GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

S.Y. ‘23 - ‘24 | SEM 2 Q4

b. Calculate the mass of product formed by

LIMITING REAGENT, THEORETICAL YIELD, performing a mass-mass problem for each
PERCENTAGE YIELD amount of reactant given.
c. Determine the limiting reactant: the reactant
that produces the smallest amount of product
DEFINITION is the limiting reagent
★ LIMITING REAGENT – limits or determines PROBLEMS:
the amount of product that can be formed in a
reaction; the reaction occurs only until the For the reaction: 𝑁𝑎2𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂 → 2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
limiting reagent is used up. 1. What weight of NaOH could be made from 12.4 g of
★ EXCESS REAGENT – reactant that is not 𝑁𝑎2𝑂and 42.1 g of 𝐻2𝑂? What is the limiting reagent?
completely used up in the reaction.used up in
the reaction Na – 2 × 23 = 46 g Na – 1 × 23 = 23 g H – 1×2 = 2
0 – 1 × 16 = 16 g 0 – 1 × 16 = 16 g O – 1 × 16 =16
WHAT IS LIMITING REAGENT? = 62 g H–1×1= 1g = 18 g
● It is the reactant in a reaction that = 40 g
determines how much product can be made.
● It is whatever reactant you have the least
amount of.
● If you are making a bicycle and you have all
the parts to make 100 bikes, but only 4 wheels
available, how many bikes can you make? (Ans:
The Limit Reagent is 2.)
● What is the limiting “part”? (Ans: The no. of
wheel)
● For chemistry, it is whatever has the least The limiting reagent is 𝑁𝑎2𝑂
amount of moles.
LIMITING REAGENT and EXCESS REAGENT 2. Methyl alcohol (wood alcohol), CH3OH, is produced
via the reaction:
CO(g) + 2 H2(g) → CH3OH(l)
A mixture of 1.20 g H2(g) and 7.45 g CO(g) are allowed
to react. Which reagent is the limiting reagent?

C – 1 × 12 = 12 C – 1 × 12 = 12
● In this reaction, only the hydrogen is H–4×1=4 O – 1 × 16 = 16
completely used up. O – 1 × 16 = 16 = 28 g
● H2 is the limiting reagent, or the reactant that Total: 32 g
determines the amount of product that can be
formed by a reaction.
● The reactant that is not completely used up in
a reaction is called the excess reagent.
● In this example, nitrogen is the excess reagent
because some nitrogen remains unreacted.
★ LIMITING REACTANTS
○ Available Ingredients
○ 4 slices of bread
○ 1 jar of peanut butter
○ 1/2 jar of jelly
Limiting Reactant: Excess Reactants: The limiting reagent is CO.
Bread peanut butter and jelly 2.1 How much of the excess reactant (H2) is left over?
This amount is determined by calculating the amount
STEPS IN SOLVING LIMITING REACTANTS
of H2 that would react with 7.45 grams of CO (The
PROBLEMS
amount of the limiting reactant.) and subtracting this
a. Write a balanced chemical equation, if from starting amount of H2.
necessary.

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● Start with the initial mass of the limiting

reactant and do a mass to mass with the other
reactant.

3. Rust forms when iron, oxygen, and water react. One 2. In a laboratory preparation of ClF3 , 0.750 mol of
chemical equation for the formation of rust is 2Fe + 𝑂2 reacts Cl2 with 3.00 mol of F2. What is the limiting
+ 2𝐻2O → 2Fe(OH)2 reagent and excess reagent?

● If 7.0 g of iron and 9.0 g of water are available

to react, which is the limiting reagent?
● Rust forms when iron, oxygen, and water react.
One chemical equation for the formation of
rust is
2Fe + O2 + 2H2O →2Fe(OH)2
● If 7.0 g of iron and 9.0 g of water are available
to react, which is the limiting reagent? How The Limiting reagent is CL2, while the excess reagent is
much Fe(OH)2 will be produced? F2.

THEORETICAL YIELD, ACTUAL YIELD, PERCENT YIELD

DEFINITION
★ Theoretical yield: the maximum amount of
product that could be formed from given
amounts of reactants.
★ Actual yield: the product that actually forms
when the reaction is carried out in the
PROBLEMS: laboratory; the actual yield is often always less
1. What mass of hydrogen gas at STP is produced from than the theoretical yield.
the reaction of 50.0g of Mg and 75.0 grams of HCl? ★ Percent yield: the ratio of the actual yield to
the theoretical yield expressed as a percent.
What is the limiting reagent? How much of the
The percent yield measures the efficiency of
excess reagent is left over (in grams)? the reaction.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
Do a standard mass to mass problem starting with PERCENT YIELD
each reactant ● The percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield
to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent.
H–1 Mg – 24 g
Cl – 35
= 36 g

● Because the actual yield of a chemical reaction

is often less than the theoretical yield, the
percent yield is often less than 100%.
● The percent yield is a measure of the efficiency
of a reaction carried out in the laboratory.
The mass of the reactant is measured → The reactant is
heated → The mass of one of the products, the actual
yield, is measured. The percent yield is calculated.
How much of the excess reactant is left over?

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will not limit the yield of the reaction.

d. Substitute the values for actual yield and
theoretical yield into the equation for
percent yield.

● Many factors cause percent yields to be less

than 100%.
○ Reactions do not always go to
completion; when a reaction is
incomplete, less than the calculated
amount of product is formed.
○ Impure reactants and competing side ELECTRIC CONFIGURATION
reactions may cause unwanted Noble Gas and Quantum Number
products to form.
○ Actual yield can be lower than the
theoretical yield due to a loss of QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
product during filtration or in ● According to this model, electrons occupy
transferring between containers. definite energy levels called Principal energy
○ If reactants or products have not been levels represented by a number called
carefully measured, a percent yield of Quantum numbers, n. n= 1 2 3 4…
100% is unlikely. ● Each principal energy level consists of one or
PROBLEMS: more energy sublevels:
○ s (sharp) has 1-s orbitals
1. A 15.6-g sample of benzene (C6H6) is mixed with ○ p (principal) has 3-p orbitals
excess nitric acid (HNO3). If we isolate 18.0g of C6H5NO2 ○ d (diffuse) has 5-d orbitals
(nitrobenzene) from the chemical reaction, what is the ○ f (fundamental) 7-f orbitals
percent yield of C6H5NO2? ● Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of
two (2) electrons only.
○ 1 s-orbital has 2 electrons
○ 3 p-orbital has 6 electrons
○ 5 d-orbital has 10 electrons
○ 7 f-orbital has 14 electrons
ELECTRIC CONFIGURATION
Describes how electrons are arranged in successive
sublevels and orbitals.
Must follow these rules in writing Electronic
configuration

Rule #1. Aufbau Principle – electrons enter orbitals of

2. Calcium carbonate, which is found in seashells, is lowest energy level first. Aufbau means ‘building up’.
decomposed by heating. The balanced equation for this
reaction is
CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2(g)

● What is the theoretical yield of CaO if 24.8 g

CaCO3 is heated?
● What is the percent yield if 13.1 g CaO is
actually produced when 24.8 g CaCO3 is
heated?
a. Calculate the theoretical yield first. Then you Rule #2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – only 2 electrons
can calculate the percent yield. can occupy an orbital and they must have opposite
b. Perform a Mass-Mass problem to calculate spins. No two electrons can have the same set of
the theoretical yield. quantum numbers.
c. If there is an excess of a reactant, then there
is more than enough of that reactant and it

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4 Ar(18)
5 Kr(36)
6 Xe(54)
7 Rn(86)

EXAMPLES
2 2 6 1
1. 11 Na = 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠
1
Na= [Ne]3𝑠
Rule #3. Hund’s Rule – When electrons occupy orbitals 2. 47 Ag = [Kr]5𝑠 4𝑑
2 9

of equal energy (degenerate orbitals), one electron

enters each orbital until all the orbitals contain one with QUANTUM NUMBERS
parallel spins, then they will pair up. “For degenerate ● Used to describe an electron’s behavior or
orbitals, the lowest energy is attained when the number likely location
of electrons with the same spin is maximized.” ● There are four with variables: n, l, m, & s

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

● Corresponds to the energy levels 1 through n.

However, we will only deal with 1-7.
● Each box represents one orbital. ● Average distance from the nucleus increases
● Half-arrows represent the electrons. with increasing principal quantum number,
● The direction of the arrow represents the spin therefore n designates the size of the electron
of the electron. cloud.
● Maximum # of electrons in each energy level is
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ATOM 2
calculated by 2𝑛 where n = the energy level
● PARAMAGNETISM – are substances that (1-7).
contain unpaired electrons (↓) and are weakly ● Pertains to the average distance of the electron
attracted into magnetic fields. from the nucleus in a particular atomic orbital.
● DIAMAGNETISM – are those in which all
electrons are paired (⇅) and are very weakly ANGULAR MOMENTUM/ AZIMUTHAL OR ORBITAL
repelled by magnetic fields. QUANTUM NUMBER (l)

EXAMPLES OF ELECTRIC CONFIGURATION ● l has integral values of 0 to n-1 for each value
of n.
1. Silicon (𝑆𝑖14)
● ells the sublevels or specific shape of the
2 2 6 2 2
= 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠 3𝑝 orbital that an electron may occupy.
2. Lead (𝑃𝑏82)
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10 6 2 14 10 2
1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠 3𝑝 4𝑠 3𝑑 4𝑝 5𝑠 4𝑑 5𝑝 6𝑠 4𝑓 5𝑑 6𝑝
NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION

PERIOD GAS CORE

2 He(2)
3 Ne(10)

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MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml) EXAMPLES

● ml may equal any integral value between 1 and 1.
11
𝑁𝑎
– 1. This includes zero.
● It relates to the orientation of the orbital in
space relative to other orbitals in the atom.
→ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛

→ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

Principal Quantum Number (n): 3

Azimuthal(l): 0
Magnetic (ml): 0
Spin (𝑚𝑠): +1/2

SPIN QUANTUM NUMBERS (𝑚𝑠) 2.

20
𝐶𝑎
● In the 1920s, it was discovered that two
electrons in the same orbital do not have
exactly the same energy. n: 4
● The “spin” of an electron describes its l: 0
magnetic field, which affects its energy. ml: 0
● This led to a fourth quantum number, the spin ms: -1/2
quantum number, 𝑚𝑠.
40
● The spin quantum number has only 2 allowed 3. 𝑍𝑟
values: +1/2 and −1/2.

n: 4
l: 2
ml: -1
ms: +½

51
4. 𝑆𝑏
PAUL EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
● No two electrons in the same atom can have
exactly the same energy.
● For example, no two electrons in the same
atom can have identical sets of quantum
numbers.
○ Each orbital may hold two electrons.
n: 5
○ Describes the electrons spin as either
l: 1
clockwise or counterclockwise
ml: 1
○ Quantum numbers are +½ (clockwise)
ms: +½
and -½ (counterclockwise)
● shape of the Electron cloud.
Principal Quantum numbers: last number
○ Size (diameter) is related to n, the
Azimuthal: s, p, d, f (last subshell orbital)
principal quantum number. The larger
Magnetic: last quantum numbers of subshells
the n, the larger the electron cloud.
Spin: direction of the last arrow
○ Shape is given by sublevel l.
○ The direction of space is given by the
orbitals (m)

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● Metals at the left side of the periodic table

CHEMICAL BONDS
have low ionization energies and form
● It is the attractive force that exists between ○ CATIONS (positively charged ions).
atoms and holds them together. Nonmetals at the right side of the
● Among the elements, the noble gases are the periodic table, such as halogens, have
most stable. high affinities for additional electrons
● Their stability comes from their completely and form
filled outermost shells or energy levels. ○ ANIONS (negatively charged ions).
● The noble gases have eight electrons in their ● When these metals and nonmetals chemically
outermost energy level except for helium, combine, an ionic compound is formed.
which has two. ● Examples: Mg and F, Ca and S, Al and Cl, Mg
● The noble gases are also referred to as the core and O, Li and Br, K and O
elements.
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
● To achieve greater stability, the other elements
tend to give up, acquire, or share electrons to ● Many ionic compounds consist of more than
achieve configuration as the noble gases. two elements. Metals form cations and
● In short, in the formation of bonds, most atoms combine with monoatomic anions and
tend to have eight electrons in their valence
polyatomic ions. (NaF, MgO, CaCO3 , Al(NO3 )3,
shell.
BaSO4……)
OCTET RULE ● They have high melting and boiling points.
● Proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis in his bonding ● The compounds in the solid state are
theory in 1916. nonconductors of electricity, but in the
● It states that when atoms form ions there molten or liquid state and in aqueous
should remain eight electrons in the outer solution, are conductors of electricity.
shell of the ion. ● Ionic compounds consists of anions and
cations.
LEWIS STRUCTURE
● The ionic bond formed by the attraction
● A useful tool for applying the octet rule between the oppositely charged ions is very
● Also called electron dot structure strong. This keeps the ions in the crystal
● Proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis together.
● It indicates the number of valence electrons
EXAMPLES
in an atom represented by dots scattered on
four sides of the atomic symbol. 1. NaCl – Na(1), Cl (7)
● The electrons are distributed one at a time with
the next electrons placed so as to pair with
those written earlier.
2. CaO – Ca(2) , O(6)
● The choice of which side to put an electron first
is arbitrary.

IONIC BONDS
● In this type of bond there is a complete
transfer of electrons from one atom to 3. CaCl – Ca(2), Cl(7) = CaCl2
another.
● Most atoms need eight electrons to complete
the valence shell, and one way to achieve this
is by either losing or gaining electrons.
● The electrostatic attraction that holds together
the oppositely charged ions, the cations and
anions, in the solid compound is referred to as METALLIC BONDS
ionic bond. ● The type of bond that exists among metals.
● In forming ionic bonds, atoms with low ● It is the electrical attraction between the
ionization energy tend to lose electrons, valence electron and the positive nuclei
while atoms with high electron affinity or ● bond found in metals; holds metal atoms
electronegativity tend to gain electrons. together very strongly
● IONS are atoms or groups of atoms that are ● Formed between atoms of metallic elements
electrically charged.

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● Electron cloud around atoms 7. A pair of shared electrons or bonding pair can
● Good conductors at all states, lustrous, very be represented by a single line between the
high melting points atoms. This is called a single covalent bond, or
● Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co
simply a single bond.
● They have
Examples: Cl2 , Br2, F2 , NH3, CCl4, H2O
○ Delocalized electrons - are electrons
which are free to drift from one atom ● DOUBLE BOND- two pairs of electrons are
to another within a metal. shared. Examples: O2 , CO2
● Metals do not combine with metals. They form ● TRIPLE BOND- three pairs of electrons are
alloys which is a solution of a metal in a metal. shared. Examples: N2 , CO, HCN…
COVALENT BONDS EXAMPLES
● It is formed by the sharing of electrons
between atoms.
● It contains atoms bonded tightly together in
molecules.
● Electron pairs are shared and covalent bonds
are formed when two atoms have about the
same tendency to give up or to pick up
electrons.
● One pair of shared electrons forms one
covalent bond. The octet rule as applied to the
formation of covalent bonds states that:
○ “The number of atoms that combine to
form a covalent molecular compound
is such that each atom would attain an
octet of electrons in its valence shell. ”
● A useful rule for predicting whether a binary
compound has a covalent molecular structure
is this: the combination of two nonmetals
produces a compound with a covalent
molecular structure. Such compounds are
called covalent molecular compounds.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
● Some of these compounds are made up of few
atoms like water and carbon dioxide.
● They have low melting and boiling points and
are nonconductors of electricity. .
● Some compounds, called polymers, consists of
very large molecules. COORDINATE COVALENT BOND

RULES IN WRITING THE LEWIS STRUCTURE OF ● It is a covalent bond that is composed of two
COVALENT COMPOUNDS: electrons donated by only one atom.
● Examples: O3 , N2O
1. Add up the total valence electrons.
2. The atom with the highest covalency number is EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
considered as the central atom ● Molecules with an odd number of electrons.
3. Bond the other atoms to the central atom by a ○ An example is the NO molecule. It has
single bond. 11 valence electrons, and is impossible
for NO to have a complete octet.
4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons to
● Molecules in which atom has less than an
the attached atom first and then to the central octet. (BF3 , BCl3 )
atom last. ● Molecules in which an atom has more than
5. Check if the octet rule is followed by each an octet of electrons.(PCl5 , SF6 )
atom.
BOND POLARITY
6. If there is a deficiency in the octet rule, form a
multiple bond. ● Since different elements have different
electronegativities, two elements that are

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covalently bonded produce partially positive

NOMENCLATURE
and partially negative ends.
● The more electronegative atom pulls the
shared electron more strongly towards itself,
and thus the more electronegative atom
acquires a partially negative charge while the
less electronegative atom gets a partial
positive charge.

POLARITY
● The property that causes unsymmetrical
distribution of charges between or among
atoms Expanded Structural Formula
● Covalent bonds in which partial charges are
produced are called polar covalent bonds.

Using the Electronegativity Difference In Classifying

Bonds: Condensed Structural Formula

Molecular Formula

NAMING HYDROCARBONS

EXAMPLES

note: (high value)-(low value)

1. NaF
F(4.0)- N(0.9) = 3.1 ionic bond
2. AlCl
Cl 3.0) - Al(1.5)= 1.5 polar covalent
POLARITY OF MOLECULES
● The presence of polar covalent bonds in a
molecule is not an indication that the molecule
is polar as a whole.
● Dipole moment is a measure of the strength of RULES IN NAMING HYDROCARBONS
the polarity of the bond.

Guidelines in Determining Whether a Molecule is 1. Select the longest continuous chain in the
POLAR or NONPOLAR: molecule . This becomes the base name.
2. Add the following endings to the base name
● In a molecule in which the terminal atoms
● ane – alkane (ex. 𝐶𝐻3–𝐶𝐻3, ethane)
belong to the same element, a symmetrical
● ene – alkene (ex. 𝐶𝐻2= 𝐶𝐻2, ethene)
distribution of the terminal atoms around the
central atom produces a zero net dipole. ● yne – alkyne (ex. CH ≡ CH, ethyne)
3. In alkenes and alkynes, number the chain
● In a molecule having different elements,a
beginning at the end that is closer to the
distribution of atoms in which the dipole double or triple bond. To indicate the position
moments cancel out causes a molecule to of the multiple bonds, use a prefix number
become nonpolar before the alkane or alkyne name.
● Examples: CCl4 , CO2 , BF3 , SF6…. H2O, NH3 , ● ALKANE
CHCl3 ○ simplest hydrocarbon which
contains single bond
NAMING HYDROCARBONS

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○ has the formula 𝐶 𝐻2𝑛+2 ○ The parent is named based on the

𝑛
number of carbons
○ Examples:
■ 1 carbon = 𝐶𝐻4 ○ 1 carbon = “meth”
○ So, a one-carbon alkane is called
■ 4 carbon= 𝐶4𝐻10
methane CH4
■ 8 carbon= 𝐶8𝐻18
○ 2 carbons = “eth”
■ 10 carbon= 𝐶10𝐻22 ○ So, a two-carbon alkane is called
■ Pentane (5)= 𝐶5𝐻12 ethane. 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻
3 3
■ Heptane(7)= 𝐶7𝐻16
○ 3 carbons = “prop”
■ Decane(10)= 𝐶10𝐻22 ○ So, a three-carbon alkane is called
● ALKENE propane. 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻
3 2 3
○ contains double bond
○ has the formula 𝐶 𝐻 ○ 4 carbons = “but”
𝑛 2𝑛
○ So, a four-carbon alkane is called
● ALKYNE
○ contains triple bond butane. 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻
3 2 2 3
○ has the formula 𝐶 𝐻 ● Prefixes
𝑛 2𝑛−2
● In compounds containing two double ○ Prefixes are any substituent attached
bonds, the ending diene is used to the main chain (parent) of the
4. In branched hydrocarbons, consider the branch molecule.
as a substituent group and name it by ○ Prefixes – the Halides
changing ane to yl (alkyl).
■ Chlorine is called “chloro”
● For alkane, number the chain starting
at the end that is closer to the branch ■ Fluorine is called “ fluoro”
● If identical substituents are present , ■ Bromine is called “bromo”
use the prefixes di, tri, tetra, etc., and ■ Iodine is called “iodo”
repeat the number. Separate the
number with commas. If different
PUTTING TOGETHER A NAME
substituents are present, arrange the
substituents alphabetically The rules for IUPAC nomenclature include:
Step 1: Find the main chain (Longest chain)
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
Step 2: Number the main chain
Step 3: Identify all prefixes and their position
THREE BASIC PARTS
numbers
The name for any organic molecule consists of three Step 4: Write the full name: Prefixes-Parent-Suffix.
basic parts: Step 5: Add punctuation.
Prefixes-Parent-Suffix ● Put commas between numbers (2 5 5 becomes
2,5,5)
● Put a hyphen between a number and a letter (2
● Basic Part – Suffixes
5 5 trimethylheptane becomes 2,5,5-
○ Suffixes on the end of the name of an trimethylheptane)
organic molecule tell you what major ● Successive words are merged into one word
family the molecule belongs to (trimethyl heptane becomes trimethylheptane)
○ The suffix for an alkane is “-ane” ALKYL GROUP
○ The suffix for an alkene is “-ene”
○ The suffix for an alkyne is “-yne ● Alkyl groups are named similarly to alkanes.
● Basic Part – the Parent ● If you remove a hydrogen atom from one of
○ The “parent” part of the name tells you these you get an alkyl group.
how many carbons are in the longest ● A fragment of methane, 𝐶𝐻4, would be 𝐶𝐻3 -
chain “main chain” of the molecule. called “methyl”
○ Counting to Ten in Organic ● A fragment of ethane, 𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻3, would be 𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻2
meth(01), eth(02), prop (03), but (but), -, called “ethyl”.
pent (05), hex (06), hept(07), oct (08),
non (09), dec (10) IUPAC NOMENCLATURE – ALKANES
● Parent and suffix

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● If compound has two or more chains of the How to name organic compounds using the
same length, parent hydrocarbon is chain with IUPAC rules
greatest number of substituents. http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/GenChemReferences/
nomenclature_rules.html
NOMENCLATURE OF SUBSTITUTION
The name of the alkyl group followed by the name of
the class of compound constitutes the common name
for alcohols, amines, and alkyl halides:

NOMENCLATURE OF CYCLOALKANES
● Cycloalkanes generally are shown as skeletal
structures:

● Ring is the parent hydrocarbon unless the alkyl

substituent has more carbons; in that case the
substituent becomes the parent hydrocarbon.
If only one substituent, no need to give it a
number:

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