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ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2 CALCULUS

1. FUNCTIONS

1.1. Definition:
We can define a function as a special relation which maps each element of set A with one
and only one element of set B. Both the sets A and B must be nonempty. A function
defines a particular output for a particular input.
Hence, f: A → B is a function such that for a ∈ A there is a unique element b ∈ B such
that (a, b) ∈ f
Let f : N → N such that f(N) = 2x+1
Then domain = N,
Range = Odd natural no. = {1, 3, 5, 7……},
Co-domain = N
1.3. BASIC GRAPHS

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 −x x0

Note.1: Graph of f(x) = | x | = 0 x=0
x x0


| x | −1 x0
 , x0 
Note.2: Graph of f(x) = sgn (x) =  x =  1 x0
0, x=0  0 x=0


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Note.3: Greatest Integer Function

−2, −2  x  −1

−1, −1  x  0
Graph of f(x) = [x] = 
 0, 0 x 1
 1, 1x2

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Example.1  x  x  dx = ?
0
Where [x] denotes greatest Integer.

13
A.
2
19
B.
2
11
C.
2
7
D.
2
Ans. A
Sol.
3 1 2 3
 x[x]dx =  x ( 0 ) dx +  x (1) dx +  x ( 2) dx
0 0 1 2

2
 x2 
( )
3
=   + x2
 2 1 2

 1 13
=  2 −  + (9 − 4) =
 2 2

Note.4: Fractional Part Function,

x + 2 −2  x  −1

x + 1 −1  x  0
Graph of f(x) = {x} =x – [x] = 
 x 0  x 1

 x −1 1x2

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• Least Integer Function

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Graph of tangent function:

Graph of cosecant function

Graph of secant function:

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Graph of cotangent function:

(Exponential Function) Graph of f(x) = ax

(Logarithmic functions) Graph of f(x) = log a x

Example.2 The curve given by the equation x 2 + y2 = 3axy is

A. Symmetrical about x-axis
B. Symmetrical about y-axis
C. Symmetrical about the line y = x
D. Tangential to x = y = a/3
Ans. C
Sol.
Replacing x by y and y by y equation of curve remains unaltered means
f(y, x) = f (x, y). Hence, curve is symmetric about the line y = x
x g h ( x ) 
Example.3 g(x) = 1 – x and h ( x ) = then  is
x −1 h g ( x ) 

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−1
A.
x
g ( x)
B.
h( x)

h( x)
C.
g ( x)
x
D.
(1 − x )2
Ans. C
Sol.
 x 
1−
gh ( x )  x − 1 
=
hg ( x ) (1 − x )
( − x) − 1
1

 x 
−x  
x −1 
= =
(1 − x )
2
(1 − x )
h( x)
=
g ( x)

1.3. Fundamental Theorem:

1.3.1. Rolle’s Theorem:
If
(i) f(x) is continuous is the closed interval [a, b],
(ii) f’(x) exists for every value of x in the open interval (a, b) and
(iii) f (a) = f(b), then there is at least one value c of x in (a, b) such that f’ (c) = 0.

Fig.1
Consider the portion AB of the curve y = f(x), lying between x = a and x = b, such that
(i) It goes continuously from A to B,
(ii) It has a tangent at every point between A and B, and
(iii) Ordinate of A = ordinate of B.
From the fig , it is self-evident that there is at least one point C (may be more) of the
curve at which the tangent parallel, to the x-axis.

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i.e., slope of the tangent at C (x = c) = 0
But the slope of the tangent at C is the value of the differential coefficient of f(x) w.r.t x
thereat, therefore f’(c) = 0.Hence the theorem is proved.

sin x
Example.4 Verify Rolle’s theorem for in (0, π).
ex
Sol.

sin x
Let f(x) =
ex
f(x) is derivable in (0, π).
Also f(0) = f(π) = 0.
Hence the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.

ex cos x − ex sin x
f '(x) = vanishes, where ex (cos x – sin x) = 0
e2x
Or, tan x = 1, i.e., x = π/4.
The value x = π/4 lies in (0, π), so that Rolle’s theorem is verified.
Example.5 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f(x) = (x – a)m (x – b)n.
Sol.
Let f(x) = (x – a)m (x – b)n
Since every polynomial is continuous for all values, f(x) is also continuous in [a, b].
f’(x) = m(x – a)m – 1(x – b) n + (x – a)m. n(x – b)n – 1
=
(x – a)m – 1(x – b)n – 1[(m + n)x –(mb + na)]
Which, exists, i.e., f(x) is derivable in (a, b).
Also f(a) = 0 = f(b).
Thus all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied and there exists c in (a, b) such
that f’(c) = 0.
∴ (c –a)m – 1(c – b)n – 1[(m +n)c –(mb + na)] = 0 or

mb+na
c=
m+n
Hence, Rolle’s theorem is verified.
1.4 Lagrange’s Mean-Value Theorem:
If
(i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b], and
(ii) f’(x) exists in the open interval (a, b),
then there is at least there is at one value c of x (a, b),
f(b) − f(a)
such that = f '(c) .
b−a

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f(b) − f(a)
Consider the function (x) = f(x) − x
b−a
Since f(x) is continuous in [a, b];
∴ φ(x) = f(x) is also continuous in [a, b].
Since f’(x) exists in (a, b);
∴ φ’(x) also exists in (a, b)
and = f’ (x) …(i)
bf(a) − af(b)
Clearly, φ(a) = = φ(b)
b−a
Thus φ(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
∴ There is atleast one value c of x between a and b such φ’ (c) = 0. Substituting x = c
f(b) − f(a)
in (i) we get f '(c) = .… (2)
b−a
Which proves the theorem.
1.4.1. Geometrical Interpretation:
Let A, B be the points on the curve y = f(x) corresponding to x = a and x = b so that A
= [a, f(a)] and B = [b, f(b)].

Fig.2
f(b) − f(a)
∴ Slope of chord AB =
b−a
the slope of the chord AB = f’(c), the slope of the tangent of the curve at C (x = c).
Hence the Lagrange’s mean value theorem asserts that if a curve AB has a tangent at

each of its points, then there exists at least one point C on this parallel to the chord AB.
Note.5: If f’(x) = 0 in the interval (a, b) then f(x) is constant in [a, b]. For if x 1, x2 be

any two values of x in (a, b), then by (2),

f(x2) – (fx1) = (x2 – x1) f’(c) = 0 (x1 < c < x2)

Thus, f(x1) = f(x2)

i.e., f(x) has the same value for every value of x in (a, b).
Example.6 In the Mean value theorem f(b) – f(a) = (b – a) f’ (c).Determine c lying

1
between a and b, if f(x) = x (x – 1) (x – 2), a = 0 and b = .
2

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A. 1.764

B. 0.236

C. 0.764

D. None of these
Ans. B

Sol.

1  1 3 3
F(a) = 0, F(b) = − − =
2  2   2  8
F(x) = x (x – 1) (x – 2)

F(x)=x3-3x2+2x

F’(x) = 3x2 = 3x2 – 6x + 2,

F’(c) = 3c2 – 6c + 2

f(b) − f(a)
= f '(c)
b−a

3
−0
8 = (3c2 − 6c + 2)
1 
 2 − 0
 
12c2 – 24c + 5 = 0

24  (24)2 − 12  5  4
Where c = = 1  0.764 = 1.764;0.236
24
1
Hence, c = 0.236, since it only lies between 0 and .
2
1.5. Cauchy’s Mean-value theorem:
If (i) f(x) and g(x) be continuous in [a, b]
(ii) f’(x) and g’(x) exist in (a, b) and
(iii) g’(x) ≠ 0 for any value of x in (a, b),
f(b) − f(a) f '(c)
Then there is at least one value c of x in (a, b), such that =
g(b) − g(a) g'(c)
f(b) − f(a)
Consider the function φ(x) = f(x) − g(x)
g(b) − g(a)
Since f(x) and g(x) are continuous in [a, b]
∴ φ(x) is also continuous in [a, b].
Again since f’(x) and g’(x) exist in (a, b).
f(b) − f(a)
∴ φ’(x) also exists in (a, b) and = f’(x) – g'(x)
g(b) − g(a)

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Clearly, φ(a) = φ(b).
Thus. φ(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. There is therefore, at least one
value c of x between a and b, such that φ’(c) = 0
f(b) − f(a)
i.e., 0 = f '(c) − g'(c) Whence follows the result
g(b) − g(a)
Note : Cauchy’s mean value theorem is a generalisation of Lagrange’s mean value
theorem, where g(x) = x.
Example.7 Cauchy’s Mean-value theorem for the function ex and e–x in the interval (a,
b) and find the value of c (where c lies in (a,b) )?
a−b
A. c =
2
a+b
B. c =
2
a−b
C. c =
2
D. None of these
Ans. B
Sol. f’(x) = ex, g’(x) = –e–x
By Cauchy’s mean value theorem
f(b) − f(a) f '(c)
=
f(b) − g(a) g'(c)

eb − ea ec 1
∴ −b = i.e., c = (a + b)
e − e− a −e− c 2
Thus c lies in (a, b) which verifies the Cauchy’s Mean value theorem.
1.6. Taylor’s series:

If f(x + h) can be expanded as an infinite series, then

h2 h3
f(x + h) = f(x) + h f’(x) + f "(x) + f '"(x) + ...
2! 3!
Replacing x by a and h by (x – a) in above, we get

(x − a)2 (x − a)3
f(x) = f(a) + (x – a)f’(a) + f "(a) + f '"(a) + ...
2! 3!
Taking a = 0, we get Maclaurin’s series.

1.7. Maclaurin’s series:

If f(x) can be expanded as an infinite series, then

x3 x3
f(x) = f(0) + xf '(0) + f "(0) + f "(0) + ...
2! 3!
Example.8: Using Maclaurin’s series, expand tan x and find the coefficient of the term
containing x5 _______?

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Ans. 0.1333

Range (0.12 - 0.14)

Sol.

Let f(x) = tanx

And f(0) = 0

∴ f’(x) = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x , f’(0) = 1

f” (x) = 2 tan x sec2 x = 2 tan x (1 + tan 2 x)

= 2 tan x + 2 tan 3 x , f”(0) = 0

f’” (0) = 2 sec2 x + 6 tan2 x sec2 x

= 2 (1 + tan2 x) + 6 tan2 x (1 + tan2 x)

= 2 + 8 tan2 x + 6 tan4 x , f’”(0) = 2

fiv (0) = 16 tan x sec2 x + 24 tan3 x sec2 x

= 16 tan x (1 + tan 2x) + 24 tan3 x (1 + tan2 x)

= 16 tan x + 40 tan 3 x + 24 tan5 x

fiv (0) = 0

fv (0) = 16 sec2 x + 120 tan2 x sec2 x + 120 tan4 x sec2

fv (0) = 16 And so on.

Substituting the values of f(0), f’(0), etc. in the Maclaurin’s series, we get

x2 x3 x4 x5 x3 2x5
tan x = 0 + x.1 + + .2 + .0 + .16 + .... = x + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 3 15
1.8. Expansion by use of known series:

When the expansion of a function is required only upto first few terms, it is often
convenient to employ the following well-known series:

3 5 7 3 5 7
1. sin  =  − + − + ... 2. sinh  =  + + + + ...
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!

2 4 6 2 4 6
3. cos  = 1 − + − + ... 4. cosh  = 1 + + + + ...
2! 4! 6! 2! 4! 6!

3 2 5 −1 x3 x5
5. tan  =  + +  + ... 6. tan x = x − + − ...
3 15 3 5

x2 x3 x 4
7. ex = 1 + x + + + + ...
2! 3! 4!

 x2 x3 x4 
8. log(1 − x) = −  x + + + + ...
 2 3 4 

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

9. (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ... ..
2! 3!

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Example.9: Expand esinx by Maclaurin’s series and find coefficient of the term containing
x4?

1
A. −
8
1
B. +
8

1
C. +
2

1
D. −
2
Ans. A

Sol.

(sin x)2 (sin x)3 (sin x)4

We have esinx = 1 + sin x + + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
2 3
 x3  1  x3  1 x3  1
1 + x − + ... + x − + ... + x − + ... + (x − ...)4 + ...
 3!  2!  3!  3!  3!  4!

 x3  1  2 x4  1 3 1 4 x2 x4
1 + x − + ... +  x − + ... + (x − ...) + (x + ...) + ... = 1 + x + − + ...
 6  2 3  6 24 2 8

Otherwise, let f(x) = esinx , ∴ f(0) = 1

f’(x) = esinx cos x = f(x). cos x f’ (0) = 1

f” (x) = f’ (x) cos x – f(x) sin x f”(0) = 1

f’”(x) = f”(x) cos x – 2f’(x) sin x – f(x) cos x, f’” (0) =0

fiv(x) = f’”(x) cos x – 3f”(x) sin x – 3f’ (x) cos x + f(x) sin x , f iv(0) = – 3

Substituting the values of f(0), f’(0)etc., in the Maclaurin’s series, we obtain

x2 x3 x4 x2 x4
esin x = 1 + x.1 + .1 + .0 + .(−3) + ... = 1 + x + − + ...
2! 3! 4! 2 8

2. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Let us consider a function f(x) defined in an interval l.if we see the behaviour of f(x) become
closer and closer to a number l as x → a then l is said to be limit of f(x)at x=a.
Left Hand Limit –
Let function f(x) is said to approach l as x → a from left if for an arbitrary positive small

number ε ,a small positive number  (depends on ε) such that

f(x) − l   whenever a-  < x < a

It can also be written as

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lim f(x) = l
f(a -0 )=
−
x → a

Right Hand Limit

Let function f(x) is said to approach l as x → a from right if for an arbitrary positive small

number ε ,a small positive number  (depends on ε) such that

f(x) − l   whenever a< x < a+ 

It can also be written as
lim f(x) = l
f(a + 0 )= +
x → a

if f(a+0)=f(a-0)=l as x → a, then the finite definite value l is said to be limit of f(x) at

x=a
2.1. Important Results on Limits:

1 − cos mx m2
1. lim =
x →0 1 − cos nx n2

cos ax − cos bx a2 − b2
2. lim =
x →0 cos cx − cos dx c2 − d2

cos mx − cos nx n2 − m2
3. lim =
x →0 x2 2
p
sinp mxm
4. lim = 
p
x → 0 sin nx n
p
tanp mxm
5. lim = 
p
x →0 tan nx  n 

xa − ax 1 − log a
6. lim
x a
=
x →a x −a 1 + log a

(1 + x)m − 1 m
7. lim =
n n
x →0 (1 + x) − 1

(1 + bx)m − 1 mb
8. lim =
n na
x →0 (1 + ax) − 1

bx
b /x  a
9. lim(1 + ax) = lim 1 +  = eab
x →0 x →  x
1
10. lim(xn + yn )n = y, (0  x  y)
n→

x+c
 x  a
11. lim   = e(a b)
x →  x  b 

12. lim(cos x + a sinbx)1/x = eab

x →0

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xn
13. lim = 0, n
x → ex
m
 x
14. lim  cos  =1
m →  m

0, 0  a  1
15. 
x 
lim a = 1, a=1 
x →
, a  1 

x x x x sin x
16. lim cos cos cos ...cos =
2 4 8 n x
n → 2

sin x x
17. lim = lim =1
x →0 x x → 0 sin x

tan x x
18. lim = lim =1
x →0 x x → 0 tan x

sin−1 x x
19. lim = lim =1
x →0 x x →0 sin−1 x

tan−1 x x
20. lim = lim =1
x →0 x x →0 tan−1 x

sin x0 
21. lim =
x →0 x 180
22. lim cos x = 1
x →0

sin(x − a)
23. lim =1
x →a x−a
tan(x − a)
24. lim =1
x →a x−a

25. lim sin−1 x = sin−1 a, a 1

x →a

26. lim cos−1 x = cos−1 a, a 1

x →a

27. lim tan−1 x = tan−1 a, − a

x →a

sin x cos x
28. lim = lim =0
x → x x → x
1
sin
29. lim x =1
x → 1
x

(1 + x)n − 1
30. lim =n
x →0 x
2.2. INDETERMINATE FORMS:

Let us consider a function

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f(x) f(x) lim f(x)

F(x) = then limF(x) = lim = x →a
g(x) x →a x →a g(x) limg(x)
x →a

lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 or lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 

x →a x →a x →a x →a

then the function

f(x)
F(x) =
g(x)

0 
is said to have indeterminate form of or respectively.
0 

The other important indeterminate forms are 0 × ∞, ∞ – ∞, 0° , 1∞ and ∞°.

The limiting value of indeterminate forms is known as true value. The most standard

0 
form among all the indeterminate forms is or . We can find the value of these
0 

two forms by using L-Hospital Rule.

2.3. L- Hospital Rule:

When

f(x) f '(x) f (n) (x)

lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 then lim = lim = ..... = lim (n) provided g'(x),...g'(n)(x)
x →a x →a x →a g(x) x →a g'(x) x →a g (x)

must not be zero, where f(n) and g(n) are nth derivative of f(x) and g(x).
2.3.1. L- Hospital Rule for the form (∞ – ∞, 0 × ∞):

For the evaluation of lim [f(x) – g(x)], if it is in the form (∞ – ∞), we will convert it into
x →

0
the form   by simplification. The same process is also used in the form (0 × ∞). Then
0
we use the L-Hospital Rule.

2.3.2. L-Hospital Rule for the form (0°, 1∞,∞°):

In the evaluation of lim[f(x)]g(x) , we have to simply by taking the log and convert it into
x →a

0
the form   . After that we can use the L-Hospital Rule
0
Note.6:

(i) log 1 = 0 (ii) log 0 = –∞ (iii) log ∞ = ∞ (iv) log 1 x = ∞

xex − log(1 + x)
Example.10 Evaluate: Lt
x →0 x2
3
A.
2
1
B.
2

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C. 1
D. Does not exist
Ans. A
Sol.

xex − log(1 + x)  0
Lt  form 0 
x →0 x2  

(xex + ex .1) − 1 / (1 + x)  0
= Lt  form 0 
x →0 2x  
xex + ex + ex + 1 / (1 + x)2 0 +1+1+1 3
= Lt = = .
x →0 2 2 2

Example.11. Evaluate Lt (sin x)tan x

x → /2

A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. Does not exist
Ans. B
Sol.
y = Lt (sin x)tan x
x → /2

log sin x  0
Log y = Lt tan x log sin x = Lt  form 0 
x → /2 x → /2 cot x  
(1 / sin x) cos x
Lt = − Lt (sin x cos x) = 0
x → /2 − cos ec2 x x → /2

Hence y = e0 =1.
x(a + b cos x) − c sin x
Example.12 Find the values of c such that Lt = 1.
x →0 x5
A. 120
B. 60
C. 180
D. Does not exist
Ans. C
Sol.

x(a + b cos x) − c sin x  0

Lt  form 0 
x →0 x5  
a + b cos x − bx sin x − c cos x
Lt …(i)
x →0 5x 4
As the denominator is 0 for x = 0, (i) will tend to a finite limit if and only if the numerator
also becomes 0 for x = 0. This requires a + b – c = 0 …(ii)

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With this condition, (i) Assumes the form 0/0.
−b sin x − b(sin x + x cos x) + c sin x
∴ (i) Lt
x →0 20x3

(c − 2b) sin x − bx cos x  0

= Lt  form 0 
x →0 20x3  
(c − 2b) cos x − b(cos x − x sin x)
= Lt =1 …(iii)
x →0 60x2

c − 2b − b c − 3b
= = =1 (Given)
0 0

∴ c – 3b = 0

i.e., c = 3b.

Now (iii)

b cos x − b cos x + bx sin x

= Lt
x →0 60x2

b sin x b  sin x  b
= Lt = Lt  = = 1.
x →0 60x 60 x→0  x  60

i.e., b = 60, and ∴ c = 180.

Form (ii), a = 120.

ex sin x − x − x2
Example.13 Evaluate Lt .
x →0 x2 + x log(1 − x)

2
A.
3

−2
B.
3

−1
C.
3
D. Does not exist

Ans. B

Sol. Using the expansions of ex , sin x and log (1 – x), we get

ex sin x − x − x2
Lt
x →0 x2 + x log(1 − x)

 1 2 1 3  1 3  2
1 + x + 2! x + 3! x + ...  x − 3! x + ... − x − x
  
= xLt
→0  1 1 
x2 + x  −x − x2 − x3 − ...
 2 3 

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 2 1 3 4  2 1 3 1
 x + x + 3 x − 0.x + ... − x − x x − 0.x 4 + ... + ...
−2
Lt   = Lt 3 = Lt 3 =
x →0  1 1  x →0 1 1 x →0 1 1 3
x2 −  x2 + x3 + x4 + ... − x3 − x4 − ... − − x − ...
 2 3  2 3 2 3

3. CONTINUITY

A function y = f(x) is said to be continuous if the graph of the function is a continuous curve.
On the other hand, if a curve is broken at some point say x = a, we say that the function is not
continuous or discontinuous.
3.1. Definition:
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if and only if the following three conditions
are satisfied:
(i) f(x) exists; that is f(x) is defined at x = a
lim
(ii) x →a f(x) exists
lim
(iii) x →a f(x) = f(a)
If the function is continuous at every point of a given interval [α, β], then it is said to be
continuous in that interval.
3.2. Properties of continuous functions:
(i) A function which is continuous in a closed interval is also bounded in that interval.
(ii) A continuous function which has opposite signs at two points vanishes atleast once
between these points and vanishing point is called root of the function.
(iii) A continuous function f(x) in the closed interval [a, b] assumes at least once every
value between f(a) and f(b), it being assumed that
f(a) ≠ f(b).

4. DIFFERENTIABILITY

4.1. Chain Rule of differentiability:

If (x) = [f(x)], Then  '(x) =  '[f(x)]f '(x)

Note.7:
Let f and g be functions defined on an interval l and f, g are differentiable at
x = a ϵ l then

(i) F  G is differentiable and (F  G)’ (a) = F’(a)  G’(a).

(ii) cF is differentiable and (cF)’ (a) = c F’ (a) : c ϵ R.
(iii) F.G is differentiable and (FG)’(a) = F’(a)G(a) + F(a) G’(a)
1 1 F '(a)
(iv) is differentiable at x = a and   (a) = − : provided F(a)  0 .
F F
  [F(a) ]2

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(v) F is differentiable at x = a and

G

F  F '(a)G(a) − F(a)G'(a)
 G  (a) = : provided G(a)  0 .
  [G(a)]2

Note.8:

A Necessary condition for the Existence of a Finite Derivative

Continuity is a necessary but not the Sufficient for the existence of a finite derivatives.

Example.14 Show that the function f(x) = |x| is continuous but not differentiable
at x = 0.

Sol.

−x, x  0 LHL = 0

f(x) =| x |= 0, x = 0  f(0) = 0
x, x  0 RHL = 0

Hence, f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

For differentiability, we have

f(0 + h) − f(0) | h | −0
Rf’(0) = lim = lim =1
h→ 0 h h→0 h

f(0 − h) − f(0) | −h | −0 f(0 + h) − f(0) h

Lf’(0) = lim = lim = lim = lim   = −1
h→0 −h h→0 −h h→0 h h→0 −h
 
Hence, f’(0) does not exist i.e., f(x) is not derivable at x = 0 although it is continuous

at x = 0.

Example.15

Show that the function f(x) defined by

 1
x sin( ), x  0
f(x) =  x
0, x=0

Is continuous but not differentiable.

Sol.

1
(0 + h) sin{ }−0
(0 + h) 1
Rf '(0) = lim = lim sin( )
h→0 h h → 0 h

Which does not exists as it oscillates between –1 and 1.

Similarly, Lf’(0) does not exists. Hence, f is not differentiable at x = 0.

 1
For continuity f(0+h) = = lim f(0 + h) = lim  hsin  = 0
h→0 h→0
 h

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 1 
and f(0 – h) = = lim f(0 − h) = lim  −hsin  = 0 and f(0) = 0(given)
h→0 h→0
 −h  

So, the function f(x) is continuous at x = 0 but is not differentiable at x =0.

Example.16

 x, x  0
If f(x) =  Test for continuity and derivability at x = 0.
 −x, x  0
Sol.

Here f (0 + h) = h  f(0 + h) = lim f(0 + h) = lim( h) = 0

h→0 h →0

Also, f (0 – h) = −(−h) = h  f(0 − h) = lim f(0 − h) = lim h = 0

h→0 h→0

And f(0) = 0 by definition.

Since f(0 + h) = f(0 – h) = f(0) the function is continuous at x = 0

For derivability, we have

f(0 + h) − f(0) h−0 1

RHD f '(0) = lim = lim = lim = +
h→0 h h→0 h h→ 0
h

 f(0 − h) − f(0)  h−0 −1

LHD f '(0) = lim   = lim = lim = −
h→0
 −h  h →0 −h h →0
h
Hence, f(x) is non derivable at x = 0

Although it is continuous at that point.

Example.17 Test the differentiability of the function:

1
F(x) = x tan–1  ; x  0 and f(0) = 0 at x = 0
x
Sol.

At x = 0

1
(−h)tan−1  
f(0 − h) − f(0)  −h  = lim− tan−1  1 = −  
Lf '(0) = lim = lim h
h→0 −h h →0 −h h→0
 2 

1
h tan−1  
f(0 + h) − f(0) f(h) − 0  h  = lim tan−1 =  1  = 
Rf '(0) = lim = lim = lim h 2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
 

 Lf’(0) ≠Rf’(0), So f(x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

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5. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

In the function y = f(x), if y increases as x increases (as at A), it is called an increasing function
of x. On the contrary, if y decreases as x increases (as at c), it is called a decreasing function
of x.

Let the tangent at any point on the graph of the function make an  with the x-axis so that

dy
= tan
dx
At any point such as A, where the function is increasing  is acute i.e.,

dy
is positive. At a point such as C, where the function is decreasing  is
dx
dy
Obtuse i.e. is negative. Hence the derivative of an increasing function is positive, and the
dx
derivative of a decreasing function is negative.
Note.9:
If the derivative is zero (as at B or D), then y is neither increasing nor decreasing. In such
cases, we say that the function is stationary.
5.1. Concavity, Convexity and Point of Inflexion
(i) If a portion of the curve on both sides of a point, however small it may be, lies above
the tangent (as at D), Then the curve is said to be Concave upwards at D where d 2y/dx2
is positive.
(ii) If a portion of the curve on both sides of a point lies below the tangent (as at B), then

d2 y
the curve is said to be Convex upwards at B where is negative.
d2 x
(iii) If the two portions of the curve lie on different sides of the tangent thereat (i.e., the
curve crosses the tangent (as at C), then the point C is said to be a Point of inflexion
of the curve.
2 3
At a point of inflexion d y2 = 0 and d y3  0 .
dx dx

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6. MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Consider the graph of the continuous function y =f(x) in the interval (x 1, x2) (Fig.). Clearly the
point P1 is the highest in its own immediate neighbourhood. So also is P 3. At each of these
points P1, P3 the function is said to have a maximum value. On the other hand, the point P 2 is
the lowest in its own immediate neighbourhood. So also is P 4. At each of these points P2, P4 the
function is said to have a minimum value.

Fig.
Thus, we have
6.1. Defination:
A function f(x) is said to have a maximum value at x = a, if there exists a small number
it, however small, such that f(a)> both f(a – h) and f(a + h).
A function f(x) is said to have a minimum value at x = a, if there exists a small number
h, however small, such that f(a) < both f(a – h) and f(a + h).
Note.10:
The maximum and minimum values of a function taken together are called its extreme
values and the points at which the function attains the extreme values are called the
turning points of the function.
Note.11:
A maximum or minimum value of a function is not necessarily the greatest or least value
of the function in any finite interval. The maximum value is simply the greatest value in
the immediate neighbourhood of the maxima point or the minimum value is the least
value in the immediate neighbourhood of the minima point. In fact. there may be several
maximum and minimum values of a function in an interval and a minimum value may be
even greater than a maximum value.
Note.12:
It is seen from the Fig. that maxima and minima values occur alternately.
(i) f(x) is maximum at x = a if f'(a) = 0 and f”(a) is negative.
[i.e., f'(a) changes sign from positive to negative]
(ii) f(x) is minimum at x = a, if f’ (a) = 0 and f"(a) is positive.
[i.e., f'(a) changes sign from negative to positive)
Note.13:
A maximum or a minimum value is a stationary value but a stationary value may neither
be a maximum non a minimum value.

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Procedure for finding maxima and minima
(i) Put the given function = f(x)
(ii) Find f’(x) and equate it to zero.
Solve this equation and let its roots be a, b, c, …
(iii) Find f"(x) and substitute in it by turns x = a, b, c, …
If f” (a) is negative, f(x) is maximum at x = a.
If f’’(a) is positive, f(x) is minima at x = a.
(iv) Sometimes f"(x) may be difficult to find out or f"(x) may be zero at x = a. In such
cases, see if f’(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x passes through a, then f(x)
is maximum at x = a.
If f’(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through a, f(x) is minimum at
x = a.
If f(x) does not change sign while passing through x = a, f(x) is neither maximum nor
minimum at x = a.
Example.18 Find the maximum and minimum values of 3x 4 – 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 1 in the
interval [0, 2].
Sol.
Let f(x) = 3x4 – 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 1

Then f’(x)= 12x3 – 6x2 – 12x + 6 = 6(x2 – 1) (2x – 1)

1
∴ f’(x) = 0 when x = ±1, .
2

Now f"(x) = 36x2 – 12x – 12 = 12 (3x2 – x – 1)

f"(1)=12(3-1-1)=12, f"(1)>0

f"(-1)= 36 f"(-1)>0

1 1
And at f"   = –9 f"   < 0
2 2

So check maximum or minimum at all stationary point as well as end points,

4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1
f   = 3   − 2   − 6   + 6   + 1 = 2.437
2 2 2 2 2

f(0) = 3(0)4 – 2(0)3 – 6(0)2 + 6(0) + 1 = 1

Thus the maximum value = f (2 ) = 3 (2 ) − 2 (2 ) − 6 (2 ) + 6 (2 ) + 1 = 21

4 3 2

and the minimum value = f ( −1) = 3 ( −1) − 2 ( −1) − 6 ( −1) + 6 ( −1) + 1 = −6

4 3 2

Example.19 A rectangular sheet of metal of length 6 metres and width 2 metres is given.
Four equal squares are removed from the corners. The sides of this sheet are now turned

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up to form an open rectangular box. Find approximately, the height (in cm) of the box,
such that the volume of the box is maximum.
Ans. 45
Range (44.5 – 45.5)
Sol.
Let the side of each of the squares cut off be x m so that the height of the box is x m and
the sides of the base are 6 – 2x, 2 – 2x m .

∴ Volume V of the box

= x(6 – 2x) (2 – 2x) = 4(x3 – 4x2 + 3x)

dV
Then = 4(3x2 – 8x + 3)
dx

For V to be maximum or minimum, we must have

dV
dx = 0

i.e., 3x2 – 8x + 3 = 0

x = 8  [64 – 4  3  3] = 2.2 or 0.45 m.

6

The value x = 2.2 m is inadmissible, as no box is possible for this value.

2
Also d V2 = 4(6x - 8), which is — ve for x = 0.45 m.
dx

Hence the volume of the box is maximum when its height is 45 cm.

7. MAXIMA - MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

Let Z = f(x, y) be a given surface shown in figure:

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7.1. Maxima:
Let Z = f(x, y) be any surface and let P(a, b) be any point on it then f(x, y) is called

maximum at P(a, b) if f(a, b) > f(a + h, b + k)  Positive and Negative values of h and

k.
7.2. Minima:

Let Z = f(x, y) be any surface and let P(a, b) be any point on it then f(x, y) is called

minimum at P(a, b) if f(a, b) < f(a + h, b + k)  Positive and Negative values of h and
k.

7.3. Extremum:
The maximum or minimum value of the function f(x, y) at any point x = a and y = b is

called the extremum value and the point is called extremum point.
7.4. Saddle Point:
It is a point where function is neither maximum nor minimum. At this point f is maxi mum
in one direction while minimum in another direction. e.g. Consider Hyperbolic Paraboloid
z = xy; since at origin (0, 0) function has neither maxima nor minima. So, origin is the
saddle for Hyperbolic Paraboloid.
7.5. The Lagrange's conditions for maximum or minimum are:
Consider a function z = f(x,y) and let P(a, b) be any point on it, and let

  2z    2z    2z 
r =  2  ;s =   ;t =  2
 x   xy   y 
(i) If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (x,y) has maximum value at (a,b).
(ii) If rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then f (x, y) has minimum value at (a, b).
(iii) If rt – s2 < 0, then f(x, y) has neither a minimum nor minimum i.e. (a, b) is saddle
point.
(iv) If rt – s2 = 0, then case fail and we need further investigations to calculate maxima
or minima.
7.5.1. Flowchart to find Maxima and Minima:
1. Consider a given function Z = f (x, y)
f
2. Calculate the values of x & y by using = 0 and f = 0.
x y

3. Let we get x = a and y = b from step (2) then critical point is P (a. b)
4. Check Lagrange's conditions for maxima/minima.
5. Now, maximum or minimum value is given by f(a, b).

Example.20 Test Function f(x, y) = x3y2(6 – x – y) for maxima and minima for points
other than origin.
Sol.

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Here f(x, y) = x3y2(6 – x – y) = 6x3y2 – x4y2 – x3y3.
fx = 18x2y2 – 4x3y2 – 3x2y3 and
fy = 12x3y – 2x4y – 3x3y2
r = fxx = 36xy2 – 12x2y2 – 6xy3 = 6xy2(6 – 2x – y)
s = fxy = 36x2y – 8x3y – 9x2y2 = x2y(36 – 8x – 9y)
t = fyy = 12x3 – 2x4 – 6x3y = x3(12 – 2x – 6y)

Now, fx = 0  x2y2(18 – 4x – 3y) = 0 …(i)

and fy = 0  x3y(12 – 2x – 3y) = 0 …(ii)

From (i) and (ii),
4x + 3y = 18
2x + 3y = 12 and
x = y= 0
Solving, we get x = 3, y = 2 and x= y = 0
Leaving x = y= 0,
we get
x = 3, y = 2.
Hence, (3, 2) is the only stationary point under consideration.
Now, rt – s2 = 6x4y2(6 – 2x – y)(12 – 2x – 6y) – x4y2(36 – 8x – 9y)2
At (3, 2) rt– S2 > 0 (positive)
Also r = 6(3)(4)(6 – 6 – 4) = negative (< 0)
 f(x, y) has a maximum value at (3, 2).

8. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Let z = f(y) be a function of two variables x and y.

If wo keep y as constant and vary x alone, then z is a function of x only. The derivative of z
with respect to x, treating y as constant, is called the partial derivative of z with respect to x
and is denoted by one of the symbols.
8.1. Partial differentiation and its applications:
z f z f(x + x, y) − f(x, y)
, , fx (x, y),Dx f Thus = Lt
x x x x →0 x
Similarly, the derivative of z with respect to y, keeping x as constant, is called the partial
derivative of z with respect to y and is denoted by one of the symbols.
z f z f(x, y + y) − f(x, y)
, , fy (x, y),Dy f. Thus = Lt
y y y y→0 y

Sometimes we use the following notation

z z  2z  2z  2z
= p, = q, 2 = r, = s, 2 = t
x y x xy y
Example.21 If z = f (x + ct) + Ф (x – ct), Find the value of K

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2 2
Such that  z = K  z
2 2
t x

A. c2
B. c
C. c3
D. 2c
Ans. A
Sol.
z  
We have = f '(x + ct). (x + ct) +  '(x − ct) (x − ct) = f '(x + ct) +  '(x − ct)
x x x

And 2z …(i)

= f "(x + ct) +  "(x − ct)
x2
z  
Again = f '(x + ct) (x − ct) +  '(x − ct) (x − ct) = cf '(x − ct) − c '(x − ct)
t t t

And  2z …(ii)
= c2 f "(x + ct) + c2 "(x − ct) = c2[f "(x + ct) +  "(x − ct)]
t2

From (i) and (ii),

2
it follows that =  z 2z
2
= c2 2
t x

So value of k= c2

8.2. Total Derivative:

If u = f (x, y), where x =  (t) and y =  (t), then we can express u as a function of

alone by substituting the values of x and y in f (x, y). Thus we can find the ordinary

derivative du/dt which is called the total derivative of u to distinguish it from the partial

derivatives u/x and u/y .

1.If u = f (x, y, z), where x,y, z are all functions of a variable t, then Chain rule is

du u dx u dy u dz
= . + . + .
dt x dt y dt z dt

Chain rule:

du u dx u dy
= . + .
dt x dt y dt

2. Differentiation of implicit functions.

If f (x, y) = c be an implicit relation between x and y which defines as a differentiable

function of x, then

dy f f  f 
=− / ,   0
dx x y  y 
8.3. Change of Variables:

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If u = f(x, y) , Where x =  (s, t) and y =  (s, t)

The necessary formulae for the change of variables are easily obtained.
If t is regarded as a constant, then x, y, u will be functions of s alone. Therefore, by, we

have

u u x u y
= . + .
s x s y s

Similarly, regarding s as constant, we obtain as

u u x u y
= . + .
t x t y t

8.4. Homogeneous Functions:

An expression of the form a0xn + a1xn – 1 y + a2xn – 2 y2 + …+ an yn in which every term is

of the nth degree, is called a homogeneous function of degree n. This can be rewritten as

xn [ao + a1(y/x) + a2(y/x )2 +…. + an (y/x)n].

n
A function f(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if f(kx, ky) = k f(x, y)

x5 + y 5
Example.22 f(x, y) = find degree of function?
x−y
Sol.

k5x5 + k5y5 k5  x5 + y5  k 4  x5 + y5 
f(kx, ky) = =  =  
kx − ky k  (x − y)   (x − y) 
is homogeneous of degree 4.

3 −1 x
Note.14: f(x, y) = x sin   is homogeneous of degree 3.
y

x3 + y3 x
Note.15: f(x,y) = + x −8 cos−1   is not homogeneous
x−y y
Note.16: f (x, y) = sin–1(x6 + y6) is not homogeneous.

8.5. Euler’s Theorem:

If u = f (x, y) is homogeneous function of degree n.
Then
u u
(i) x +y = nu
x y

2u 2u 2
2  u
(ii) x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)u
x2 xy y2

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x4y4
Example 23. u = is homogeneous of degree 7.Find the value of
x+y
xu yu
+ =
x y
A. 5u
B. 6u
C. 7u
D. None of these
Ans. C
Sol.
If u = f (x, y) is homogeneous function of degree n.
Then apply Euler Theorem
4 4 8 4 4 7 4 4
x4y4 (kx) (ky) k xy k xy
u= = = =
x+y kx + ky k x+y x+y
is homogeneous function of degree 7
xu yu
+ = 7u
x y
x4y4
Example 24. u = is homogeneous of degree 7.Find the value of
x+y

x2 2u 2u 2
2  u
+ 2xy + y =
x2 xy y2
A. 6u
B. 42u
C. 7u
D. None of these
Ans. B
Sol. If u = f (x, y) is homogeneous function of degree n.

2 2u 2u 2
2  u
Then x + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)u
x2 xy y2
4 4 8 4 4 7 4 4
x4y4 (kx) (ky) k xy k xy
u= = = =
x+y kx + ky k x+y x+y
is homogeneous function of degree 7

2u 2u 2
2  u
x2 + 2xy + y = 7(7 − 1)u = 42u
x2 xy y2
Note.17:
If u = f (x, y) + g (x, y) where f and g are homogeneous functions of degree m, n
respectively.
Then

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xu u
(i) +y = mf + ng
x y
2 2 2 2
(ii) x  u + 2xy  u + y2  u = m(m − 1)f + n(n − 1)g
2 2
x xy y

n x −n  x  xu yu

Example 25: u = x f   + y g   find the value of + =
y
  y
  x y
A. nf − ng

B. nf + ng

C. −nf + ng

D. None of these
Ans. A
Sol.
If u = f(x, y) + g(x, y) where f and g are homogeneous functions of degree m, n
respectively.
Then
xu u
+y = mf + ng
x y
f is homogeneous with degree n
g is homogeneous with degree –n
xu yu
+ = nf + (−n)g = n(f − g)
x y

n x −n x x2 2u 2xy2u y2 2u

Example 26: u = x f   + y g   find the value of + + =
y y x2 xy y2

A. (n2 + n)f + (n2 + n)g

B. (n2 − n)f + (n2 + n)g

C. (n2 − n)f + (n2 − n)g

D. None of these
Ans. B
Sol.
f is homogeneous with degree n
g is homogeneous with degree –n
x2 2u 2xy2u y2 2u 2 2
2
+ + 2
= n(n − 1)f + (−n)(−n − 1)g = (n − n)f + (n + n)g
x xy y
Note.17:
If u = f(x, y) is not homogeneous but F(u) is homogeneous of degree n then
u u F(u)
(i) x +y =n = g(u) say
x y F(u)

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 2u  2u 2
2  u
(ii) x2 + 2xy + y = g(u) g(u) − 1)
x2 xy y2
Note.18:
3 3
 x3 + y3  x +y
 is not homogeneous then, tanu =
−1
• If u = tan  is homogeneous of
 x−y  x−y
degree 2.
2
u u F(u) 2 tanu 2 sinu cos u
x +y =n − = = 2sinucosu = sin2u = g(u) say
x y F (u) sec2 u cosu 1

 2u 2
2  u  2u
x2 + y + 2xy = g(u) g(u) − 1) = sin2u.(2 cos2u − 1)
x2 y2 xy

9. INTEGRATION

This is the inverse process of differentiation, if the differentiation of F(x) with respect to x be
f(x) then the integration of f(x) with respect to x is F(x) i.e.,
d
F ( x ) = f ( x )   f ( x ) dx = F ( x )
dx
But the derivative of a constant term is zero then
d
F ( x ) + C  = f ( x ) , so we have
dx 

 f ( x) dx = F ( x) + C
The process of finding the integral of a function is said to be integration and the function which
is to be integrated is known as integrand.
9.1. Standard Formulae:
( ax + b)n+1 n  −1
 (ax + b) dx =
n
1.
a (n + 1 )

1 1
2.  ax + b dx = a log ( ax + b )
1 ax +b
3. e
ax +b
dx = e
a
1 bx +c
4. a
bx + c
dx = a loga e
b
1
5.  sin (ax + b) dx = − a cos (ax + b)
1
6.  cos ( ax+b ) dx= sin ( ax+b )
a
1
7.  tan (ax + b) dx = a log sec (ax + b)
1
8.  cot (ax + b) dx = a log sin (ax + b)

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1
9.  sec (ax + b) dx = a tan (ax + b)
2

1
10.  cosec (ax + b) dx = − a cot (ax + b)
2

1
11.  sec (ax + b) tan (ax + b) dx = a sec (ax + b)
1
12.  cosec (ax + b) cot (ax + b) dx = − a cosec (ax + b)

 sec ( ax + b ) dx = a log (sec ( ax + b ) + tan ( ax + b ) )

1
13.

1
14.  cosec (ax + b) dx = a log ( cosec (ax + b) − cot (ax + b))
1
15.  sinh (ax + b) dx = a cosh (ax + b)
1
16.  cosh (ax + b) dx = a sinh (ax + b)
1
17.  tanh (ax + b) dx = a logcosh (ax + b)
1
18.  coth (ax + b) dx = a logsinh (ax + b)
1
19.  sech (ax + b) dx = a tanh (ax + b)
2

1
20.  cosec (ax + b) dx = − a coth (ax + b)
2

1
21.  sech (ax + b) tanh (ax + b) dx = − a sech (ax + b)
1
22.  cosech (ax + b) coth (ax + b) dx = − a cosech (ax + b)
dx x
23.  a −x2 2
= sin−1
a

dx 1 x
24. a 2
+x 2
= tan −1
a a

25.  a +x
dx
2 2
= sinh−1
x
a
(
= log x + x 2 + a2 )
26.  x −a
dx
2 2
= cosh −1
x
a
(
= log x + x 2 + a 2 )
dx x
27. x x −a2 2
dx = sec−1
a

x a2 x
28.  a2 − x 2 dx = a2 − x 2 + sin−1
2 2 a

29.  a 2 + x 2 dx =
x
2
a2 + x2 +
a2
2
x x
sinh −1 =
a 2
a2 + x2 +
a2
2
(
log x + x2 + a2 )

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30.  x 2 − a2 dx =
x
2
x 2 − a2 −
a2
2
x x
cosh−1 =
a 2
a2
x 2 − a2 − log x +
2
( x 2 − a2 )
dx 1 x−a 1 a−x
31. x 2
=
− a2 2a
log
x+a
,x  a =
2a
log
a+ x
,x  a

asin (bx + c ) − b cos (bx + c )

32. e
ax
sin (bx + c ) dx = eax
a2 + b2

acos (bx + c ) + b sin (bx + c )

33. e
ax
cos (bx + c ) dx = eax
a2 + b2

34.  f.gdx = f  gdx −  f '. gdx  dx, where f, g are functions of x

m+1 n+1
 /2 

2 2 (Gamma Function)
35.  sinm x cosn xdx =
m+n+2
0 2
2
9.2. Important integration and Their Hints:
Integration Hints

1. a2 + x2 Put x = a tan θ ot a cot θ

2. x2 − a2 Put x = a sec θ or a cosec θ

3. a2 − x2 put x = a sin θ or acos θ

a+ x a−x
4. or put x = a cos 2 θ
a− x a+ x

5. ax2 + bx + c by making perfect square

1
6. Put Y =y
X Y

Where X, Y are both linear.

9.3. Definite Integrals:
b
The definite integral is denoted by  f ( x ) dx
a

and is read as “the integral of the function f(x) w.r.t. ‘x’ from x = a to x = b”,
b
d
Let F ( x ) =f ( x ) then  f ( x ) dx=F ( b ) -F ( a ) ;
dx a

Where F(b) and F(a) are the values of the functions F(x) at x = b and x = a respectively

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( t )dt
b b
Property I. a a

(i.e. the value of a definite integral depends on the limits and not on the variable of
integration)

 f ( x ) dx =  ( x ) ;  f ( x )dx =  ( b ) −  ( a )
b
Let a

 f ( t )dt =  ( t ) ;   f ( t ) dt =  ( b ) −  ( a )
b
Then a

Hence the result.

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  f ( x ) dx = −  f ( x ) dx
b a
Property II. a b

(i.e., the interchange of limits changes the sign of the integral)

  f ( x ) dx =  ( b ) −  ( a )
b
Let  f ( x ) dx =  ( x ) ; a

 f ( x ) dx = −  ( x ) = − 
 ( a ) −  ( b ) =  ( b ) −  ( a )
a
And − b b

Hence the result

 f ( x )dx =  f ( x )dx +  f ( x )dx

b c b
Property III. a a c

 f ( x ) dx =  ( x ) , so that  f ( x ) dx =  ( b ) −  ( a ) ….(i)
b
Let a

 f ( x ) dx +  f ( x ) dx =  ( x ) +  ( x ) c …..(ii)
c b c b
Also a c a

 ( c ) −  ( a )  + 
=   ( b ) −  ( c )  =  ( b ) −  ( a )
Hence the result follows from (1) and (2)

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( a − x )dx
a a
Property IV. 0 0

Put x = a – t, so that dx = -dt. Also when x = 0, t = a; when x =a, t = 0

 f ( x ) dx = −  f ( a − t )dt =  f ( a − t ) dt =  ( a − x )dx
a 0 a a

0 a 0 0
[prop. II]

 f ( x ) dx = 2 f ( x ) dx ,
a a
Property V. −a 0
if f(x) is an even function,

=0 if f(x) is an odd function.

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( x ) dx +  f ( x ) dx
a 0 a

−a −a 0

 f ( x ) dx , put x = -t, so that dx = -dt

a
In −a

 f ( x ) dx = −  f ( − t )dt =  f ( − t ) dt =  f ( − x ) dx
0 0 a a

−a a 0 0

Substituting we get

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( − x )dx +  f ( x ) dx
0 a a

−a 0 0

(i) If f(x) is an even function f(-x) = f(x)

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( x )dx +  f ( x ) dx = 2 f ( x ) dx
0 a a a

−a 0 0 0

(ii) If f(x) is an odd function, f(-x) = -f(x)

 f ( x ) dx = −  f ( x )dx +  f ( x ) dx = 0
0 a a

−a 0 0

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 f ( x ) dx = 2 f ( x ) dx , if f (2a – x) = f(x)
2a a
Property VI. 0 0

=0 if f(2a – x) = -f(x)

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( x ) dx +  f ( x ) dx
2a a 2a

0 0 a
….(1) [prop. III]

 f ( x ) dx , put x = 2a – t, so that dx = -dt

2a
In 0

Also when x = a, t = a; when x = 2a, t = 0

 f ( x ) dx = −  f ( 2a − t )dt =  f ( 2a − t ) dt =  f ( 2a − x ) dx
2a 0 a a

0 a 0 0

Substituting in (1), we get

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( x )dx +  f ( 2a − x ) dx
2a a a

0 0 0

(i) If f (2a – x) = f(x), then from (2)

 f ( x ) dx =  f ( x )dx +  f ( x ) dx = 2 f ( x ) dx
2a a a a

0 0 0 0

(ii) if f (2a-x) = -f(x), then from (2)

2a a a

0
f(x)dx = 
0
f(x)dx −  f(x)dx = 0
0

9.4. Wallis formula:

 /2  /2

0
sinxndx = 
0
cos xndx

=
(n − 1) (n − 3)(n − 5).....    ,Only if n is even 
n(n − 2)(n − 4)..... 2 
 

2


sinn−1
x cos x n − 1 2
In = 2
0
sin xndx = −
n
+
 n 
 0
sin(n−2) xdx
0

(n − 1)
In = In−2
n
Case-I. When n is odd,
n − 3 n −5
In−2 =   In− 4 , In− 4 =   In−6
n − 2 n − 4
From these we get
(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5)......2
In =
n(n − 2)(n − 4).....3.1
Case-II. When n is even,
(n − 3)
In−2 = In−4 ,
(n − 2)
(n − 5)
In−4 = In−6
(n − 4)
From these, we obtain
Note.20:

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Reduction formula for  sin

m
xdx.cosn xdx

Here a generalized formula


(m − 1)(m − 3)...(n − 1)(n − 3)

0
2
sinm x.cosn x.dx =
(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4)...
K


When m and n both are even K =
2
Otherwise K =1,


Example.27 Integrate 0
2
sin4 x dx

3
A.
16
3
B.
8

C.
16
D. None of these
Ans. A
Sol.
We have the reduction formula

(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5) 

2
0
sinn x dx =
n(n − 2)(n − 4)

2
(since n is even)
Here n = 4
3x1  3
= x =
4x2 2 16


Example.28 Integrate 0
2
cos6 xdx

3
A.
16
5
B.
16

C.
16
D. None of these
Ans. B

Sol.

(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 5) 

0
2
cosn xdx =
n(n − 2)(n − 4)
..... if n is even
2

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Putting n = 6, we get

5x3x1  5

2
0
cos6 xdx = =
6x4x2 2 16
a x7dx
Example.29 Evaluate 0
a2 − x2
16 7
A. a
35
8 7
B. a
35
16 6
C. a
35
D. None of these

Ans. A
Sol.

Put x = a sin  , so that dx = a cos  d 


Also when x = 0,  = 0 when x = a,  =
2

a7 sin7 
= 
2
0 acos 
.acos d


7
= a 2
sin7 d
0

7 6x4x2 16 7
= a = a
7x5x3x1 35


Example.30 Evaluate 0
6
cos4 3.sin3 6d

1
A.
35
1
B.
15
1
C.
20

D. None of these
Ans. B

Sol:

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
3
 0
6
cos4 3 2 sin3.cos 3 d

Put 3  = x

So that 3d  = dx

Also when  =0, x = 0

 
When  = ,x=
6 2

8 2
3 0
= . sin3 x.cos7 xdx

8  2x1x6x4x2  1
=   =
3 10x8x6x4x2  15
/ 2 / 2
Example.31 Find the value of  0
log sin xdx = 
0
log cos xdx = ?


A. log 2
8

B.  log 2
2
C. − log2

D. None of these
Ans. A
Sol. Let
 /2  /2  
I=  logsinxdx =  logsin  − x dx ……….(i)
0 0 2 
 /2
= logcos x dx …………(ii)
0

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

 /2  /2  /2
2I =  logsinxdx +  logcos xdx =  log (sinx cos x ) dx
0 0 0

 /2 1   /2  1 
= log  ( 2sinx cos x )  dx =   log + logsin2x  dx
0
 2  0  2 
 /2  /2
= − log2 1dx +  logsin2x dx
0 0

  /2 
= − log2 +  logsint dt = − log2 + I
2 0 2

I = − log2
2
/ 2
Example.32 Find the value of  log (1 + tan  )d 
0

 
A. − log 2 B. log 2
2 8

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C. − log2 D. None of these

Ans. B
Sol.
 /4    
I=  log (1 + tan )d =  log 1 + tan  −   d
0 0
 4 

 /4  1 − tan    /4  2 
= log 1 + d =  log  d
0
 1 + tan   0  1 + tan  
 /4  /4
= log2d −  log (1 + tan  ) d
0 0

 
I = log 2 (  )0 − I  2 I =
/ 4
log 2  I = log 2
4 8
 xdx
Example.33 Evaluate  0 a2 cos2 x + b2 sin2 x
2
A.
2ab

2
B.
ab


C.
2ab

D. None of these
Ans. A
Sol.
Let
 xdx
I= 
0 a cos x + b2 sin2 x
2 2

I= 
 (  − x) dx 
= 2
dx
=I
0 2
a cos 2
(  − x ) + b sin (  − x )
2 2 0 a cos x + b2 sin2 x
2

 /2 dx  /2 sec2 xdx
2I = 2  = 2 0 a2 + b2 tan2 x
0 a2 cos2 x + b2 sin2 x
Put, b tan x = t
⇒ b sec2xdx = dt
As x → 0, t → 0 and

   dt   −1 t  2
x→ ,t →   I =  2 2 = tan =
2 b 0 a +t ab  ab 0 2ab
 /2
sinx
Example.34 Evaluate 
0 sinx + cos x
dx


A. B. 
2

C. D. None of these
4
Ans. C

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Sol.
Let
 /2
sinx
I= 
0 sinx + cos x
dx ………(i)

Then
 /2
sin (  / 2 − x )
I= 
0 sin (  / 2 − x ) + cos (  / 2 − x )
dx

 b b

Using  f ( x ) dx =  f ( a + b − x ) dx 
 a a 
 /2
cos x
 I= 
0 cos x + sinx
dx ………(ii)

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

 /2  /2
sinx cos x
2I = 
0 cos x + sinx
dx + 
0 sinx + cos x
dx

 /2  /2
sinx + cos x 
  1.dx =[x]
 /2
= dx = 0 = −0
0 sinx + cos x 0
2


I=
4
1/ n
 n! 
Example.35 Find the value : lim  n 
 
n → n

Ans. 0.3678
Range (0.30 – 0.40)

Sol. Let
Taking log both the side, we get

1  1 2 3 ( n − 1) n  1 n  x
log Z = lim log  . . .... .  = lim  log  
n → n
n n n n n n → n x =1 n

1
=  logxdx = ( xlogx) 0 − 
1 1
.xdx = − ( x )0 = −1
1 1
0 0 x

1
 Z= = 0.3678
e
Note.21: Leibnitz rule of Differentiation:
Let f(x, t) is integrand which is function of two variable x and t then
( x)
d   ( x)  d d
  f ( x, t ) dt  =  f ( x, t ) dt + . f ( x,  ) − . f ( x,  )
dx  ( x )  ( x ) x dx dx

1. Take care, here  ( x ) and  ( x ) are replaced in place of t in 2 nd & 3nd term.

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2. If integrand is function of ‘t’ alone then
 ( x)
d   d d
  f ( t ) dt  = .f (  ) − .f (  )
dx  ( x)  dx dx

=  sin ( t ) dt then  ' (1) = ?

2
Example.36 If
1/x

3
A. sin1
2
B. 3sin1
1
C. sin1
2
D. None of these

Ans. A

Sol.

d  1   1 
d d
( ) ( )
2

x . sin x  −   . sin   
2
=
dx dx   dx  x    x  
 

 1
sin  2 
sin x x 
 '( x) = +
2 x x2

sin1 sin1 3
 ' (1) = + 2 = sin1
2 1 (1) 2

9.5. Gamma Functions:


n =  e − x x n −1dx , n > 0 and n may not be an integral value.
0


Use Formula n (1 − n ) =
sin n

1
Example.37 Find the values of
2

Sol.


Use Formula n (1 − n ) =
sin n

Put n = ½

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1 1 
   = ,
 2   2  sin 
2
1
  = 
2


 x e − x dx
4
Example.38 Evaluate 0

3
A. 
2

1
B. 
2

C. 

D. None of these

Ans. A

Sol.

Let


I =  x1/ 4 e − x dx ….(i)
0

Putting x = t or x = t 2 we have dx = 2t dt

Then from (i), we have

   5
I =  t1/ 2 e − t 2tdt = 2 t 3/ 2 e − t dt = 2  
0 0  2

3 3 3 1 1 3
= 2x    = 2. .    = 
2 2 2 2 2 2
9.6. Beta function:

 ( m, n ) =  x m −1 (1 − x )
1 n −1
dx, m, n > 0 not necessarily an integer.
0

9.6.1 Property:

1. Beta function is symmetrical about m and n i.e. β (m, n) = β (n, m)

 x n −1
2. Another useful transformation of beta functions  ( m, n ) =  (1 + x )
0 m+ n
dx

mn
3. Relation between beta and gamma function  ( m, n ) =
 ( m + n)

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 m + 1  n + 1
 
/2  2   2 
 sin  cos d =
m n
4. where m > -1 and n > -1
0  m + n + 2
2  
 2

9.7. Areas of Cartesian curves:

Theorem:-
1. Area bounded by the curve y = f(x) the x-axis and the ordinates
b b
x = a, x = b is 
a
ydx = 
a
f(x)dx

2. The area bounded by the curve x = f(y), the x-axis and the
abscissa y = a, y = b is
b b

a
xdy = a
f(y)dy

9.7.1. Sign of an area:

Example.39
Find the area included between the curve y 2(2a–x) =x3 and its asymptote.
A. 3 a2
B.  a2

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C. 2 a2
D. None of these.
Ans. A
Sol.
Area between the curve and the asymptote

2a 2a  x3 
= 2 ydx = 2  .dx
 2a − x 
0 0

Put x= 2a Sin2θ
dx=4asinθ.cosθdθ

(2asin2 )3
= 2 2 .4asin .cos d
0 2acos2 

= 16a2  2 sin4 .d
0

 3x1  
= 16a2   = 3a2
 4x2  2
9.8. Length of Curves:

1. The length of the arc of the curve y = f(x) between the points where x = a and x =
b is

b   dy  
2

 a


1 +  dx  dx
  

Let AB be the curve y = f(x) between the points A and B where x =a and x = b
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve and arc AP = x so that it is a function of X.

ds   dy  
2

Thus = 1 +   
dx   dx  

b   dy  
2
b ds x =b
  a


1 +  dx  dx =
  
 a dx
.dx = s x =a

= (value of for x = b) – (value of s for x = a) = arc AB-0

b   dy  
2

Hence, the arc AB = 

a
1 + 

 dx .
 dx  

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2. The length of the arc of the curve x = f(y) between the point where y =a and y = b,
is

b   dx  
2


a
1 + 

 dy
 dy  

3. The length of the arc of the curve x = f(t), y = (t) between the points where t =a and

t =b, is

b  dx 2  dy 2 

a
  +  dt  dt
 dt    

4.The length of the arc of the curve r = f() between the point where  =  and  =  ,
is

  2  dr 2 


r +   d
  d  

5. The length of the arc of the curve  = f(r) between the point where r = a and r = b,
is

b   d  
2


a
1 +  r

 dr
 dr  

9.9. Volumes of Revolution:

9.9.1. Revolution about x-axis:
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution about the x-axis, of the area
b
bounded by the curve y =f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b is 
a
y2dx.

Let AB to the curve y =f(x) between the ordinates A(x = a) and B (x=b).

9.9.2. Revolution about the y-axis:

the volume of the solid generated by the revolution, about y-axis, of the area, bounded
b
by the curve x = f(y), the y-axis and the abscissa y = a, y = b is 
a
x2 dy

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Example.40 Find the volume of the reel-shaped solid formed by the revolution about

the y-axis, of the part of the parabola y2 = 4ax cut off by the latus-rectum.

4a3
A.
5

a3
B.
5

C. 4a3

4a5
D.
5

Ans. A

Sol.
Given parabola is x = y2/4a

Let A be the vertex and L one extremity of the latus-rectum. For the arc AL, y varies

from 0 to 2a (Figure)
 Required volume = 2 (volume generated the revolution about the y-axis of the area

ALC)

2a 2a y4
= 2 x2dy = 2  .dy
0 0 16a2
2a
 y5  5 4a3
= = (32 a − 0) =
8a2 5 0
40a2 5

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9.10. Change of order of integration:

In a double integral with variable limits, the change of order of integration changes the

limit of integration. While doing so, sometimes it is required to split up the region of

integration and the given integral is expressed as the sum of a number of dou ble

integrals with changed limits.

The change of order of integration quite often facilities the evaluation of a double

integral.
 
Example.41 By changing the order of integration of  
0 0
e− xy sin px dxdy,

 sinpx 
show that 0 x
dx =
2

Sol.

 ( )
   
 
0 0
e− xy sin px dxdy =
0 0
e− xy sinpx dx dy


 e− xy
=  0
−
p2 + y2
(p cos px + y sinpx) dy
0

 p y 
=  dy = tan−1   = ... (i )
p0 2
2 2
0 p +y

On changing the order of integration, we have

0

  0

e− xy sin px dx dy = 


0
sin px  

0
e − xy dy dx

 e− xy  sin px
= 
0
sin px
−x
dx =  0 x
dx ....(ii)
0

 sinpx 
Thus from (i) and (ii), we have 
0 x
dx =
2

9.11. Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates:

2 r2
To evaluate   f (r, )drd ,
1 r1
we first integrate w.r.t. r between limits r = r 1 and r = r2

keeping θ fixed and the resulting expression in integrated w.r.t. θ from θ 1 to θ2. In this

integral r1, r2 are functions of θ and θ 1, θ2 are constants.

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Here AB and CD are the curves r1 = f1 (θ) and r2 = f2 (θ) bounded by the lines θ = θ 1
and θ = θ 2. PQ is a wedge of angular thickness δθ.
r2
Then  f (r, ) dr
r1
indicates that the integration is along PQ from P to Q while the

integration w.r.t. θ corresponds to the turning of PQ from AC to BD.

Thus the whole region of integration is the area ACDB. The order of integration may be
changed with appropriate changes in the limits.
  (
− x 2 + y2 ) dx dy
Example.42 Evaluate  
0 0
e by changing to polar coordinates.


A. B. 
2

C. D. None of these
4
Ans. C
Sol.
The region of integration being the first quadrant of the xy-plane,
r varies from 0 to ∞ and θ varies from 0 to  / 2 .
Hence,

I=
  (
− x 2 + y2 ) dxdy = /2 
   e − r rdrd
2
e
0 0 = 0 r=0

  

1 / 2  1 / 2 1 / 2
( −2r ) dr d = − 0
2 0 
=− e− r e−r d = d =
2 2

0 2 0 2 0 4
Example.43 Find the area between the parabolas y 2 = 4ax and x = 4ay is
2

16a2
A.
3

8a2
B.
3

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a2
C.
3
D. None of these
Ans. A
Sol.
Solving the equations y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay, it is seen that the parabolas intersect
at O (0, 0) and A (4a, 4a). As such for the shaded area between theses parabolas

(Fig.) x varies from 0 to 4a and y varies from P to Q i.e., from y = x 2/4a to y = 2 (ax ) .

Hence the required area.

( ax )  x2 
( ax ) −  dx
4a 2 4a
=  dydx =  2
x2 / 4 a
0 0
 4a 
4a
2 1 x3 32 2 16 2 16 2
= 2 a. x3/2 − . = a − a = a
3 4a 3 0
3 3 3

9.12. Triple Integrals:

Consider a function f(x, y, z) defined at every point of the 3-dimensional finite region
V. Divide V into n elementary volumes δV 1, δV2, ……, δVn. Let (xr, yr, zr) be any point

within the rth sub-division δV r. Consider the sum  f ( x , y , z ) V
r =1
r r r r

The limit of this sum, if it exists, as n → ∞ and δVr →0 is called the triple integral of

f(x, y, z) over the region V and is denoted by    f ( x, y, z) dV

For purpose of evaluation it can also be expressed as the repeated integral

   f ( x, y, z) dxdydz
x2 y2 z2

x1 y1 z1

If x1, x2 are constants; y1, y2 are either constants or functions of x and z 1, z2 are either
constants or functions of x and y, then this integral is evaluated as follows.
First f(x, y, z) is integrated w.r.t. z between the limits z 1 and z2 keeping x and y fixed.
The resulting expression is integrated w.r.t. y between the limits y 1 and y2 keeping x
constant. The result just obtained is finally integrated w.r.t. x from x 1 to x2.
Thus

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y2 ( x) z2 ( x,y )
f ( x, y, z ) dz dy dx
x2
I=   x1 y1 ( x )  z1 ( x,y )

Where the integration is carried out from the innermost rectangle to the outermost
rectangle. The order of integration may be different for different types of limits.
1 (1− x ) (1− x − y )
2 2 2

Example.44 Evaluate  0 0 
0
xyz dxdydz

1
A.
30
1
B.
6
1
C.
8
1
D.
48
Ans. D

Sol.
We have
1 (1− x ) (1− x − y )
2 2 2

I=  0 0  0
xyz dxdydz

1  (1− x2 )  (1− x2 − y2 )  
I =  x  y  z dz  dy dx
0

0
0  
 1 − x2 (1 − x 2 − y 2 ) 
1 ( ) z2 
=  x  y. dy  dx
0

0 2 0

1  (1− x2 ) 1 
=  x  (
y. 1 − x 2 − y 2 dy  dx
2
)
0
 0 
(1− x )
2

1 1 y2 y 4
=  x 1 − x2
2 0 2
− (
4
) dx
0

1 1 1 1
( ) (
1 − x2 .2x − 1 − x2 .x  dx =  x − 2x3 + x5 dx ) ( )
2 4
= 
8 0  8 0
1
1 x 2 2x 4 x 6 1  1 1 1 1
= − + =  − +  =
8 2 4 6 0
8 2 2 6 48

Example.45 Find by triple integration, the volume of the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = a2

4 3
A. a
3
1 3
B. a
3
2 3
C. a
3

D. a 3

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Ans. A
Sol.
Changing to polar spherical coordinates by putting

x = r sin  cos , y = r sin  sin , z = r cos 

We have dx dy dz = r2 sin θ dr dθ d ϕ
Also the volume of the sphere is 8 times the volume of its portion in the positive octant
for which r varies from 0 to a,
θ varies from 0 to  / 2 and
ϕ varies from 0 to  / 2 .
/2 /2 /2 /2
= 8   r 2 sin  dr d d = 8 r 2 dr. .sin d.
a a
d
0 0 0 0 0 0

a
r3 / 2  a3 4
=8 . − cos  0 . = 4. . ( −0 + 1) = a 3
3 0 2 3 3

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Let y2 – 2y + 1 = x and x + y = 5 . The value of x + y equals….

(Give the answer upto three decimal places)

Ans. 5.732
Range (5.7 – 5.8)
2. Find the appropriate value of c in f(x)= Sin x in (0,  ) using Lagrange’s Mean value theorem.
A. π
π
B.
2
3π
C.
2
π
D.
4
Ans. B
3. Find the appropriate value of c in f(x)= e x in (0, 1) using Lagrange’s Mean value theorem.
Ans. 0.5413
Range (0.50 - 0.60)
4. Expand log (1 + sin 2 x) in powers of x and find the coefficient of x 4.
5
A. −
6
1
B. −
6
2
C. −
6
D. None of these
Ans. A

5. lim x − 1 where [.] is greatest integer function, is equal to

x→1

A. 1
B. 2
C. 0
D. limit does not exists
Ans. D
6. Find the relationship be a and b so that the function f defined by
ax + 1, if x  3
f ( x) = 
bx + 3, if x  3

Is continuous at x = 3
2
A. a = b +
3

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2
B. a + b =
3

2
C. a = b −
3
1
D. a − =b
3
Ans. A

xx − x
7. Evaluate Lt
x →1 x − 1 − log x

Ans. 2
Range (1.98- 2.01)

(1 + x)1/x − e
8. Evaluate Lt
x →0 x
e
A.
2
e
B. −
2
e
C. −
4
D. limit does not exists
Ans. B
9. Evaluate Lt (tanxlogx)
x →0

A. 1
B. 2
C. 0
D. limit does not exists
Ans. C

2 v 2 v 2 v
10. If v = (x + y + z )
2 2 2 –1/2
, find the value of + + =?
x2 y2 z2
A. 1
B. 2
C. 0
D. 3
Ans. C
11. The diameter and altitude of a can in the shape of a right circular cylinder are measured as 4
cm and 6 cm respectively. The possible error in each measurement is 0.1 cm. find approximately
the maximum possible error in the values computed for the volume (in cm 3).

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Ans. V = 1.6 cm3

12. The period of a simple pendulum is T = 2 (l / g), find the maximum error in T (in %)due to the

possible error up to 1% in l and 2.5% in g.

Ans. T = 1.75%
13. The maximum area of the rectangle whose vertices lies on the ellipse x 2 + 4y2 = 1 is ____?
Ans. 1
1/n
 1   2   3   n 
14. Find the value of X when n → ∞ of the product is X=  1 +   1 +   1 +  ...  1 +  
 n  n   n  n 
4
Ans. X=
e

 x e − x dx
3

15. Evaluate 0

315
Ans. 
16
16. Find the area of the tangent cut off from the parabola x 2 = 8y by the line x-2y + 8 =0
Ans. 36 unit2

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