• Resistive
• Photoelectric
• chemical
3. Transducer based on need of an External Power Source
 Active Transducer: Active transducers are those which do not require any power
source for their operation. For example, a thermocouple, thermometer etc.
 Passive Transducer: Transducers which require an external power source for their
operation is called as a passive transducer. For example, a strain gauge,
thermistor etc.
19
 Q.12 Explain Characteristics of sensors and transducers
 The performance characteristics are mainly divided into two
categories:
i) Static characteristics ii) Dynamic characteristics
i. Static characteristics:
Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is either held constant or
varying very slowly. Range, sensitivity, linearity, resolution, accuracy, precision, response time etc are
important static characteristics.

ii. Dynamic characteristics:

Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is changing
rapidly with time. For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose duration is more than one-
tenth of a second; thus, the dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be very satisfactory.
Few important dynamics characteristics are dynamic error, speed of response.
20
Q.13 Define Kinematic Link or Element with an example.

Kinematic Link or Element:

 Every part of a machine which is
having some relative motion with
respect to some other parts will
be known as kinematic link or
element.

 Examples : Piston, Connecting

rod, crank, lever etc.
21
 Q.14 Define Kinematic chain with an example.

Kinematic Chain:
 “If all the links are connected in
such a way that first link is
connected to last link in order to
get the close chain and if all the
relative motion in this close chain
are constrained then such a chain
is known as kinematic chain”.

22
23
 Q.15 Define mechanism and machine.

Mechanism:
 “If one of the links of kinematic
chain is fixed then it will be
known as mechanism”.
Machine:
 “When a mechanism is utilized in
order to get desired output with
respect to given input then it will
be known as a machine”.
24
Q.16 Define CAM with diagram.

25
 Q.17 What are the types of CAM ?.

Types of Cams:
Cams can be classified according to
 Shape
 Follower movement
 Manner of constraint of the follower
1. Wedge and flat cams
2. Radial or disc cams
3. Spiral cams
4. Cylindrical cams
5. Spherical cams 26
1. Wedge and flat cams

27
2. Radial or disc cams

28
3. Spiral cams

29
4. Cylindrical cams

30
5. Spherical cams

31
Q.18 What are the types of followers ?.

32
33
 Q.19 What is the use of gears or gear drive ?

Gears are used to

 Transmit power
 Change the velocity
 Change the direction

Gear Ratio:

34
35
36
Q.20 Explain the types of gears .

37
38
Spur gear : This is Cylindrical gear. Teeth are parallel to axis. This is
a highly demanded gear, which is easy to manufacture and to
assemble.
Helical gear : This is a Cylindrical gear. Teeth have helix curve.
Helical gear provides more strength, less oscillation and lower
noise level compared with Spur gears.
Internal gear : This is a cylindrical gear ring with teeth formed at
the inner diameter.
Straight bevel (Miter) gear: Miter gear has shaft angle of 90° and
gear ratio of 1:1.
Rack and pinion : „A rack is a gear whose pitch diameter is infinite,
resulting in a straight line pitch circle. Used to convert rotary
motion to straight line. 39
 Q.21 What do you mean by gear trains ?.

 The term gear train is defined as a series of intermeshed

gear wheels.
 It is required when large distance is there between two
gears.
 It is required when very high/very low velocity ratio is
required.

 Gear train may be simple gear train or may be

compound gear train.
40
41
 Q.22 Explain Simple Gears Train.
 Every shaft is having only one gear as shown in the fig.
 For such a gear train, the overall gear ratio is the ratio of
the angular velocities at the input and output shafts.

42
43
44
45
 Q.23 Explain Compound Gears Train.

 At least one of the intermediate shaft must have more

than one gear in use.

46
47
48
49
50
 Q.24 What do mean by Ratchet Mechanism
 In Ratchet Mechanism, gearing are arranged in such a way that certain links are
temporarily or periodically locked together or connected during the action of the
mechanism.
 This locking of relative motion may be so effected that relative motion of the two
links is only possible in one sense or direction (when the gear is called by
Reuleaux a Running-ratchet Train), or movement in both directions may be
rendered impossible when the ratchet acts, in which case the gear is known as a
Stationary-ratchet Train.

51
 Each consists of a frame or arm a, ratchet-wheel b, and
ratchet or click c. In the first figure b is evidently
capable of left-handed rotation only, so long as the
ratchet c (sometimes called a pawl) is resting against
its teeth.
 In the second figure motion is only possible when the
pawl is lifted clear.

52
 Q.25 What is belt drive?
 Belt drives use the friction that develops between the pulleys attached to
the shafts and the belt around the arc of contact in order to transmit a
torque.
 The torque is due to the differences in tension that occur in the belt during
operation.
 Let T1 is the tension in the tight side and T2 is the tension in slack side.

53
 In previous case driven wheel rotating in the same direction
as the driver wheel.

 As shown in the diagrams below driven wheel is rotating in

the opposite direction as the driver.

54
 Q.26 What are the various types of belts
used for power transmission?

Flat : The belt has a rectangular cross-section and produces

less noise. They can transmit power over a long distance
between pulley centers
 Round : The belt has a circular cross-section and used with
grooved pulleys.
V : V-belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less
efficient than flat belts.

55
Q.27 Write the definition of bearing and its
classification.

56
57
 Q.28 Explain Hydraulic system.
 The controlled movement of parts or a controlled application of
force is a common requirement in the industries.
 These operations are performed mainly by using electrical
machines or diesel, petrol and steam engines as a prime mover.
 These prime movers can provide various movements to the
objects by using some mechanical attachments like screw jack,
lever, rack and pinions etc.
 However, these are not the only prime movers. The enclosed
fluids (liquids and gases) can also be used as prime movers to
provide controlled motion and force to the objects or
substances.
58
 Hydraulic system……

 The specially designed enclosed fluid systems can provide both

linear as well as rotary motion.
 The high magnitude controlled force can also be applied by using
these systems.
 This kind of enclosed fluid based systems using pressurized
incompressible liquids as transmission media are called as
hydraulic systems.
 The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal’s law
which says that the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform
in all the directions.
59
 Hydraulic system……..
 The Pascal’s law is
illustrated in figure.

 As the pressure is same in

all the direction, the smaller
piston feels a smaller force
and a large piston feels a
large force.

 Therefore, a large force can

be generated with smaller
force input by using
hydraulic systems. 60
Q.29 What are the Basic Components of Hydraulic
System?

61
Basic Components of Hydraulic System………..
The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its
proper functioning. It consists of:
 a movable piston connected to the output shaft in an
enclosed cylinder
 storage tank
 filter
 electric pump
 pressure regulator
 control valve
 leak proof closed loop piping.
62
Q.30 What are the applications of hydraulic systems
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of
larger forces. The main applications of hydraulic system can be
classified in five categories:

1. Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and

primary metal extraction applications, automated production lines,
machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders, crushes, textile
machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.

2. Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving

equipment, material handling equipment, commercial vehicles,
tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and construction
machineries and drilling rigs etc. 63
3. Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock
absorbers, steering system, wind shield, lift and cleaning etc.

4. Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels,

fishing boats and navel equipment.

5. Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems

used for rudder control, landing gear, breaks, flight control and
transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and
spaceships.

64
 Q.31 Explain Pneumatic system.

 Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and

applications of compressed air in our daily life in general
and manufacturing automation in particular.

 Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is

abundantly available and can be exhausted into the
atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.

65
Q.32 What are the Basic Components of
Pneumatic System?

66
Important components of a pneumatic system are shown in fig.

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.

b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air

compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be used.

c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.

Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.

d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by
using a dryer.

67
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate,
control and monitor for control of direction flow, pressure etc.

f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain

the required movements of mechanical elements of
pneumatic system.

g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into

mechanical energy. It is used to drive the compressor.

h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the

compressor is stored in the air receiver
68
Q.33 What do you mean by Valves in hydraulic
and pneumatic systems.

Valves are used with hydraulic and pneumatic

systems to direct and regulate to fluid flow.

1. Direction Control Valves

2. Pressure Control Valves

69
Q.34 What do you mean by Direction Control Valves?

 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control Valves to direct

the flow of fluid through a system.

 They do not vary the rate of fluid flow but either completely open or
completely closed i.e. ON/OFF devices.

 They might be activated to switch the fluid flow direction by means of

mechanical, electrical or fluid pressure signals.

 A common type of directional control valve is the spool valve.

70
Spool Direction Control Valves

71
Spool Direction Control Valves…..
 A spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control
the flow.
 In fig (a) the air supply is connected to port 1 and port 3 is
closed.
 Thus the device connected to port 2 can be pressurized.
 When the spool is moved to the left ( in fig b) the air supply is
cut off and port 2 is connected to port 3.
 Port 3 is a vent to the atmosphere and so the air pressure in
the system attached to port 2 is vented.
 Thus the movement of the spool has the air firstly to flow into
the system and then be reversed and flow out of the system.
72
Q.35 What do you mean by Pressure Control Valves?

 These are used to control the pressure in hydraulic and

pneumatic system
 There are three main types of pressure control valves
.
a) Pressure regulating valves

b) Pressure – limiting/relief valves

c) Pressure sequence valves

73
 a) Pressure regulating valves

 These are used to control the operating pressure in a

circuit and maintain it at a constant value.

74
 b) Pressure – limiting/relief valves
 These are used as safety devices to limit the pressure in a circuit
to below some safe value.
 The valve opens and vents to the atmosphere, or back to the
sump, if the pressure rises above the safe value.
 It has one orifice which is normally closed.

 When the inlet pressure

overcomes the force exerted by
the spring, the valve opens and
vents to the atmosphere, or
back to the sump.
75
 c) Pressure sequence valves
 These are used to sense the pressure of an external line
and give a signal when it reaches some pre-set value.
 With the pressure limiting valve, the limiting pressure is set
by the pressure at the inlet to the valve.
 We can adapt such a valve to give a sequence valve.
 This can be used to allow to flow occur to some part of the
system when the pressure has risen to the required level.
For example in an automatic machine we might require
some operation to start when the clamping pressure applied
to a work piece is at some particular value.
76
Pressure sequence valves

77
 Q.36 Define Actuators.
 Actuators are output devices which convert energy from pressurized
hydraulic oil or compressed air into the required type of action or
motion.
 In general, hydraulic or pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or
moving operations in industry. These operations are carried out by using
actuators.

 In general actuators can be classified into two types.

1. Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy

into linear motion.(Ex-cylinder)

2. Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy

into rotary motion. (Ex-Gear motor) 78
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear
actuators is similar.

However they differ at their operating pressure

ranges.

Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about

100 bar and of pneumatic system is around 10
bar.
79
Q.37 Explain working single acting cylinder.
 These cylinders produce work in
one direction of motion hence they
are named as single acting
cylinders.
 Figure shows the construction of a
single acting cylinder.
 The compressed air pushes the
piston located in the cylindrical
barrel causing the desired motion.
 The return stroke takes place by
the action of a spring.
 Generally the spring is provided on
the rod side of the cylinder. 80
 Q.38 Explain working double acting cylinder.
 The main parts of a hydraulic double
acting cylinder are: piston, piston rod,
cylinder tube, and end caps.
 As shown in the fig. the piston rod is
connected to piston head and the
other end extends out of the cylinder.
 The piston divides the cylinder into
two chambers.
 The seals prevent the leakage of oil
between these two chambers.
 The cylindrical tube is fitted with end
caps. .
81
 Double acting cylinder…….
 The pressurized oil, air enters the
cylinder chamber through the ports
provided.
 In the rod end cover plate, a wiper
seal is provided to prevent the leakage
of oil and entry of the contaminants
into the cylinder.
 The piston seal prevents metal to
metal contact and wear of piston head
and the tube. These seals are
replaceable.
 End cushioning is also provided to
prevent the impact with end caps.
82
 Q.39 Explain rotary Rotary Actuators.
 Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized
fluid into rotary motion. Rotary actuators are
similar to electric motors but are run on
hydraulic or pneumatic power.
 It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a
housing with one gear attached to the drive
shaft.
 Figure shows a schematic diagram of Gear
motor.
 The air enters from the inlet, causes the rotation
of the meshing gear due to difference in the
pressure and produces the torque.
 The air exits from the exhaust port.
 Gear motors tend to leak at low speed, hence
are generally used for medium speed
83
applications.