General Biology Reviewer

Biology – The study of life

Traditional Branches of Biology

Taxonomy – study of naming and classifying organisms.
Cytology – study of structures and functions of cells.
Embryology – study of formation and development of organisms.
Anatomy – study of structures and parts of organism.
Physiology – study of functions of living organisms and their parts.
Biochemistry – study of biochemical compositions and processes of living things.
Genetics – study of heredity and variation.
Evolution – study of the origin and differentiation of various organisms.
Ecology – study of relationships of organisms with each other and their environment.

Modern Branches of Biology

Bioinformatics – study of biological data using computer programs.
Genomics – study of the entire genetic material of an organism.
Molecular Biology – study of molecules that make up the cells of living organisms.
Pharmacogenomics – study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs.
Proteomics – study of different proteins in an organism.
Synthetic Biology – study of combined biology and engineering.
Systems Biology – study of systems of biological molecules such as cells, organism or species.
Biology as a Science

Two Main Approaches in Scientific Investigations

1. Discovery-based science
- Relies mainly on verifiable observations and measurements.
2. Hypothesis-based science
- Involves the use of scientific method

Four Steps in Conducting Scientific Method

1. Observation – identifying and clearly defining the problem.
2. Hypothesis – formulating a possible logical answer to the identified problem.
3. Experiment – testing of the hypothesis through experimentation.
4. Conclusion – reject or modify the hypothesis.

Types of Scientific Reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning – bottom-up approach/specific to general
2. Deductive Reasoning – top-down approach/general to specific

Common Characteristics of Living Organisms

Energy – ability of an organism to do work in order to move, grow and reproduce
Metabolism – sum of all chemical processes and energy changes happening inside the body
Excretion – process of removing unwanted waste products due to different metabolic processes

- Examples of metabolic waste products:

- Carbon dioxide
- Water
- Mineral salts
- Nitrogenous waste products

Homeostasis – maintenance of body’s internal balance to keep an organism alive

Motility – movement of organisms
Irritability – response/reaction of an organism to external stimuli such as light, temperature,
sound, pressure, food source, etc.
Individual Adaptation – ability of an organism to adjust to changes in the environment
Evolutionary Adaptation – gradual or rapid change in body structure or behavior to adapt in the
environment
Growth – an increase in size and volume of a organisms (can be measured)
Development – stages starting from fertilization and ending in death (cannot be measured)

Cell Structures and their Functions

Cell – the smallest, basic unit of life

Types of cells
1. Prokaryotic cell
- Do not have a membrane-bound nucleus
- Ex: archaebacteria, blue-green algae and eubacteria
2. Eukaryotic cell
- Bigger and more complex than a prokaryotic cell
- Enclosed by a membrane-bound nucleus
- Ex: cells from animals, plants, protist and fungi
Parts of a Prokaryotic cell
1. Glycocalyx – provides protection and helps bacteria to hold on to surfaces
2. Cell wall – rigidity and shape of the cell
3. Plasma membrane
- Prevents the loss of water and electrolytes inside the cell
- Composed of a phospholipid bilayer
4. Plasmid – small DNA molecule found in the cytoplasm
5. Nucleoid – where the DNA is concentrated
6. Cytoplasm – whole inside region of the cell where the chromosomes, ribosomes, and
other cellular inclusions are suspended
 7. Ribosome – makes proteins

8. Pilus (Pili, plural) - a short hairlike appendage on the surface of some bacteria
9. Flagellum (Flagella, plural) - a long, threadlike structure that facilitates movement in
bacteria
10. Fimbriae – bristle-like fibers that are shorter than pili that is primarily used for
bacterial attachment to tissue surfaces

Parts of a Eukaryotic cell

1. Cell membrane/Plasma membrane – acts as gatekeeper for regulating the passage of
important molecules, ions, gases between outside and inside of a cell
a. Phospholipid Bilayer of a cell membrane
Heads – phosphate group (hydrohilic/water-loving)
Tails – lipids (hydrophobic/water-fearing)
2. Cell wall – gives protection, rigid support and shape to the cell
3. Cytoplasm – semifluid region of the cell that surrounds the nucleus and holds the
organelles of a cell
Cytosol – fluid portion consisting mainly of water (water sa aquarium)
4. Nucleus – storehouse of genetic information in the form of DNA inside the cell
- Nuclear Envelope (crust)– encloses the DNA
- Nuclear Pores – holes that allows large and small molecules to pass between nucleus
and cytoplasm
- Nucleolus – makes ribosomes
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum – passageway/highway
6. Golgi Apparatus (sorting center)– responsible for processing, packaging, and sorting of
materials
7. Vesicles – small, membrane-bound sacs that enclose proteins (pang balot ng parcel)
8. Vacuoles – a fluid-filled sac for the storage materials needed by the cell that includes
water, food molecules, inorganic ions, and enzymes
9. Lysosomes – small, spherical, membrane-bound organelles which contain various
kinds of enzymes that can break down materials in the cell
10. Mitochondria
- produces ATP (energy)
- power plant of the cell
- bean-shaped with two membranes
11. Ribosome – makes proteins
Centrosome – part of the cytoplasm that produces microtubules
Cytoskeleton – provides motility and strength for the cell
Glycogen granules – play an important role in glucose metabolism
The Cell and Its Beginning
The Microscopic World
- Microscopes allowed humans to see the intricacies of the cell and its parts
Micrograph – an image produced by a microscope
Magnification – the measure of optical instruments for an object to appear larger
Resolution – clarity of an image
Compound microscope – uses optical lenses and a light source to magnify small
specimens

Parts of Compound Microscope

1. Eyepiece (ocular lens) - the part that is looked through at the top of
compound microscope
2. Arm – supports the microscope head
3. Nosepiece – holds/attach the objective lenses
4. Base – houses the illumination and supports the compound microscope
5. Objective lenses – magnifies the specimen up to 400x
6. Specimen or slide – the object use to hold the specimen
7. Stage or Platform – the platform where the specimen or slide are placed
8. Stage clips or mechanical stage – holds the slide
9. Aperture – circular opening in the stage where the illumination from the
base of the compound microscope reaches the platform of the stage
10. Course and fine adjustment controls – adjust the focus of the microscope
11. Mirror – reflects light into the base of the microscope
12. Illuminator – light used to illuminate the slide or specimen

Electron Microscope – uses streams of electrons to enlarge objects up to

10,000,000x
Confocal Scanning Microscope – used to examine the three-dimensional
structure of a cell
Mycoplasma Gallicepticum – smallest cell
Ostrich’s Egg – largest cell

Discovery of Cells
- Cells were first recorded by Robert Hooke around 1665
- Antonie Van Leewenhoek, a Dutch naturalist, first to be credited on
studying magnified cells, first to observe living cells “animalcules”

Cell Theory
- Study of plants – German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1838)
- Animal cells – German physiologist Theodore Schwann (1839)
- Both confirmed that cells are the fundamental units of life
- Cell Division – German physician Rudolf Carl Virchow

All organisms are made up of one or more cells

- A living can be made of just one cell (like an amoeba) or trillions (like the
human body)

Cells are the smallest and basic unit of structure and function in organisms
- The basic unit of life
- To be considered a life form, something needs to have at least one cell

Cell arise only from previously existing cells

- A cell cannot exist or come out of a non-living thing