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Go Systems Programming

Master Linux and Unix system level programming with Go

Mihalis Tsoukalos

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Go Systems Programming
Copyright © 2017 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the
information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without
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dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused
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Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
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However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: September 2017

Production reference: 1220917

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.
ISBN 978-1-78712-564-3

www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Author Copy Editor

Mihalis Tsoukalos Tom Jacob

Reviewer Proofreader
Chris "mac" McEniry Safis Editing

Acquisition Editor Indexer

Frank Pohlmann Tejal Daruwale Soni

Project Editor Graphics

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Content Development Editor Production Coordinator

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Technical Editor
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 About the Author
Mihalis Tsoukalos is a Unix administrator, programmer, DBA, and mathematician, who
enjoys writing technical books and articles and learning new things. He has written more
than 250 technical articles for many magazines including Sys Admin, MacTech, Linux User
and Developer, USENIX ;login:, Linux Format, and Linux Journal. His research interests include
databases, operating systems, Statistics, and machine learning.

You can reach him at http://www.mtsoukalos.eu/ and @mactsouk.

Mihalis is also a photographer (http://www.highiso.net/).

He is also the technical editor for MongoDB in Action, Second Edition, published by Manning.

I would like to thank all the magazines that I have written articles for because they gave me
the opportunity to improve my technical writing skills and finally write my first book!
I would also like to thank Agisilaos Ziotopoulos for telling me during a Skype call that
after writing so many magazine articles, I should write a book!
Lastly, I would like to thank the people at Packt Publishing for helping me write this book,
including Frank Pohlmann, my technical reviewer; Chris McEniry, for his really good
comments; and especially my editor, Radhika Atitkar for answering all my questions and
encouraging me during the whole process.
For all potential writers everywhere: if you wish to become a writer, start writing!
 About the Reviewer
Chris "mac" McEniry has been a practicing systems administrator and engineer for over
twenty years. He regularly presents, writes tools, and works on improving how we
maintain systems.
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 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: Getting Started with Go and Unix Systems Programming 9
The structure of the book 10
What is systems programming? 10
Learning systems programming 12
About Go 13
Getting ready for Go 14
Two useful Go tools 15
Advantages and disadvantages of Go 19
The various states of a Unix process 20
Exercises 22
Summary 22
Chapter 2: Writing Programs in Go 23
Compiling Go code 23
Checking the size of the executable file 26
Go environment variables 27
Using command-line arguments 29
Finding the sum of the command-line arguments 30
User input and output 33
Getting user input 33
Printing output 35
Go functions 35
Naming the return values of a Go function 36
Anonymous functions 36
Illustrating Go functions 36
The defer keyword 39
Using pointer variables in functions 42
Go data structures 43
Arrays 43
Slices 45
Maps 48
Converting an array into a map 50
Structures 51
Interfaces 53
 Creating random numbers 56
Exercises 58
Summary 59
Chapter 3: Advanced Go Features 60
Error handling in Go 60
Functions can return error variables 61
About error logging 63
The addCLA.go program revisited 65
Pattern matching and regular expressions 66
Printing all the values from a given column of a line 68
Creating summaries 69
Finding the number of occurrences 71
Find and replace 73
Reflection 74
Calling C code from Go 76
Unsafe code 77
Comparing Go to other programming languages 78
Analysing software 80
Using the strace(1) command-line utility 80
The DTrace utility 83
Disabling System Integrity Protection on macOS 86
Unreachable code 86
Avoiding common Go mistakes 88
Exercises 88
Summary 89
Chapter 4: Go Packages, Algorithms, and Data Structures 90
About algorithms 91
The Big O notation 91
Sorting algorithms 92
The sort.Slice() function 92
Linked lists in Go 94
Trees in Go 98
Developing a hash table in Go 100
About Go packages 104
Using standard Go packages 104
Creating your own packages 105
Private variables and functions 107
The init() function 107
Using your own Go packages 108

[ ii ]
 Using external Go packages 109
The go clean command 112
Garbage collection 112
Your environment 114
Go gets updated frequently! 116
Exercises 116
Summary 117
Chapter 5: Files and Directories 118
Useful Go packages 119
Command-line arguments revisited! 119
The flag package 119
Dealing with directories 122
About symbolic links 123
Implementing the pwd(1) command 124
Developing the which(1) utility in Go 126
Printing the permission bits of a file or directory 129
Dealing with files in Go 130
Deleting a file 130
Renaming and moving files 132
Developing find(1) in Go 134
Traversing a directory tree 135
Visiting directories only! 136
The first version of find(1) 137
Adding some command-line options 139
Excluding filenames from the find output 142
Excluding a file extension from the find output 144
Using regular expressions 145
Creating a copy of a directory structure 146
Exercises 151
Summary 151
Chapter 6: File Input and Output 152
About file input and output 153
Byte slices 153
About binary files 155
Useful I/O packages in Go 156
The io package 157
The bufio package 158
File I/O operations 160
Writing to files using fmt.Fprintf() 160

[ iii ]
 About io.Writer and io.Reader 161
Finding out the third column of a line 163
Copying files in Go 166
There is more than one way to copy a file! 166
Copying text files 166
Using io.Copy 166
Reading a file all at once! 168
An even better file copy program 170
Benchmarking file copying operations 173
Developing wc(1) in Go 178
Counting words 178
The wc.go code! 178
Comparing the performance of wc.go and wc(1) 183
Reading a text file character by character 184
Doing some file editing! 186
Interprocess communication 188
Sparse files in Go 188
Reading and writing data records 191
File locking in Go 194
A simplified Go version of the dd utility 197
Exercises 200
Summary 200
Chapter 7: Working with System Files 201
Which files are considered system files? 202
Logging in Go 202
Putting data at the end of a file 202
Altering existing data 204
About log files 206
About logging 207
Logging facilities 207
Logging levels 207
The syslog Go package 208
Processing log files 210
File permissions revisited 214
Changing file permissions 216
Finding other kinds of information about files 218
More pattern matching examples 221
A simple pattern matching example 221
An advanced example of pattern matching 224
Renaming multiple files using regular expressions 227

[ iv ]
 Searching files revisited 229
Finding the user ID of a user 229
Finding all the groups a user belongs to 231
Finding files that belong or do not belong to a given user 233
Finding files based on their permissions 236
Date and time operations 238
Playing with dates and times 238
Reformatting the times in a log file 240
Rotating log files 242
Creating good random passwords 245
Another Go update 247
Exercises 247
Summary 248
Chapter 8: Processes and Signals 249
About Unix processes and signals 250
Process management 250
About Unix signals 251
Unix signals in Go 252
The kill(1) command 252
A simple signal handler in Go 253
Handling three different signals! 255
Catching every signal that can be handled 257
Rotating log files revisited! 259
Improving file copying 262
Plotting data 266
Unix pipes in Go 273
Reading from standard input 274
Sending data to standard output 276
Implementing cat(1) in Go 277
The plotIP.go utility revisited 278
Unix sockets in Go 286
RPC in Go 287
Programming a Unix shell in Go 288
Yet another minor Go update 290
Exercises 290
Summary 291
Chapter 9: Goroutines – Basic Features 292
About goroutines 293

[v]
 Concurrency and parallelism 293
The sync Go packages 294
A simple example 294
Creating multiple goroutines 295
Waiting for goroutines to finish their jobs 297
Creating a dynamic number of goroutines 299
About channels 301
Writing to a channel 301
Reading from a channel 303
Explaining h1s.go 304
Pipelines 305
A better version of wc.go 307
Calculating totals 310
Doing some benchmarking 314
Exercises 316
Summary 316
Chapter 10: Goroutines – Advanced Features 317
The Go scheduler 318
The sync Go package 318
The select keyword 318
Signal channels 321
Buffered channels 324
About timeouts 326
An alternative way to implement timeouts 328
Channels of channels 330
Nil channels 332
Shared memory 333
Using sync.Mutex 335
Using sync.RWMutex 339
The dWC.go utility revisited 342
Using a buffered channel 342
Using shared memory 345
More benchmarking 348
Detecting race conditions 349
About GOMAXPROCS 352
Exercises 354
Summary 354
Chapter 11: Writing Web Applications in Go 355
What is a web application? 356

[ vi ]
 About the net/http Go package 356
Developing web clients 356
Fetching a single URL 356
Setting a timeout 358
Developing better web clients 360
A small web server 363
The http.ServeMux type 366
Using http.ServeMux 366
The html/template package 370
About JSON 375
Saving JSON data 376
Parsing JSON data 378
Using Marshal() and Unmarshal() 380
Using MongoDB 382
Basic MongoDB administration 382
Using the MongoDB Go driver 385
Creating a Go application that displays MongoDB data 388
Creating an application that displays MySQL data 392
A handy command-line utility 395
Exercises 399
Summary 400
Chapter 12: Network Programming 401
About network programming 402
About TCP/IP 402
About TCP 402
The TCP handshake! 403
About UDP and IP 403
About Wireshark and tshark 404
About the netcat utility 406
The net Go standard package 406
Unix sockets revisited 407
A Unix socket server 407
A Unix socket client 409
Performing DNS lookups 411
Using an IP address as input 412
Using a host name as input 413
Getting NS records for a domain 415
Developing a simple TCP server 416
Developing a simple TCP client 419

[ vii ]
 Using other functions for the TCP server 421
Using alternative functions for the TCP client 423
Developing a simple UDP server 424
Developing a simple UDP client 426
A concurrent TCP server 428
Remote procedure call (RPC) 430
An RPC server 431
An RPC client 434
Exercises 436
Summary 437
Index 438

[ viii ]
 Preface
Go Systems Programming is a book that will help you develop systems software using Go,
which is a systems programming language that started as an internal Google project before
becoming popular. What makes Go really popular is that it keeps the developer happy by
being easy to write, easy to read, easy to understand, and by having a compiler that is there
to help you. This book does not cover every possible aspect and feature of the Go
programming language—only the ones that are related to systems programming. Should
you wish to learn more about the Go programming language, you should wait from my
next book, Mastering Go, which will be ready in 2018!

The book you are about to read is an honest book in the sense that it will present working
Go code without overlooking its potential faults, its restrictions, and its logical gaffes, which
will allow you to improve it on your own and create a better version of it in the future.
What you will not be able to improve is the fundamental information that will be presented,
which is the basis of the way Unix systems work. I will consider the book to be successful if
it helps you understand what systems programming is about, why it is important, and how
you can start developing systems software in Go. I will be equally happy if Go becomes
your favorite programming language!

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Getting started with Go and Unix Systems Programming, starts by defining what
systems programming is before talking about the advantages and the disadvantages of Go,
the features of Go version 1.8, two handy Go tools named gofmt and godoc, as well as the
various states of Unix processes.

Chapter 2, Writing Programs in Go, helps you learn how to compile Go code and how to use
the environment variables that Go supports, and understand how Go reads the command
line arguments of a program. Then, we will talk about getting user input and output, which
are fundamental tasks, show you how to define functions in Go, where the defer keyword
is mentioned for the first time in this book and continue by discussing the data structures
that Go offers using handy code examples. In the remaining sections of the chapter, we will
discuss Go interfaces and random number generation. I am sure that you are going to enjoy
this chapter!
Preface

Chapter 3, Advanced Go Features, goes deeper and starts talking about some advanced Go
features, including error handling, which is critical when developing systems software and
error logging. Then it introduces you to pattern matching and regular expressions, Go
Reflection, and talks about unsafe code. After that, it compares Go to other programming
languages and presents two utilities, named dtrace(1) and strace(1), that allow you to
see what happens behind the scenes when you execute a program. Lastly, it talks about how
you can use the go tool to detect unreachable code and how to avoid some common Go
mistakes.

Chapter 4, Go Packages, Algorithms, and Data Structures, talks about algorithms and sorting
in Go and about the sort.Slice() function, which requires Go version 1.8 or newer. Then
it shows Go implementations of a linked list, a binary tree and a hash table. After that, it
discusses Go packages and teaches you how to create and use your own Go packages. The
last part of the chapter discusses Garbage collection in Go.

Chapter 5, Files and Directories, is the first chapter of this book that deals with a systems
programming topic, which is the handling of files, symbolic links, and directories. In this
chapter, you will find Go implementations of the core functionality of Unix tools such as
which(1), pwd(1), and find(1), but first you will learn how to use the flag package in
order to parse the command-line arguments and options of a Go program. Additionally,
you will learn how to delete, rename, and move files as well as how to traverse directory
structures the Go way. The last part of this chapter implements a utility that creates a copy
of all the directories of a directory structure!

Chapter 6, File Input and Output, shows you how to read the contents of a file, how to
change them, and how to write your own data to files! In this chapter, you will learn about
the io package, the io.Writer and io.Reader interfaces, and the bufio package that is
used for buffered input and output. You will also create Go versions of the cp(1), wc(1),
and dd(1) utilities. Lastly, you will learn about sparse files, how to create sparse files in Go,
how to read and write records from files, and how to lock files in Go.

Chapter 7, Working with System Files, teaches you how to deal with Unix system files, which
includes writing data to Unix log files, appending data to existing files, and altering the
data of text files. In this chapter, you will also learn about the log and log/syslog standard
Go packages, about Unix file permissions, and take your pattern matching and regular
expressions knowledge even further using practical examples. You will also learn about
finding the user ID of a user as well as the Unix groups a user belongs to. Lastly, you will
discover how to work with dates and times in Go using the time package and how to create
and rotate log files on your own.

[2]
Preface

Chapter 8, Processes and Signals, begins by discussing the handling of Unix signals in Go
with the help of the os/signal package by presenting three Go programs. Then it shows a
Go program that can rotate its log files using signals and signal handling and another Go
program that uses signals to present the progress of a file copy operation. This chapter will
also teach you how to plot data in Go and how to implement Unix pipes in Go. Then it will
implement the cat(1) utility in Go before briefly presenting the Go code of a Unix socket
client. The last section of the chapter quickly discusses how you can program a Unix shell in
Go.

Chapter 9, Goroutines – Basic Features, discusses a very important Go topic, which is

goroutines, by talking about how you can create goroutines and how you can synchronize
them and wait for them to finish before ending a program. Then it talks about channels and
pipelines, which help goroutines communicate and exchange data in a safe way. The last
part of the chapter presents a version of the wc(1) utility that is implemented using
goroutines. However, as goroutines is a big subject, the next chapter will continue talking
about them.

Chapter 10, Goroutines – Advanced Features, talks about more advanced topics related to
goroutines and channels, including buffered channels, signal channels, nil channels,
channels of channels, timeouts, and the select keyword. Then it discusses issues related to
shared memory and mutexes before presenting two more Go versions of the wc(1) utility
that use channels and shared memory. Lastly, this chapter will talk about race conditions
and the GOMAXPROCS environment variable.

Chapter 11, Writing Web Applications in Go, talks about developing web applications and
web servers and clients in Go. Additionally, it talks about communicating with MongoDB
and MySQL databases using Go code. Then, it illustrates how to use the html/template
package, which is part of the Go standard library and allows you to generate HTML output
using Go HTML template files. Lastly, it talks about reading and writing JSON data before
presenting a utility that reads a number of web pages and returns the number of times a
given keyword was found in those web pages.

Chapter 12, Network Programming, discusses topics related to TCP/IP and its protocols using
the net Go standard package. It shows you how to create TCP and UDP clients and servers,
how to perform various types of DNS lookups, and how to use Wireshark to inspect
network traffic. Additionally, it talks about developing RPC clients and servers in Go as
well as developing a Unix socket server and a Unix socket client.

As you will see, at the end of each chapter there are some exercises for you to do in order to
gain more information about important Go packages and write your own Go programs.
Please, try to do all the exercises of this book.

[3]
Preface

What you need for this book

This book requires a computer running a Unix variant with a relatively recent Go version,
which includes any machine running Mac OS X, macOS, or Linux.

Apple used to call its operating system as Mac OS X followed by the version number;
however, after Mac OS X 10.11 (El Capitan), Apple changed that, and Mac OS X 10.12 is
now called macOS 10.12 (Sierra) – in this book, the terms Mac OS X and macOS are used
interchangeably. Additionally, there is a big chance that by the time you read this book, the
latest version of macOS will be macOS 10.13 (High Sierra). You can learn more about the
various versions of macOS by visiting https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS.

All of the Go code in this book has been tested with Go 1.8.x running on a iMac using
macOS 10.12 Sierra and with Go version 1.3.3 running on a Debian Linux machine. Most of
the code can run on both Go versions without any code changes. However, when newer Go
features are used, the code will fail to compile with Go 1.3.3—the book states the Go
programs that will not compile with Go version 1.3.3 or require Go version 1.8 or newer.

Please note that at the time of writing this text, the latest Go version is 1.9. Given the way
Go works, you will be able to compile all the Go code of this book in newer Go versions
without any changes.

Who this book is for

This book is for Unix users, power Unix users, Unix system administrators, and Unix
system developers that use Go on one or more Unix variants and want to start developing
systems software using the Go programming language.

Although this book might not be the best choice for people that do not feel comfortable with
the Unix operating system or for people who have no previous programming experience,
amateur programmers will find lots of practical information about Unix that might inspire
them to start developing their own system utilities.

Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish between different kinds
of information. Here are some examples of these styles and an explanation of their meaning.
Code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions,
pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows: "This is
because the main() function is where the program execution begins."

[4]
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
Home, cocha, kou, uk kral, hŭt.
1, cheuquen, chuche, ocoale, tow quid ow.
2, xeukay, houke, combabe, telkeow.
3, keash, aäs, kaash, mutta, cup´eb.
4, kekaguy, carge, kague, carga, inadaba.
5, keytzum, ktsin, cup´aspa.

The vocabularies of the Tsoneca, Tehuelhet or Patagonian differ

considerably in the various writers. No. 1 is from Von Martius,
completed from D’Orbigny’s lists. No. 2 is based on Lt. Muster’s
examples, supplemented from the vocabularies in Ramon Lista’s
Exploraciones.
The Yahgan and Alikuluf pass for independent stocks. Yet in a
number of words they resemble each other, and in a few, for
example, those for “eye,” “woman,” “moon,” “man,” there seems
more than a chance similarity.
 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
P. 24. Auriferous Gravels of California. The principal reference is J.
D. Whitney, The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of
California, pp. 258-288 (Cambridge, Mass., 1879). Professor Whitney
believes that the evidence is sufficient to attribute the mortars,
pestles, beads, etc., found in the auriferous gravels to late pliocene
man. But Dr. Joseph Leidy describes equine skulls, molars, incisors,
etc., found in these gravels, thirty-five to forty feet below the
surface, “not differing in any respect from those of the modern
horse,” and “unchanged in texture” (see ibid., p. 257). Dr. Leidy
informs me personally that for such reasons he gravely doubts the
antiquity of the formation, and distrusts the great age of the human
relics it contains.
P. 27. Palæolithic Implements. Reports of the discovery of very large
numbers of supposed palæolithic implements in various parts of the
United States have been collected and published by Mr. Thomas
Wilson in the Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1887-88, pp.
677-702. These implements, however, are called palæolithic from
their form and workmanship only, and not from the stratigraphic
relations in which they were found. As palæolithic forms often
survived in the riper culture of the neolithic age, the only positive
proof of their older origin must be that they are found in undisturbed
relation to older strata.
P. 33. Remains of Man in the Equus Beds. What American geologists
call the Equus Beds are those which yield in abundance the bones of
various species of fossil horse, as E. major, occidentalis, excelsus,
barcenæi, fraternus, crenidens, etc., most of which have been
determined by Dr. Joseph Leidy and Prof. E. D. Cope. The principal
localities of these beds are: 1. The Oregon Desert; 2. The country of
the Nueces, in southwestern Texas; and 3. The valley of Mexico. The
horizon to which these beds should be referred was considered by
Prof. King to be the Upper Pliocene; but by Prof. G. K. Gilbert, Dr.
Joseph Leidy, and I think, by Prof. Cope, it is rather held to be
pleistocene or early quaternary, probably as old as the great glacial
phenomena of the Continent. According to Cope and Gilbert, rude
stone implements have undoubtedly been found in place in the
Equus beds of Nevada, California and Southwestern Texas. See the
American Naturalist, 1889, p. 165; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila.,
1883, p. 134, sq.
Pp. 106, 108. Kwakiutl and Nootka Stocks. After the pages referred
to had been printed, I received, through the kindness of Mr. Horatio
Hale, advance sheets of the Sixth Annual Report of the Committee of
the British Association on the tribes of the Northwest Coast,
prepared by Dr. Franz Boas, with an introduction by Mr. Hale, and
including eighteen vocabularies. Dr. Boas’ researches furnish clear
evidence of a connection between the Kwakiutl and the Nootka
tongues, and there is little doubt that they are distantly related. An
instructive article on the physical characteristics of the Indians of the
North Pacific coast is contributed by Dr. Boas to the American
Anthropologist for January, 1891. His conclusion is: “Each tribe
appears composed of many types, but in each we find a marked
prevalence of a certain type.”
P. 123. Supposed Connection of Sonoran Languages with the Maya
Stock. In his Etudes Aztèques, published in the Museon, 1890, p.
506, M. W. Baligny endeavors to show a connection between the
vocabularies of Sonoran languages and the Maya dialects. His strong
points are some of the numerals and the personal pronouns of the
first and second person. I have elsewhere given good reasons for
not depending on these pronominal analogies in American languages
(see Essays of an Americanist, p. 396). And as to the numerals,
“dont la ressemblance est évidente” (according to him), when the
Sonoran tongues disagree with the Nahuatl, they have almost always
clearly borrowed from the Yuma stem, as in “two,” guoca, kuak (see
Vocabs., anté, pp. 335, 336).
 P. 163. Language of the Ramas. Since my negative observations
about the Ramas were in type, I have received a short vocabulary of
their language from the Rev. W. Siebärger, Moravian missionary on
the Musquito coast. The orthography is German.

Rama.
Man, nikikna,
Woman, kuma,
Sun, nunik,
Moon, tukan,
Fire, abung,
Water, sii,
Head, kiing,
Eye, up,
Ear, kuka,
Mouth, kaka,
Nose, taik.
Tongue, kup.
Tooth, siik.
Hand, kuik.
Foot, kaat.
House, knu.
1, saiming.
2, puk sak.
3, pang sak.
4, kun kun beiso.
5, kwik astar.

My informant writes me that the Ramas are about 250 in number,

and are all Christians and able to speak and write English, except a
few very old persons. Their language will probably be extinct in a
few years. They are confined to their island in Blewfield Lagoon. It is
particularly interesting, therefore, to fix their affinities before the
opportunity passes. From the above vocabulary I think there is little
doubt but that they are a branch of the Changuina or Dorasque
stock, described pp. 174, 175. The following words attest this, the
Changuina forms being from A. L. Pinart’s Vocabulario Castellano-
Dorasque, Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina (Paris, 1890):

Rama. Changuina.
Sun, nunik, kĕlik u.
Fire, abung, kebug-al (fire-brand).
Water, sii, si.
Head, kiing, kin-unuma.
Ear, kuka, kuga.
Mouth, kaka, kaga.
Nose, taik, θakai.
Tongue, kup, kuba.
Tooth, siik, su.
Hand, kuik, kula.
House, knu, ku.

The numerals for “two” and “three,” puk sak, pang sak, are
doubtless the Cuna pocua, pagua. The Ramas, therefore, belong to
the Isthmian tribes, and formed the vanguard of the South American
immigration into North America. What time they moved northward
and possessed themselves of their small island is unknown, but it
was probably after the conquest. Mr. Siebärger writes me: “They
were always kept under, even ill-treated, by the Musquito Indians,
and are still very submissive and teachable.”
The following errata should be noted:
P. 69, line 3; for Nehaunies read Nahaunies.
Pp. 89, 95, 98 and 101, the numbers of the sections should read
7, 8, 9, 10, instead of 5, 6, 7, 8.
P. 169, line 17, for maternal read paternal.
P. 197, for Morropas read Malabas.
P. 251, line 11, for Wapiana read Woyawoi.
Transcriber’s Note: the listed errata have been corrected.
 FOOTNOTES
[1] For the full development of these principles, I would refer
the reader to my work entitled Races and Peoples; Lectures on
the Science of Ethnography (David McKay, Philadelphia.)
[2] Notably, Adair’s History of the North American Indians, and
Lord Kingsborough’s magnificent Mexican Antiquities.
[3] For a complete refutation of this venerable hypothesis see
an article “L’Atlantide,” by Charles Ploix, in the Revue
d’Anthropologie, 1887, p. 291; and de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique
Antiquité de l’Homme, p. 124.
[4] De Quatrefages, Histoire Générale des Races Humaines, p.
558. He adds the wholly incorrect statement that many Japanese
words are found in American languages.
[5] The nearest of the Aleutian islands to Kamschatka is 253
miles distant. The explorer Behring found the western Aleutians,
those nearest the Asian shore, uninhabited. See W. H. Dall,
“Origin of the Innuit,” pp. 96, 97, in Contributions to North
American Ethnology, Vol. I. (Washington, 1877).
[6] The evidences of a vast ice-sheet once covering the whole
of East Cape are plainly visible. See Dr. I. C. Rosse, Medical and
Anthropological Notes on Alaska, p. 29. (Washington, 1883.)
[7] Joseph Prestwich, Geology, Vol. II, p. 465, (Oxford, 1888).
J. D. Dana, Text Book of Geology, pp. 355-359 (New York, 1883).
Geo. M. Dawson, in The American Geologist, 1890, p. 153. The
last mentioned gives an excellent epitome of the history of the
great Pacific glacier.
[8] James D. Dana, loc. cit., p. 359.
[9] James D. Dana, “Reindeers in Southern New England,” in
American Journal of Science, 1875, p. 353.
[10] See “On an Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua,” by
D. G. Brinton, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society 1887, p. 437.
 [11] J. S. Wilson, in Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of
London, Vol. III., p. 163.
[12] The finders have been Messrs. H. P. Cresson and W. H.
Holmes. From my own examination of them, I think there is room
for doubt as to the artificial origin of some of them. Others are
clearly due to design.
[13] Her account is in the American Naturalist, 1884, p. 594,
and a later synopsis in Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, 1889, p. 333.
[14] G. K. Gilbert, in The American Anthropologist, 1889, p.
173.
[15] W. J. McGee, “Palæolithic Man in America,” in Popular
Science Monthly, November 1888.
[16] See G. Frederick Wright, The Ice Age in North America.
[17] Dr. Abbott has reported his discoveries in numerous
articles, and especially in his work entitled Primitive Industry,
chapters 32, 33.
[18] De Mortillet, Le Préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme, p.
132, sq.
[19] Mariano de la Barcena, “Fossil Man in Mexico,” in the
American Naturalist, Aug., 1885.
[20] Florentino Ameghino, La Antiguedad del Hombre en el
Plata, passim. (2 vols, Buenos Aires, 1880.)
[21] The Descent of Man, p. 155. Dr. Rudolph Hoernes,
however, has recently argued that the discovery of such simian
forms in the American tertiary as the Anaptomorphus
homunculus, Cope, renders it probable that the anthropoid
ancestor of man lived in North America. Mittheil der Anthrop.
Gesell. in Wien, 1890, § 71. The Anaptomorphus was a lemur
rather than a monkey, and had a dentition very human in
character.
[22] Quoted by G. F. Wright in The Ice Age in America, p. 583.
[23] H. Habernicht, Die Recenten Veränderungen der
Erdoberfläche, s. 27 (Gotha, 1882). He further shows that at that
time both northern Russia and northern Siberia were under water,
which would effectually dispose of any assumed migration by way
of the latter.
 [24] J. W. Spencer, in the London Geological Magazine, 1890,
p. 208, sqq.
[25] James Scroll, Climate and Time, p. 451.
[26] G. F. Wright, The Ice Age in North America, pp. 582-3
(New York, 1890). De Mortillet, Le Préhistorique, etc., pp. 186-7.
H. Rink, in Proc. of the Amer. Philos. Society, 1885, p. 293.
[27] In his excellent work, The Building of the British Isles,
(London, 1888), Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne presents in detail the
proofs of these statements, and gives two plates (Nos. XII. and
XIII.), showing the outlines of this land connection at the period
referred to (pp. 252, 257, etc.).
[28] Wright, The Ice Age, p. 504.
[29] Gilbert, Sixth An. Rep. of the Com. of the N. Y. State
Reservation, p. 84 (Albany, 1890).
[30] Races and Peoples, chapter III. (David McKay,
Philadelphia.)
[31] “Palæolithic Man in America” in Popular Science Monthly,
Nov., 1888.
[32] “No one could live among the Indians of the Upper
Amazon without being struck with their constitutional dislike to
heat.” “The impression forced itself upon my mind that the Indian
lives as a stranger or immigrant in these hot regions.” H. W.
Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazon, Vol. II., pp. 200, 201.
[33] See E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, pp. 189,
190, who speaks strongly of the debility of the tropical Indians.
[34] See J. Kollmann, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1884, s. 181
sq. The conclusion of Virchow is “que les caracteres
physionomiques des têtes Américaines montrent une divergence
si manifeste qu’on doit renoncer definitivement à la construction
d’un type universel et commun des Indigènes Américains.”
Congrès des Américanistes, 1888, p. 260. This is substantially the
conclusion at which Dr. James Aitken Meigs arrived, in his
“Observations on the Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines,”
in Proc. of the Acad. Nat. Sci. of Phila., 1866.
[35] Henry Gilman, Report of the Smithsonian Institution for
1885, p. 239. Other perforated skulls from similar graves in the
same locality showed indices of, 82, 83, 85.
 [36] D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples; Lectures on the Science
of Ethnography, p. 20. (David McKay, Philadelphia.)
[37] Dr. Washington Matthews, in the American Anthropologist,
1889, p. 337.
[38] Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Bd. II., s. 195.
[39] Cf. Lucien Carr, in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
Peabody Museum, p. 367.
[40] Lucien Carr, “Notes on the Crania of New England Indians,”
in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural
History, 1880; and compare Topinard, Elements d’Anthropologie
Générale, p. 628. (Paris, 1885.)
[41] H. Fritsch, in Compte-Rendu du Congrès des
Américanistes, 1888, p. 276.
[42] For instance, some of the Mixes of Mexico have full beards
(Herrera, Decadas de las Indias, Dec. IV., Lib. IX., cap. VII.); the
Guarayos of Bolivia wear long straight beards, covering both lips
and cheeks (D’Orbigny, L’Homme Américain, Vol. I., p. 126); and
the Cashibos of the upper Ucayali are bearded (Herndon,
Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, p. 209).
[43] “Report on the Blackfeet,” in Trans. Brit. Assoc. Adv. of
Science, 1885.
[44] “Les Indiens de la Province de Mato Grosso,” in the
Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, 1862.
[45] The Mexican president Benito Juarez was a full-blood
Zapotec; Barrios of Guatemala, a full-blood Cakchiquel.
[46] Vues des Cordillères, et Monumens des Peuples Indigènes
de l’Amérique, Tome I. p. 51.
[47] Ancient Society, by Lewis H. Morgan (New York, 1878);
Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines, by the same
(Washington, 1881); Bandelier, in the Reports of the Peabody
Museum; Dr. Gustav Brühl, Die Culturvölker Alt Amerikas
(Cincinnati, 1887); D. G. Brinton, The Myths of the New World, 3d
Ed. revised, David McKay (Philadelphia, 1896); American-Hero
Myths, by the same (Philadelphia, 1882).
[48] The word totem is derived from the Algonkin root od or ot
and means that which belongs to a person or “his belongings,” in
the widest sense, his village, his people, etc.
 [49] Among the Brazilian hordes, for instance, Martius, Beiträge
zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. I. s. 116
(Leipzig, 1867).
[50] Thus the Heiltsuk and Kwakiutl of the northwest coast,
though speaking close dialects of the same stock, differ
fundamentally in their social organization. That of the former is
matriarchal, of the latter patriarchal. Boas, Fifth Report to the
Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science, p. 38.
[51] Races and Peoples; Lectures on the Science of
Ethnography, p. 55 (David McKay, Philadelphia.)
[52] Die Entstehung der Arten durch Räumliche Sonderung
(Basel, 1889).
[53] J. W. Sanborn, Legends, Customs and Social Life of the
Seneca Indians, p. 36 (Gowanda, N. Y., 1878).
[54] Father Ragueneau tells us that among the Hurons, when a
man was killed, thirty gifts were required to condone the offence,
but when a woman was the victim, forty were demanded.
Relation des Jesuits, 1635.
[55] Dr. W. H. Corbusier, in American Antiquarian, Sept., 1886;
Dr. Amedée Moure, Les Indiens de Mato Grosso, p. 9 (Paris,
1862).
[56] This opinion is defended by Max Schlosser in the Archiv für
Anthropologie, 1889, s. 132.
[57] The lama was never ridden, nor attached for draft, though
the opposite has been stated. See J. J. von Tschudi, “Das Lama,”
in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1885, s. 108.
[58] See “The Lineal Measures of the Semi-Civilized Nations of
Mexico and Central America,” in my Essays of an Americanist, p.
433 (Philadelphia, 1890).
[59] The Caribs and some of the Peruvian coast tribes
sometimes lifted a large square cloth when running with the
wind; but this is not what is meant by a sail.
[60] American Hero-Myths (Philadelphia, 1882).
[61] Carlos de Gagern, Charakteristik der Indianischen
Bevölkerung Mexikos, s. 23 (Wien, 1873.)
[62] I have treated this subject at considerable length in
opposition to the opinion of Lucien Adam and Friedrich Müller in
my Essays of an Americanist, pp. 349-389 (Philadelphia, 1890).
[63] Packard, “Notes on the Labrador Eskimo and their former
range southward,” in American Naturalist, 1885, p. 471.
[64] John Murdoch, in The American Anthropologist, 1888, p.
129; also Dr. Henry Rink, The Eskimo Tribes (London, 1887); Dr.
Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo, in the Sixth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology; W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest
(Washington, 1887); Ivan Petroff, in The American Naturalist,
1882, p. 567.
[65] Dall is positive that there is no racial distinction between
the Innuit and the other American Indians, loc. cit., p. 95. He
adds: “The Tartar, Japanese or Chinese origin of these people
finds no corroboration in their manners, dress or language.”
[66] Commander G. Holm found the East Greenlanders, a pure
stock, well marked mesocephalic, with a maximum of 84.2 (Les
Grönlandais Orientaux, p. 365, Copenhagen, 1889). Dall gives the
range to his measurements of Innuit skulls from 87 to 70
(Contributions to American Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 71).
[67] “Unlike the Indian,” writes Mr. F. F. Payne, “the Eskimo is
nearly always laughing, and even in times of great distress it is
not hard to make them smile.” “The Eskimo at Hudson Strait,” in
Proc. Canad. Institute, 1889, p. 128.
[68] W. J. Hoffman, “On Indian and Eskimo Pictography,” in
Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. II, p. 146.
[69] See some examples in my Essays of an Americanist, pp.
288-290 (Philadelphia, 1890).
[70] G. Holm, Les Grönlandais Orientaux, p. 382 (Copenhagen,
1889).
[71] Dr. A. Pfizmaier, Darlegungen Grönländischer Verbalformen
(Wien, 1885).
[72] On the relative position of the Chukchis, Namollos and
Yuit, consult Dall in American Naturalist, 1881, p. 862; J. W. Kelly,
in Circular of the U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 2, 1890, p. 8; A.
Pfizmaier, Die Sprachen der Aleuten, p. 1 (Vienna, 1884). The
Yuits are also known as Tuski. The proper location of the
Namollos is on the Arctic Sea, from East Cape to Cape Shelagskoi
(Dall).
 [73] Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 1883, p. 427.
All of Clement G. Markham’s arguments for the Asiatic origin of
the Eskimos have been refuted.
[74] Either from the river Olutora and some islands near its
mouth (Petroff); or from Eleutes, a tribe in Siberia, whom the
Russians thought they resembled (Pinart).
[75] Ivan Petroff, in Trans. Amer. Anthrop. Soc., Vol. II, p. 90.
[76] Comp. H. Winkler, Ural-Altäische Völker und Sprachen, s.
119, and Dall, Contributions to N. Amer. Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 49,
who states that their tongue is distinctly connected with the
Innuit of Alaska.
[77] Dr. A. Pfizmaier, Die Sprache der Aleuten und Fuchsinseln,
s. 4 (Vienna, 1884).
[78] Dall, loc. cit., p. 47.
[79] Ivan Petroff, loc. cit., p. 91.
[80] Mr. A. S. Gatschet has compiled the accessible information
about the Beothuk language in two articles in the Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society, 1885 and 1886.
[81] J. C. E. Buschmann, Der Athapaskische Sprachstamm,
4to., Berlin, 1856, and Die Verwandtschafts-Verhältnisse der
Athapaskischen Sprachen, Berlin, 1863.
[82] See Mgr. Henry Faraud, Dix-huit Ans chez les Sauvages,
pp. 345, etc. (Paris, 1866.) Petitot, Les Déné Dindjié, p. 32.
[83] See George M. Dawson, in An. Rep. of the Geol. Survey of
Canada, 1887, p. 191, sq.; Washington Matthews and J. G.
Bourke, in Jour. of Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890, p. 89, sq.
[84] The best blanket-makers, smiths and other artisans among
the Navajos are descendants of captives from the Zuñi and other
pueblos. John G. Bourke, Journal of American Folk-Lore, 1890, p.
115.
[85] A. F. Bandelier, Indians of the Southwestern United States,
pp. 175-6 (Boston, 1890).
[86] Dr. Washington Matthews, in Journal of American Folk-
Lore, 1890, p. 90.
[87] The student of this language finds excellent material in the
Dictionnaire de la Langue Déné-Dindjié, par E. Petitot (folio, Paris,
1876), in which three dialects are presented.
 [88] Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, p. 72, 76
(Washington, 1877).
[89] “On voit que leur conformation est à peu près exactement
le nôtre.” Quetelet, “Sur les Indiens O-jib-be-was,” in Bull. Acad.
Royale de Belgique, Tome XIII.
[90] I refer to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
The numerous measurements of skulls of New England Algonkins
by Lucien Carr, show them to be mesocephalic tending to
dolichocephaly, orthognathic, mesorhine and megaseme. See his
article, “Notes on the Crania of New England Indians,” in the
Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History,
1880.
[91] The best work on this subject is Dr. C. C. Abbott’s Primitive
Industry (Salem, 1881).
[92] The Lenâpé and their Legends; with the Complete Text
and Symbols of the Walum Olum, and an Inquiry into its
Authenticity. By Daniel G. Brinton, Philadelphia, 1885 (Vol. V. of
Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature).
[93] See Horatio Hale, “Report on the Blackfeet,” in Proc. of the
Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1885.
[94] See Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From an anonymous MS. in
the Archives of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, Pa. Edited
with additions by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D., and Rev. Albert
Seqaqkind Anthony. Published by the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, 1888. Quarto, pp. 236.
[95] J. Aitken Meigs, “Cranial Forms of the American
Aborigines,” in Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of
Philadelphia, May, 1866.
[96] Horatio Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites, pp. 21, 22.
(Philadelphia, 1883. Vol. II. of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal
American Literature.)
[97] J. W. Powell, First Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p.
61. (Washington, 1881.)
[98] The Iroquois Book of Rites, referred to above.
[99] There are twenty-one skulls alleged to be of Muskoki
origin in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, of which
fifteen have a cephalic index below 80.
 [100] Examples given by William Bartram in his MSS. in the
Pennsylvania Historical Society.
[101] See on this subject an essay on “The Probable Nationality
of the Mound-Builders,” in my Essays of an Americanist, p. 67.
(Philadelphia, 1890.)
[102] D. G. Brinton, “The National legend of the Chahta-
Muskoki Tribes,” in The Historical Magazine, February, 1870.
(Republished in Vol. IV. of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American
Literature.)
[103] “The Seminole Indians of Florida,” by Clay MacCauley, in
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-4.
[104] See for the Yuchis, their myths and language, Gatschet in
Science, 1885, p. 253.
[105] Arte de la Lengua Timuquana compuesto en 1614 per el
Pe Francisco Pereja. Reprint by Lucien Adam and Julien Vinson,
Paris, 1886. An analytical study of the language has been
published by Raoul de la Grasserie in the Compte Rendu du
Congrès International des Américanistes, 1888.
[106] See “The Curious Hoax of the Taensa Language” in my
Essays of an Americanist, p. 452.
[107] D. G. Brinton, “The Language of the Natchez,” in
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1873.
[108] Die Länder am untern Rio Bravo del Norte. S. 120, sqq.
(Heidelberg, 1861.) I give the following words from his
vocabulary of the Carrizos:

Man, nâ.
Woman, estoc, kem.
Sun, al.
Moon, kan.
Fire, len.
One, pequeten.
Two, acequeten.
Three, guiye.
Four, naiye.
Five, maguele.

The numbers three, four and five are plainly the Nahuatl yey,
nahui, macuilli, borrowed from their Uto-Aztecan neighbors.
 [109] Bartolomé Garcia, Manuel para administrar los Santos
Sacramentos. (Mexico, 1760.) It was written especially for the
tribes about the mission of San Antonio in Texas.
[110] As chiquat, woman, Nah. cihuatl; baah-ka, to drink, Nah.
paitia. The song is given, with several obvious errors, in Pimentel,
Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico, Tom. III., p. 564; Orozco y Berra’s
lists mentions only the Aratines, Geografia de las Lenguas de
Mexico, p. 295.
[111] Adolph Uhde, Die Länder am unteru Rio Bravo del Norte,
p. 120.
[112] The name Pani is not a word of contempt from the
Algonkin language, as has often been stated, but is from the
tongue of the people itself. Pariki means a horn, in the Arikari
dialect uriki, and refers to their peculiar scalp-lock, dressed to
stand erect and curve slightly backward, like a horn. From these
two words came the English forms Pawnee and Arikaree.
(Dunbar.)
[113] The authorities on the Panis are John B. Dunbar, in the
Magazine of American History, 1888; Hayden, Indian Tribes of the
Missouri Valley (Philadelphia, 1862), and various government
reports.
[114] J. Owen Dorsey, “Migrations of Siouan Tribes,” in the
American Naturalist, 1886, p. 111. The numerous and profound
studies of this stock by Mr. Dorsey must form the basis of all
future investigation of its history and sociology.
[115] The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
[116] Mrs. Mary Eastman, Dahcotah; or Life and Legends of
the Sioux, p. 211. (New York, 1849.)
[117] W. P. Clark, Indian Sign Language, p. 229 (Philadelphia,
1885); Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, Report on Indian Tribes, pp.
28, 80. (Washington, 1855.)
[118] R. Virchow, Verhand. der Berliner Gesell. für
Anthropologie, 1889, s. 400.
[119] Dr. Franz Boas, “Fourth Report on the Tribes of the North
West Coast,” in Proceed. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1887.
[120] Dr. J. L. Le Conte, “On the Distinctive Characteristics of
the Indians of California,” in Trans. of the Amer. Assoc. for the
Adv. of Science, 1852, p. 379.
 [121] Dr. Aurel Krause, Die Tlinkit Indianer. (Jena, 1885.)
[122] See the various reports of Dr. Boas to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, and the papers of
Messrs. Tolmie and Dawson, published by the Canadian
government.
[123] A Manual of the Oregon Trade Language or Chinook
Jargon. By Horatio Hale. (London, 1890.)
[124] Dr. W. F. Corbusier, in American Antiquarian, 1886, p.
276; Dr. Ten Kate, in Verhand. der Berliner Gesell. Für Anthrop.,
1889, s. 667.
[125] J. R. Bartlett, Explorations in New Mexico, Vol. I., p. 464.
C. A. Pajeken, Reise-Erinnerungen in ethnographischen Bildern, s.
97.
[126] Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, Report on Indian Tribes
(Washington, 1855), and numerous later authorities, give full
information about the Yumas.
[127] Jacob Baegert, Nachricht von den Amerikanischen
Halbinsel Californien. (Mannheim, 1773.)
[128] I have not included in the stock the so-called M’Mat
stem, introduced erroneously by Mr. Gatschet, as Dr. Ten Kate has
shown no such branch exists. See Verhandlungen der Berliner
Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, ss. 666-7.
[129] Mr. E. A. Barber estimates that the area in which the
characteristic remains of the cliff-dwellers and pueblos are found
contains 200,000 square miles. Compte Rendu du Congrès des
Américanistes, 1878, Tome I., p. 25.
[130] “Casas y atalayas eregidas dentro de las peñas.” I owe
the quotation to Alphonse Pinart.
[131] The Tze-tinne; Capt. J. G. Bourke, in Jour. Amer. Folk-
lore, 1890, p. 114.
[132] This affinity was first demonstrated by Buschmann in his
Spuren der aztekischen Sprache, though Mr. Bandelier
erroneously attributes it to later authority. See his very useful
Report of Investigations among the Indians of the South Western
United States, p. 116. (Cambridge, 1890.) Readers will find in
these excellent reports abundant materials on the Pueblo Indians
and their neighbors.
 [133] Buschmann, Die Spuren der aztekischen Sprache im
nördlichen Mexiko und höheren Americanischen Norden. 4to.
Berlin, 1859, pp. 819.
Grammatik der Sonorischen Sprachen. 4to. Berlin, Pt. I., 1864,
pp. 266; Pt. II., 1867, pp. 215.
[134] Perez de Ribas, Historia de los Triomphos de Nuestra
Santa Fé, Lib. I., cap. 19.
[135] Anales del Ministerio de Fomento, p. 99. (Mexico, 1881.)
[136] Col. A. G. Brackett, in Rep. of the Smithson. Inst. 1879,
p. 329.
[137] Capt. W. P. Clark, The Indian Sign Language, p. 118.
(Philadelphia, 1885.)
[138] Ibid., p. 338.
[139] See Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. I., p.
224. (Washington, 1877).
[140] R. Virchow, Crania Ethnica Americana.
[141] W. P. Clark, The Indian Sign Language, p. 118.
[142] The Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona. By John G.
Bourke. (New York, 1884.)
[143] For these legends see Captain F. E. Grossman, U. S. A., in
Report of the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 407-10. They attribute
the Casas Grandes to Sivano, a famous warrior, the direct
descendant of Söhö, the hero of their flood myth.
[144] The Apaches called them Tze-tinne, Stone House People.
See Capt. John G. Bourke, Journal of American Folk-Lore, 1890,
p. 114. The Apaches Tontos were the first to wander down the
Little Colorado river.
[145] See the descriptions of the Nevomes (Pimas) in Perez de
Ribas, Historia de los Triumphos de Nuestra Santa Fé, Lib. VI.,
cap. 2. (Madrid, 1645.)
[146] “Las casas eran o de madera, y palos de monte, o de
piedra y barro; y sus poblaciones unas rancherias, a modo de
casilas.” Ribas, Historia de los Triumphos de Nuestra Santa Fé,
Lib. X., cap. 1. (Madrid, 1645.)
[147] Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, Lib. V., cap. 44. An
interesting sketch of the recent condition of these tribes is given
by C. A. Pajeken, Reise-Erinnerungen, pp. 91-98. (Bremen, 1861.)
[148] Perez de Ribas, Historia, etc., Lib. II., cap. 33.
[149] Eustaquio Buelna, Peregrinacion de los Aztecas y
Nombres Geograficos Indigenas de Sinaloa, p. 20. (Mexico, 1887.)
[150] Buelna, loc. cit., p. 21.
[151] Father Perez de Ribas, who collected these traditions with
care, reports this fact. Historia de los Triumphos, etc., Lib. I., cap.
19.
[152] See “The Toltecs and their Fabulous Empire,” in my
Essays of an Americanist, pp. 83-100.
[153] There is an interesting anonymous MS. in the Fond
Espagnol of the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, with the title La
Guerra de los Chichimecas. The writer explains the name as a
generic term applied to any tribe without settled abode, “vagos,
sin casa ni sementera.” He instances the Pamis, the Guachichiles
and the Guamaumas as Chichimeca, though speaking quite
different languages.
[154] “Cuitlatl, = mierda” (Molina, Vocabulario Mexicano).
Cuitlatlan, Ort des Kothes (Buschmann, Aztekische Ortsnamen, s.
621), applied to the region between Michoacan and the Pacific;
also to a locality near Techan in the province of Guerrero (Orozco
y Berra, Geog. de las Lenguas, p. 233).
[155] Dr. Gustav Brühl believes these schools were limited to
those designed for warriors or the priesthood. Sahagun certainly
assigns them a wider scope. See Brühl, Die Calturvölker Alt-
Amerikas, pp. 337-8.
[156] See “The Ikonomatic Method of Phonetic Writing” in my
Essays of an Americanist, p. 213. (Philadelphia, 1890.)
[157] Four skulls in the collection of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia, give a cephalic index of 73.
[158] Sahagun, Historia de la Nueva España, Lib. X, cap. 29.
[159] D. G. Brinton, Ancient Nahuatl Poetry, p. 134.
(Philadelphia, 1887, in Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)
[160] E. G. Tarayre, Explorations des Regions Mexicaines, p.
282. (Paris, 1879).
[161] D. G. Brinton, Essays of an Americanist, p. 366.
 [162] H. de Charencey, Melanges de Philologie et de
Palæographie Américaine, p. 23.
[163] Sahagun, Historia, Lib. X, cap. 29. The name is properly
Tarex, applied later in the general sense of “deity,” “idol.” Tarex is
identified by Sahagun with the Nahuatl divinity Mixcoatl, the god
of the storm, especially the thunder storm. The other derivations
of the name Tarascos seem trivial. See Dr. Nicolas Leon, in Anales
del Museo Michoacano, Tom. I. Their ancestors were known as
Taruchas, in which we see the same radical.
[164] Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Morelia, Michoacan, whose studies of
the archæology of his State have been most praiseworthy, places
the beginning of the dynasty at 1200; Anales del Museo
Michoacano, Tom. I., p. 116.
[165] From the Nahuatl, yacatl, point, apex, nose; though other
derivations have been suggested.
[166] For numerous authorities, see Bancroft, Native Races of
the Pacific Coast, vol. II., pp. 407-8; and on the antiquities of the
country, Dr. Leon, in the Anales del Museo Michoacano, passim,
and Beaumont, Cronica de la Provincia de Mechoacan, Tom. III.,
p. 87, sq. (Mexico, 1874).
[167] Sahagun, Historia de la Nueva España, Lib. X., cap. 6.
[168] Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentales, Dec. II., Lib.
V., cap. 8.
[169] Strebel, Alt-Mexiko.
[170] Pimentel, Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico, Tom. III., p.
345, sq.
[171] From didja, language, za, the national name.
[172] Mr. A. Bandelier, in his careful description of these ruins
(Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico, Boston, 1884) spells
this Lyo-ba. But an extensive MS. Vocabulario Zapoteco in my
possession gives the orthography riyoo baa.
[173] Garcia, Origen de los Indios, Lib. V., cap. IV., gives a
lengthy extract from one of their hieroglyphic mythological books.
[174] Sahagun, Historia de la Nueva España, Lib. X., cap. VI.
[175] Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentales. Dec. IV., Lib.
X., cap. 7.
 [176] Explorations and Surveys of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
pp. 126-7. (Washington, 1872.)
[177] J. G. Barnard, The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, pp. 224,
225. (New York, 1853.)
[178] Apuntes sobre la Lengua Chinanteca, MS.
[179] Herrera, Hist. de las Indias Occidentales. Dec. III., Lib.
III., cap. 15.
[180] Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentales. Dec. IV., Lib.
X., cap. 11.
[181] Gregoria Garcia, Origen de los Indios, Lib. V., cap. v.
[182] Oviedo, Historia General de las Indias, Lib. XLII., cap. 5.
[183] Peralta, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama, en el Siglo XVI,
p. 777. (Madrid, 1883.)
[184] Lucien Adam, La Langue Chiàpanéque (Vienna, 1887); Fr.
Müller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. IV., Abt. I. s. 177.
[185] Anales del Ministerio de Fomento, p. 98. (Mexico, 1881.)
[186] Beristain y Souza, Biblioteca Hispano-Americana
Septentrional, Tomo I., p. 438.
[187] For example:

Tequistlatecan. Yuma dialects.

Man, acue, eke-tam, ham-akava.
Woman, canoc, anai, sinyok.
Sun, orá, rahj.
Moon, mutla, h’la.
Water, laha, aha, kahal.
Head, ahūa, hū.
Eyes, au, yu.
Mouth, aco, a, aha.
Tree, ehe, ee-ee.
Foot, lamish, mie.
Two, ucuc, kokx, goguo.

[188] Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico, p. 187.

[189] Historia de las Indias Occidentales, Dec. III., Lib. VII.,
cap. III.
 [190] See also Dr. Berendt’s observations on this language in
Lewis H. Morgan’s Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity in the
Human Family, p. 263. (Washington, 1871.)
[191] In his Nicaragua, its People, Scenery and Monuments,
Vol. II., pp. 314, 324. (New York, 1856.)
[192] “Fr. Francisco de las Naucas primus omnium Indos qui
Popolocae nuncupantur anno Dom. 1540, divino lavacro tinxit,
quorum duobus mensibus plus quam duodecim millia baptizati
sunt.” Franciscus Gonzaga, De Origine Seraphicae Religionis, p.
1245. (Romae, 1587.)
[193] “Fr. Francisco de Toral, obispo que fué de Yucatan, supo
primero de otro alguno la lengua popoloca de Tecamachcalco, y
en ella hizo arte y vocabulario, y otras obras doctrinales.”
Geronimo de Mendieta, Historia Eclesiastica Indiana, Lib. V., cap.
44.
[194] “Linguâ Mexicanâ paullulum diversa.” De Laet, Novus
Orbis, p. 25.
[195] Historia de las Indias Occidentales, Decad. II., Lib. X.,
cap. 21.
[196] See the note of J. G. Icazbalceta to the Doctrina of
Fernandez, in H. Harrisse’s Biblioteca Americana Vetustissima, p.
445, sq.
[197] Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico, p. 273.
[198] See an article “Los Tecos,” in the Anales del Museo
Michoacano, Año II., p. 26.
[199] Domingo Juarros, Compendio de la Historia de la Ciudad
de Guatemala, Tomo I., pp. 102, 104, et al. (Ed. Guatemala,
1857.)
[200] Dr. Otto Stoll, Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala,
s. 26 (Zurich, 1884).
[201] In the Sitzungsbericht der Kais. Akad. der
Wissenschaften, Wien, 1855.
[202] “Demas de ocho cientos años,” says Herrera. Historia de
las Indias Occidentales, Dec. III., Lib. IV., Cap. XVIII.
[203] I have edited some of these with translations and notes,
in The Maya Chronicles, Philadelphia, 1882. (Volume I. of my
Library of Aboriginal American Literature).
 [204] Sahagun, Historia de la Nueva España, Lib. X., cap. 29,
sec. 12.
[205] One of the most remarkable of these coincidences is that
in the decoration of shells pointed out by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in
his article on “Art in Shells,” in the Second Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology. (Washington, 1883.)
[206] On this point see “The Lineal Measures of the Semi-
Civilized Nations of Mexico and Central America,” in my Essays of
an Americanist, p. 433. (Philadelphia, 1890.)
[207] The principal authority is the work of Diego de Landa,
Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan. It has been twice published,
once imperfectly by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1864,
8vo.; later very accurately by the Spanish government, Madrid,
1881, folio.
[208] The most profitable studies in the Maya hieroglyphs have
been by Dr. Cyrus Thomas in the United States, Dr. E.
Förstemann, Ed. Seler and Schellhas in Germany, and Prof. L. de
Rosny in France. On the MSS. or codices preserved, see “The
Writings and Records of the Ancient Mayas” in my Essays of an
Americanist, pp. 230-254.
[209] Popul Vuh, Le Livre Sacré. Paris, 1861.
[210] The Annals of the Cakchiquels, the original text with a
Translation, Notes and Introduction. Phila., 1885. (Volume VI. of
my Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)
[211] See “The Books of Chilan Balam,” in my Essays of an
Americanist, pp. 255-273.
[212] The name Huaves is derived from the Zapotec huavi, to
become rotten through dampness. (Vocabulario Zapoteco. MS. in
my possession.) It was probably a term of contempt.
[213] Nicaragua, its People and Scenery, Vol. II., p. 310.
[214] E. G. Squier, “A Visit to the Guajiquero Indians,” in
Harper’s Magazine, October, 1859. A copy of his vocabularies is in
my possession.
[215] I collected and published some years ago the only
linguistic material known regarding this tribe. “On the Language
and Ethnologic Position of the Xinca Indians of Guatemala,” in
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1884.
 [216] On the ethnography of the Musquito coast consult John
Collinson, in Mems. of the Anthrop. Soc. of London, Vol. III., p.
149, sq.; C. N. Bell, in Jour. of the Royal Geograph. Soc., Vol.
XXXII., p. 257, and the Bericht of the German Commission, Berlin,
1845. Lucien Adam has recently prepared a careful study of the
Musquito language.
[217] See Leon Fernandez and J. F. Bransford, in Rep. of the
Smithsonian Institution, 1882, p. 675; B. A. Thiel, Apuntes
Lexicograficos, Parte III.; O. J. Parker, in Beach’s Indian
Miscellany, p. 346.
[218] Catalogo de las Lenguas conocidas. Madrid, 1805. This is
the enlarged Spanish edition of the Italian original published in
1784, and it is the edition I have uniformity referred to in this
work.
[219] Personal Narrative, Vol. VI., p. 352 (English trans.,
London, 1826).
[220] The Philosophic Grammar of American Languages, as set
forth by Wilhelm von Humboldt; with the Translation of an
Unpublished Memoir by him on the American Verb. By Daniel G.
Brinton. (8vo. Philadelphia, 1885.) This Memoir was not included
in the editions of Wilhelm von Humboldt’s Works, and was
unknown even to their latest editor, Professor Steinthal. The
original is in the Berlin Public Library.
[221] L’Homme Américain de l’Amérique Méridionale, considéré
sous ses Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux. Par Alcide
D’Orbigny. 2 vols. Paris, 1839.
[222] Organismus der Khetsua Sprache. Einleitung. (Leipzig,
1884.)
[223] Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas,
zumal Brasiliens. Von Dr. Carl Friedrich Phil. von Martius. Leipzig,
1867. 2 vols.
[224] Von Tschudi, Organismus der Kechua Sprache, s. 15,
note.
[225] He was superior general of the missions on the Marañon
and its branches about 1730. See Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses,
Tom. II., p. 111, for his own description of his experiences and
studies.
[226] See especially his paper “Trois familles linguistiques des
bassins de l’Amazone et de l’Orénoque,” in the Compte-Rendu du
Congrès internationale des Américanistes, 1888, p. 489 sqq.
[227] Joaquin Acosta, Compendio Historico de la Nueva
Granada, p. 168. (Paris, 1848.)
[228] Hist. de las Indias Occidentales, Dec. VII., Cap. XVI.
[229] Dr. Max Uhle gives a list of 26 Cuna words, with
analogies in the Chibcha and its dialects. (Compte-Rendu du
Cong. Internat. Américanistes, 1888, p. 485.) Alphonse Pinart,
who has published the best material on Cuna, is inclined to
regard it as affiliated to the Carib. (Vocabulario Castellano-Cuna.
Panama, 1882, and Paris, 1890.)
[230] A. L. Pinart, Coleccion de Linguistica y Etnografia
Americana, Tom. IV., p. 17; also the same writer in Revu
d’Ethnographie, 1887, p. 117, and Vocabulario Castellano-
Dorasque. Paris, 1890.
[231] On the Chocos consult Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1876, s.
359; Felipe Perez, Jeografia del Estado del Cauca, p. 229, sq.
(Bogota, 1862.) The vocabulary of Chami, collected near Marmato
by C. Greiffenstein, and published in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie,
1878, p. 135, is Choco. The vocabulary of the Tucuras, given by
Dr. Ernst in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell.,
1887, p. 302, is quite pure Choco. The Chocos call their language
embera bede, “the speech of men.”
[232] “Relacion de las tierras y provincias de la gobernacion de
Venezuela (1546),” in Oviedo y Baños, Historia de Venezuela,
Tom. II. Appendice. (Ed. Madrid, 1885.)
[233] Aristides Rojas, Estudios Indigenos, p. 46. (Caracas,
1878.)
[234] “Mas hermosas y agraciadas que las de otros de aquel
continente.” This was the opinion of Alonzo de Ojeda, who saw
them in 1499 and later. (Navarrete, Viages, Tom. III., p. 9). Their
lacustrine villages reminded him so much of Venice (Venezia) that
he named the country “Venezuela.”
[235] According to Lares, the Bobures and Motilones lived
adjacent, and to the north of the Timotes. The Motilones were of
the Carib stock. See Dr. A. Ernst, in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie,
1885, p. 190.
[236] Joaquin Acosta, Compend. Hist. de la Nueva Granada, p.
31, note.
 [237] Martin Fernandez de Enciso, La Suma de Geografia.
(Sevilla, 1519.) This rare work is quoted by J. Acosta. Enciso was
alguacil mayor of Castilla de Oro in 1515.
[238] See Jose Ignacio Lares, Resumen de las Actas de la
Academia Venezolana, 1886, p. 37 (Caracas, 1886); and Dr. Ernst,
in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1885, s. 190.
[239] G. Coleti, Dizionario dell’ America Meridionale, s. v.
(Venezia, 1771.) Not to be confounded with the Zaparos of the
Marañon.
[240] Ibid., s. v.
[241] G. Marcano, Ethnographie Pre-Columbienne de
Venezuela. (Paris, 1889.)
[242] “La lingua Muysca, detta anticamente Chybcha, era la
comune e generale in tuttigl’ Indiani di quella Monarchia.” Coleti,
Dizionario Storico-Geografico dell’ America Meridionale, Tom. II.,
p. 39. (Venezia, 1771.)
[243] “Casi todos los pueblos del Nuevo Reyno de Granada son
de Indios Mozcas.” Alcedo, Diccionario Geografico de America, s.
v. Moscas. “La lengua Mosca es como general en estendissima
parte de aquel territorio; en cada nacion la hablan de distinta
manera.” J. Cassani, Historia del Nuevo Reyno de Granada, p. 48.
(Madrid, 1741.) He especially names the Chitas, Guacicas,
Morcotes and Tunebos as speaking Chibcha.
[244] Herrera, Historia de las Indias Occidentales, Dec. IV., Lib.
X., cap. 8.
[245] Rafael Celedon, Gramatica de la Lengua Köggaba,
Introd., p. xxiv. (Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine.)
[246] The vocabulary is furnished by General Juan Thomas
Perez, in the Resumen de las Actas de la Academia Venezolana,
1886, p. 54. I offer for comparison the following:

SIQUISIQUE. CHIBCHA-AROAC.
Sun, yuan, yuia.
Wife, esio, sena.
Fire, dueg, gue.
Water, ing, ni.
Snake, tub, kĕbi.
 [247] The connection of the Aroac (not Arawak) dialects with
the Chibcha was, I believe, first pointed out by Friedrich Müller, in
his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. IV., s. 189, note. The
fact was also noted independently by Dr. Max Uhle, who added
the Guaymis and Talamancas to the family. (Compte Rendu du
Congrès Internat. des Américanistes, 1888, p. 466.)
[248] Pinart, Bulletin de la Société de Geographie, 1885;
Berendt, in Bull. of Amer. Geog. Society, 1876, No. 2.
[249] In Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.
Washington, 1888.
[250] Joaquin Acosta, Compendio Historico de la Nueva
Granada, p. 77. When, in 1606, the missionary Melchor
Hernandez visited Chiriqui lagoon, he found six distinct languages
spoken on and near its shores by tribes whom he names as
follows: Cothos, Borisques, Dorasques, Utelaes, Bugabaes, Zunes,
Dolegas, Chagres, Zaribas, Dures. (Id., p. 454.)
[251] The only information I have on the Paniquita dialect is
that given in the Revue de Linguistique, July, 1879, by a
missionary (name not furnished). It consists of a short vocabulary
and some grammatical remarks.
[252] Herrera, Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales, Cap. XVI.
[253] Alcedo, Diccionario Geografico, s. v., Muzos.
[254] Vocabulario Paez-Castellano, por Eujenio del Castillo i
Orosco. Con adiciones por Ezequiel Uricoechea. Paris, 1877.
(Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine.)
[255] Felipe Perez, Geografia del Estado de Tolima, p. 76
(Bogota, 1863); R. B. White, in Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society, 1883, pp. 250-2.
[256] Dr. A. Posada-Arango, “Essai Ethnographique sur les
Aborigenes de l’Etat d’Antioquia,” in the Bulletin de la Société
Anthrop. de Paris, 1871, p. 202.
[257] Thirty thousand, says Herrera, with the usual
extravagance of the early writers (Decadas de Indias, Dec. VII.,
Lib. IV., cap IV.)
[258] Leon Douay, in Compte Rendu du Congrès des
Américanistes, 1888, p. 774, who adds a vocabulary of Moguex.
The name is derived from Mog, vir.
 [259] Hervas, Catologo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p.
279. Father Juan de Ribera translated the Catechism into the
Guanuca, but so far as I know, it was not printed.
[260] Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, etc.,
pp. 6, 64, etc. The words he gives in Coconuca are:

IN MOGUEX.
Sun, puitchr, piuchr.
Moon, puil, pulue.
Stars, sil, ?
Chief, cashu, ?
Maize, bura, purat.

Bollaert probably quoted these without acknowledgment from

Gen. Mosquera, Phys. & Polit. Geog. of New Granada, p. 45 (New
York, 1853).
[261] My knowledge of the Totoro is obtained from an
anonymous notice published by a missionary in the Revue de
Linguistique, July, 1879. Its relationship to the group is at once
seen by the following comparison:

TOTORO. MOGUEX.
Man, mujel, muck.
Woman, ishu, schut.
Head, pushu, pusts.
Eye, cap-tshal, cap.
Mouth, trictrap, chidbchab.
Nose, kim, kind.
Arm, qual, cuald.
Fingers, cambil, kambild.

[262] See Herrera, Hist. de las Indias, Dec. VI., Lib. VII., cap. V.
[263] The vocabulary was furnished by Bishop Thiel. It is
edited with useful comments by Dr. Edward Seler in Original-
Mittheilungen aus der Ethnologischen Abtheilung der König.
Museen zu Berlin, No. I., s. 44, sq. (Berlin, 1885).
[264] Ed. André, in Le Tour du Monde, 1883, p. 344. From this
very meagre material I offer the following comparison:

TELEMBI. COLORADO.
 Eye, cachu, caco.
Nose, quimpu, quinfu.
House, yall, ya.
Hand, ch’to, te-de.
Foot, mi-to, ne-de.
Mother, acuá, ayá.
Hair, aichi, apichu.

The terminal syllable to in the Telembi words for hand and foot
appears to be the Colorado té, branch, which is also found in the
Col. té-michu, finger, te-chili, arm ornament, and again in the
Telembi t’raill, arm.
[265] In the Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft,
1887, ss. 597-99.
[266] Other analogies are undoubted, though less obvious.
Thus in Cayapa, “man” is liu-pula; “woman,” su-pula. In these
words, the terminal pula is generic, and the prefixes are the
Colorado sona, woman, abbreviated to so in the Colorado itself,
(see Dr. Seler’s article, p. 55); and the Col. chilla, male, which in
the Spanish-American pronunciation, where ll = y, is close to liu.
[267] Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, p. 82.
[268] Manuel I. Albis, in Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnol. Soc., vol.
I., p. 52.
[269] A. Codazzi in Felipe Perez, Jeografia del Estado de
Tolima, pp. 81 sqq. (Bogota, 1863.)
[270]

As tooth, Andaqui, sicoga; Chibcha, sica.

house, ” co-joe; ” jüe.

[271] Manuel P. Albis, in Bull. of the Amer. Ethnolog. Soc., Vol.

I., pp. 55, sq. See also General T. C. de Mosquera, Memoir on the
Physical and Political Geography of New Granada, p. 41 (New
York, 1853).
[272] Garcilasso de la Vega, Commentarios Reales, Lib. VIII.,
cap. 5. He calls the natives Huancavillcas.
[273] F. G. Saurez, Estudio Historico sobre los Cañaris (Quito,
1878). This author gives cuts of these axes, and their inscribed
devices.
 [274] For a description, with cuts, see M. L. Heuzey, “Le Trésor
de Cuenca,” in La Gazette des Beaux-Arts, August, 1870.
[275] Cronica del Peru, Pt. I., cap. cxvi.
[276] Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Lib. VII., cap. 3.
[277] Antiquarian, Ethnological and other Researches, in New
Granada, Ecuador, Peru and Chili, p. 101 (London, 1860).
[278] He complains that the languages which the Incas tried to
suppress, had, since their downfall, arisen as vigorous as ever,
Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Lib. VII., cap. 3.
[279] Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 64 (Leipzig, 1884).
[280] See von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 65.
It is to be regretted that in the face of the conclusive proof to the
contrary, Dr. Middendorf repeats as correct the statement of
Garcilasso de la Vega (Ollanta, Einleitung, s. 15, note).
[281] See his Introduction to the Travels of Pedro Cieza de
Leon, p. xxii. (London, 1864).
[282] See his Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, ss. 64-66.
[283] The Chinchaya dialect is preserved (insufficiently) by
Father Juan de Figueredo in an Appendix to Torres-Rubio, Arte de
la Lengua Quichua, edition of Lima, 1701. It retained the sounds
of g and l, not known in southern Kechua. The differences in the
vocabularies of the two are apparent rather than real. Thus the
Chin. rupay, sun, is the K. for sun’s heat (ardor del sol); Chin.
caclla, face, is K. cacclla, cheeks. Markham is decidedly in error in
saying that the Chinchaya dialect “differed very considerably from
that of the Incas” (Journal Royal Geog. Soc., 1871, p. 316).
[284] Introduction to his translation of Cieza de Leon, p. xlvii,
note.
[285] Bollaert, Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches, p. 81.
[286] Von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s. 66.
Hervas was also of the opinion that both Quitu and Scyra were
Kechua dialects (Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas, Tom. I., p.
276).
[287] A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des Alten Americas, Bd. II.,
s. 93.
[288] Juan de Velasco, Histoire du Royaume de Quito, pp. 11-
21, sq. (Ed. Ternaux-Compans, Paris, 1840.) But Cieza de Leon’s
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