Peripheral Devices:

Floppy Drive Controller (FDC)

•A Floppy Drive Controller (FDC) is a crucial hardware

component used to interface between a floppy disk drive
(FDD) and the computer's motherboard.

•It is responsible for controlling the reading and writing of

data to and from a floppy disk, providing an interface for data
transfer between the computer and the storage medium.
Overview of Floppy Drive Controller (FDC)

The Floppy Drive Controller manages the operations of the floppy disk
drive, including:
❑Reading data: The FDC reads data from the floppy disk.
❑Writing data: It writes data to the floppy disk.
❑Disk control: It controls the insertion, removal, and ejection of disks.
❑Data encoding/decoding: The FDC handles the encoding and
decoding of data stored on the disk.

The FDC performs all the low-level operations required for the floppy
disk to function correctly, including managing the disk's sectors, tracks,
and sides.
Disk Format

The disk format refers to the way data is organized and stored
on a floppy disk.
The key elements of disk format include:
Tracks: Circular paths on the disk where data is stored. Each
track is divided into several sectors.
Sectors: The smallest unit of storage on the disk, typically 512
bytes. Each sector holds a fixed amount of data.
Clusters: Groups of sectors that are treated as a unit for file
storage.
Cylinder: A set of tracks on all the sides of a disk at the same
radius.
Boot Sector: A specific sector that contains the necessary
information to boot an operating system.
File Allocation Table (FAT): A table used by the operating
system to manage files on the disk, tracking their locations and
sizes.

Floppy disks used different formats, such as DOS (Disk

Operating System) and IBM PC formats, which varied in sector
sizes, number of sectors, and overall storage capacity.
FDC System Interface

The FDC system interface is the communication pathway that

allows the floppy drive controller to interact with the
computer's central processing unit (CPU). The key
components of this interface include:

Data Bus: Carries data between the FDC and CPU. Typically,
the FDC uses an 8-bit or 16-bit bus for data transfer.
Control Lines: These lines manage various FDC operations,
including disk read/write commands, drive selection, and
status reporting.
Status Register: A register that holds the status of the FDC,
such as whether the drive is ready or whether there is an
error.
Interrupts: The FDC can generate interrupts to inform the
CPU of various events, like the completion of read/write
operations or errors.
The FDC communicates with the system's motherboard using
I/O ports or a bus (such as ISA, PCI), providing the necessary
commands to perform the required operations on the floppy
disk.
FDD Interface

The Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) interface defines how the FDD
communicates with the FDC and how the data is transferred.
The key components of the FDD interface are:

Power Supply: The FDD requires a 5V and 12V power supply to

operate. The 12V is used for the motor that spins the disk,
while 5V powers the electronics.

Data Signals: The FDD interface typically includes data lines

that carry information to and from the floppy disk.
Step/Track Signals: These signals control the movement of the
read/write head. The head moves to the appropriate track on
the disk based on the signals received from the FDC.

Drive Select Lines: These lines are used to select one of

multiple floppy drives connected to the system.

Disk Change Signals: These signals inform the FDC when a new
disk has been inserted into the FDD.

The FDD interface also supports commands for activities like

disk rotation, seeking tracks, and error handling.
Key Functions of the FDC

Command Decoding: The FDC decodes commands from the

CPU, including read, write, format, and seek operations.
Timing Control: The FDC controls the timing of the floppy disk,
ensuring that data is read/written at the correct time.
Error Handling: The FDC detects errors, such as sector
read/write errors, and provides status information to the CPU.
Data Encoding/Decoding: It converts the binary data from the
disk to a format that can be processed by the computer and
vice versa.
•The Floppy Drive Controller (FDC) plays a crucial role in
managing the floppy disk operations, interfacing between
the floppy disk drive and the computer system.

•Understanding the disk format, the FDC system interface,

and the FDD interface is essential for working with floppy
disk-based storage devices, especially in legacy systems.
1.Hard Disk Controller (HDC)
Hard Disk Controller (HDC)

•The Hard Disk Controller (HDC) acts as a translator

between the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) and
the hard drive.
•It ensures that data is transferred efficiently and
accurately.
Operating Principle

•Interface and Control:

•Acts as an interface between the computer system bus and the
hard disk.
•Receives commands from the computer, interprets them, and
generates control signals to manage disk operations.
•Data Handling:
•Formats, writes, and reads data according to disk protocols.
•Uses logical circuits for data transmission and formatting.
Operating Principle

•Error Management:
•Equipped with circuits for data error detection and correction.
•Includes encoding/decoding for data separation during read
and write operations.
•Components:
•Logical control circuits.
•Microprocessors for operations.
•Read-only memory for BIOS programs.
•Buffers for smooth data exchange.
Types of Hard Disk Controllers
1. IDE Controller (Integrated Drive Electronics)
Features:
•Found on the motherboard, supports up to 4 hard disks.
•Common variants include ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment).
•ATA speeds range from 66MB/s (ATA/66) to 100MB/s (ATA/100).

ATA Variants:
•ATA-1 to ATA-5: Evolution from basic functionality to improved
speed, capacity, and reliability.
•Apple-ATA: Adapted for Macintosh systems, compatible with
standard PC hard disks post-reformatting.
2. SCSI Controller (Small Computer System Interface)

Features:
•Supports multiple devices like hard disks, CD-ROMs, and scanners.
•Can daisy-chain up to 30 devices.
•Higher speed than IDE, reaching up to 320MB/s (Ultra320 SCSI).

SCSI Types:
•SCSI-1: Basic, with speeds of 5MB/s.
•Ultra SCSI to Ultra320 SCSI: Increased speed and scalability, with
Ultra320 supporting 14 devices and up to 320MB/s.
3. SAS Controller (Serial Attached SCSI)
Characteristics:
•Combines SCSI and serial communication technologies.
•Supports full duplex data transfer, enhancing performance.
•Compatible with SATA devices, allowing versatile storage solutions.
Performance:
•SAS hard disks achieve 3.0Gbps speeds.
•Can connect up to 16,384 devices using advanced scalability.
Design Benefits:
•Compact cables for better airflow and reduced electronic
interference.
•Supports simultaneous read/write operations for high efficiency.
Key Comparisons

Controller Type Max Speed Devices Supported Primary Use

IDE (ATA-4) 66MB/s 4 Consumer desktops

Enterprise, scalable
SAS 3.0Gbps 16,384
environments

High-performance
SCSI (Ultra320) 320MB/s 14 (daisy-chain)
applications
Disk Drives and Interface

•Disk drives store digital data, and their interfaces determine

how data is exchanged between the drive and the rest of the
computer system.

Components of a Disk Drive:

Platter: The physical medium where data is stored magnetically.
Spindle: Rotates the platters at high speeds (e.g., 5400 RPM,
7200 RPM).
Read/Write Heads: Access data from the platters.
Controller Board: Manages communication with the system and
data storage.
Common Interfaces:
PATA (Parallel ATA):
Older interface, limited to 133 MB/s transfer speed.
Uses large ribbon cables.
SATA (Serial ATA):
Supports speeds up to 6 Gbps (SATA III).
Uses smaller cables, improving airflow in systems.
SCSI:
Known for reliability and scalability in enterprise systems.
NVMe:
Optimized for SSDs, offering speeds over 3 GB/s.
Controller Post Description

•The controller’s POST (Power-On Self-Test) ensures proper

functionality when a computer is powered on.

•It verifies that connected drives and the controller are

operational.
Key Steps:
1. Initialize the controller's firmware.
2. Detect connected drives (HDDs, SSDs).
3. Report errors or issues (e.g., drive failure, improper
connection).
4. Pass control to the system BIOS or operating system for
booting.
Troubleshooting Issues:

❑Drive Not Detected: May indicate loose cables, incorrect

jumpers (in PATA drives), or firmware issues.
❑No POST Output: Indicates potential hardware failure in
the controller.
Hard Disk Card

•A Hard Disk Card is a physical expansion card or module used to

provide additional drive connectivity or enhance storage
functionality.
Uses:
•Adding more storage device connections to a system (e.g., SATA
or SCSI ports).
•Supporting advanced features like RAID (Redundant Array of
Independent Disks).
•Interfacing legacy drives in modern systems.
Example Cards:

RAID Controllers: Manage RAID setups, offering

redundancy and performance boosts.
HBA (Host Bus Adapter): Used for connecting SCSI or
Fibre Channel drives.
Hard Disk Formatting

•Formatting prepares a disk drive for data storage by creating a

file system and mapping out how data will be stored.
Steps in Formatting:
1.Low-Level Formatting:
•Done at the manufacturing level.
•Creates physical sectors and tracks on the drive.
2.Partitioning:
•Divides the drive into logical sections (e.g., primary and
extended partitions).
•Tools like fdisk or Disk Management can be used.
3.High-Level Formatting:
•Creates the file system (e.g., FAT32, NTFS).
•Initializes the drive for operating system use.
Common Tools:
•Windows Disk Management, diskpart (command line).
•Linux tools like mkfs, GParted.
Display Adapter: CRT Display

•A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a technology used in traditional

computer monitors and televisions.

•It operates by directing an electron beam at phosphorescent

dots on the screen to produce images.
Key components of a CRT display include:

Electron Gun: Produces and focuses an electron beam.

Deflection System: Directs the electron beam to specific
positions on the screen using magnetic fields.
Phosphor Screen: Coated with phosphorescent materials that
emit light when struck by electrons.
Control Grid: Modulates the intensity of the electron beam to
control brightness.
CRT displays are based on raster scanning, where the electron
beam moves across the screen in a left-to-right and top-to-
bottom fashion, illuminating pixels.
CRT Controller Principle

•The CRT controller (CRTC) is responsible for managing the scanning

process, video memory access, and synchronization signals. It ensures
the electron beam moves correctly to generate images.
Primary functions of the CRT controller include:

Generating Synchronization Signals: Provides horizontal and vertical

sync pulses to synchronize the electron beam's motion with the display.

Addressing Video Memory: Retrieves pixel data from video memory in

sequence for display.

Controlling Beam Movement: Ensures proper timing for horizontal and

vertical retrace to avoid image distortions.

Pixel Timing: Regulates the clock that determines the speed at which
pixels are displayed.
CRT Controller 6845

•The Motorola MC6845, commonly referred to as

CRTC 6845, is a hardware chip designed to control
CRT displays.
•It is widely used in early computer systems.
Key Features:

➢Video Address Generation: Generates addresses for video

memory to fetch data for display.
➢Character-Based or Pixel-Based Modes: Operates in text
mode (character cells) or graphics mode (individual pixels).
➢Raster Scan Control: Controls horizontal and vertical
synchronization, as well as beam retrace.
➢Programmable Registers: Allows configuration of display
parameters like screen resolution, frame rate, and refresh
timings.
➢Cursor Control: Supports cursor positioning and blinking
for text-based displays.
Working Principle of MC6845:

Register Setup: Programmable registers are initialized to

define display characteristics such as total rows, columns, and
refresh rates.
Memory Addressing: CRTC generates sequential memory
addresses to fetch pixel/character data.
Sync Signal Generation: Produces horizontal and vertical
synchronization pulses to control beam scanning.
Raster Timing: Ensures proper timing for line and frame
refreshes.
Application:

•Found in early computer systems like the IBM PC,

Amstrad CPC, and Commodore systems.

•Primarily used in text mode displays but also supported

basic graphics capabilities.
Advantages of CRT and MC6845 Controller

High Contrast Ratio: CRT displays offer rich colors and deep
blacks.

Flexibility: The MC6845 can be used for various resolutions and

refresh rates.

Reliability: CRT technology and the 6845 controller are robust

and durable for long-term use.
Disadvantages

Bulky Design: CRTs are large and heavy compared to

modern flat-panel displays.

Power Consumption: CRTs and their controllers consume

more power than LCD/LED displays.

Limited Resolution: Early CRT controllers like the MC6845

had limited resolution and graphical capabilities.
Printer Controller

•A printer controller is the hardware and firmware

responsible for managing the data transfer, control signals,
and printing operations in a printer.

•The Centronics interface is one of the earliest and most

popular standards for connecting printers, particularly for
parallel communication.
Centronics Interface

•The Centronics interface was developed by Centronics

Data Computer Corporation and became a de facto
standard for parallel printer communication.
Features of the Centronics Interface

Parallel Data Transmission: Transfers 8 bits (1 byte) of data

simultaneously.
Simple Handshaking Protocol: Ensures synchronization
between the printer and the host computer.
25-Pin Connector: Standard DB-25 connector on the
computer side and a 36-pin Centronics connector on the
printer side.
Unidirectional Communication: Data flows from the
computer to the printer (early models).
Pin Configuration

•Data Lines (1-8): Carry the 8-bit data to the printer.

•Control Lines: Includes signals like Strobe, Busy, Paper
End, and Ack for synchronization.
•Ground Lines: Provide reference for signal integrity.
Programming Sequence

•The programming sequence for sending data to a printer via the

Centronics interface involves a series of well-defined steps.

Initialize the Printer:

•Ensure the printer is powered on and ready.
•Check the Busy and Paper End signals.
Send Data to Printer:
•Place the 8-bit data on the Data Lines (D0-D7).
•Assert the Strobe signal to inform the printer that data is available.
•Wait for the Ack signal from the printer.
Synchronization:

•Monitor the Busy signal.

•Ensure the printer is ready before sending the next byte.

Handle Errors:

•Monitor status lines for errors like Paper End or Printer Error.
•Retry or abort based on error handling routines.
Hardware Overview

A typical printer controller includes several hardware subassemblies:

Input Buffer:
Temporarily stores incoming data from the host.

Control Logic:
Implements the Centronics protocol.
Handles synchronization and error detection.
Stepper Motor Driver:
Controls the movement of the print head or paper feed.

Print Mechanism:
Includes components like thermal print heads, dot matrix pins, or
inkjets for actual printing.

Status Indicators:
LEDs or display screens indicate states like power, busy, or paper jam.
Printer Sub-Assemblies
A printer consists of several subassemblies working together to perform
printing operations:
Print Head Assembly:
Thermal, inkjet, or dot-matrix mechanisms for forming characters and
images.
Paper Feed Assembly:
Rollers and motors move paper through the printer.
Control Board:
Houses the microcontroller, memory, and interfaces.
Power Supply:
Provides the necessary voltages for all components.
Casing and Mounting:
Protects internal components and provides user access to paper trays
and cartridges.