Responsibilities of Students

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE
It is the responsibility of the individual student

to know and follow all the regulations of the
university.
PHY112 2018/2019 Semester 1
A student registered for a course is expected to
Lecturers fulfill all requirements prescribed for that course.

A student who is unable to attend classes due
Dr. S Chimidza (208/235) to illness should notify the Faculty/Department
Dr. R E Simon (233/122) of this fact within twenty one consecutive days
Dr. N Palalani (246/S210) from the day the student misses classes.
Certification from a recognized health officer
will be required in support.

Responsibilities cont. Be HUMAN

Medical card is not accepted as support H:- HAVE A PASSION FOR LEARNING
document.
U:- UNDERSTAND THE DYNAMICS OF

Prior permission or supporting evidence will be
YOUR SPECIALIST AREA
necessary for circumstances other than ill health.
NOTE: A student who enters or returns to the M:- MOTIVATE YOURSELF AND THOSE
university late shall not be entitled to extra tuition. AROUND YOU
A:- ACKNOWLEDGE MISTAKES AS PART
OF A LEARNING PROCESSES
N:- NURTURE AND DEVELOP ESSENTIAL
SKILSS

DESTINATION GOOS
Communication with Students
(Going Out Of Science Faculty)

The UB IT system automatically creates an
If you do not reach GOOS, please be aware email address for each student upon registration.
that other destinations are possible;
Student [email protected]
Therefore, do not enter frustration mode as
Students have to activate the email address at
Block 247.
this will not bear fruit.
Students are encouraged to activate and use this
facility as most communication from the
University will be sent to this address.

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Semester 1 1
 Year 1 Physics What is required to pass Physics?
TWO COMPONENTS FOR PHY112
THEORY • Is it A* in Secondary School Physics?

3 LECTURES & 1 TUTORIAL PER • There are cases of A* entry and fail at end of
WEEK semester.

ASSESSMENT – 2 TESTS, TUTORIAL • There are cases of C entry and pass at end of
TESTS & FINAL EXAM (Check semester
handout for tentative dates) • Good entry grade will help, but is not a guarantee
PRACTICAL of a good grade at end of semester.

1 LAB PER WEEK (3 HRS) • CAUTION: Second and Higher years will tell you

ASSESSMENT – WEEKLY LAB that PHY112 PHY112 is difficult/impossible to
REPORTS AND LAB TEST(S) pass. Do yourself a favour, do not listen to them.

What happens if an object on a rough University similar to example

surface is given an initial push and left on • Entry Grade is just the initial push
its own? • Too many challenges – Resistive Forces
• Have to work on your own. Lecturers facilitate and
Slows down until it stops help you learn
Due to resistive forces
Nobody will supply the force to keep you moving

Don’t wait until the speed is about to be zero. Start
What should be done if the object is to
immediately.
keep moving?

In Physics it is important that you understand the
Continuously supply force concepts – Memorizing will not take you anywhere.

To succeed in Physics need to practice a lot

TUTORIALS TUTORIALS CONT.

Tutorials are on Thursdays and Fridays.
To benefit from tutorials:
Tutorials provide a platform for asking questions
and discussing concepts or questions. • work on Tutorial Questions before the tutorial
date.
Students have to be prepared to write a Tutorial
Test at all tutorials. • Do not just copy from friends or solutions
from previous years. You will understand
Tutorial questions are at the end of the lecture
better by attempting the questions, even if you
notes.
are not able to work out the problem.
Tutorial questions and tutorials are to help you
• Use the Tutorial to get clarification on
understand the concepts covered in lectures.
concepts not fully understood.

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Semester 1 2
 PHY112 2019/2020 Semester 1 PHY112
Lecturers
Dr. S Chimidza (208/235) GEOMETRICAL OPTICS AND
Dr. R E Simon (233/122) MECHANICS
Dr. N Palalani (246/S210)

MECHANICS (MC) Fundamental quantities in MC

Measurements • Three basic (fundamental) quantities in mechanics
• Used to describe natural phenomena
Length (L)
• Need defined standards
Mass (M)

Time (T)
• Characteristics of standards for measurements

Other fundamental quantities (not used in mechanics)

Readily accessible Temperature, Electric current, Luminous intensity,

Possess some property that can be measured amount of substance.
reliably
• All other quantities (in mechanics) can be

Must yield the same results when used by anyone expressed in terms of the three fundamental
anywhere
quantities.

Cannot change with time

Examples : Acceleration, Energy, Force

SYSTEM OF UNITS Prefixes

Standard units for fundamental quantities
dictates system of units. • Prefixes correspond to powers of 10

Units should be clearly and accurately defined • Each prefix has a specific name

One system of units used universally in the
scientific community is the SI system of units
• Each prefix has a specific

SI system – Standard fundamental units are
abbreviation
metre (m) {for length}, kilogram (kg) {for
mass}, and seconds (s) {for time}.

For definitions and history – see textbook(s)

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Semester 1 3
 MOST COMMON PREFIXES
Prefix Abbreviation Power Derived and Pseudo Units
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109 • Sometimes use derived (quantities) units.
Mega M 106
Derived quantities can be expressed in terms of
kilo k 103 fundamental quantities.

Example: Volume is one of the derived quantities.
centi c 10-2
Can be expressed in terms of Length.
milli m 10-3
• Pseudo Units also used in place of SI units
micro µ 10-6

Example: Force, SI units kg m s-2, Pseudo units N
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15

Conversion of units (a )
5280 ft 1 mi
• Sometimes need to convert units. 1mi = 5280 ft ⇒ 1 = &1 =
• Could be: 1 mi 5280 ft
– From one prefix to another within same system 1h
– From one system to another
1 h = 60 min ⇒ 1 = 60 min & 1 =
1h 60 min
1. What is the relation between what you convert
1 min
to and what you convert from? 1 min = 60 s ⇒ 1 = 60s & 1 =
2. What can you multiply (or divide) by without 1 min 60s
changing the quantity?
75 mi 5280 ft
Example 1 75 mi h −1 = ×
Convert 75 mi h-1 to (a) ft s-1 (b) m s-1 1h 1 mi

75 × 5280 ft 1h 100 cm & 1 = 1 m

= × 1 m = 100 cm ⇒ 1 =
1h 60 min 1m 100 cm
75 × 5280 ft 1 min 75 mi h −1 =
110 ft 12 in
×
= × = 110 ft s −1
60 min 60 s 1s 1 ft
(b) 110 × 12 in 2.54 cm
12in 1 ft = ×
1 ft = 12in ⇒1= &1 = 1s 1in
1 ft 12 in
110 × 12 × 2.54 cm 1m
2.54 cm & 1 = 1 in = × = 33.5 m s −1
1in = 2.54 cm ⇒ 1 = 1s 100 cm
1 in 2.54 cm

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Semester 1 4
 Example 2
9 kg 9 kg 1000 g
Convert 9 kg m-3 to µg cm-3. 9 kg m −3 = = ×
1 m3 1 m3 1 kg
1000 g 1 kg
1kg = 1000 g ⇒ 1 = &1 =
1 kg 1000 g 9000 g 10 6 µg
= ×
1g 10 6 µg 1 m3 1g
1 g = 10 6 µg ⇒ 1 = & 1 = 3
10 6 µg 1g 9 × 109 µg  1 m 
2 = ×  2 
10 cm & 1 = 1 m 1 m3  10 cm 
1 m = 100 cm ⇒ 1 =
1m 10 2 cm
= 9 000 µg cm −3

Dimensions in Physics
Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis
• Denotes the physical nature of a quantity.
Cuboid: What are the dimensions?
Remember fundamental quantities
Length, Height, Width • Dimensions denoted by square brackets [ ]
Note: Whether Length, height or width, all
Dimension of Length [Length]: L
are distances.

Dimension of Mass [Mass]: M
Fundamental quantity – Length

Dimension of Time [Time]: T
• What would be [Volume]? L3
• What are the [Speed]? LT-1
• What are the [Force]? MLT-2

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONT.

• Technique used to check the correctness • Dimensions (length, mass, time,
of an equation (if dimensions of all combinations) can be treated as
parameters are known), Derive algebraic quantities [add*, subtract*,
dimensions of a parameter (if it is the multiply, divide and raised to some
only parameter with unknown power]
dimensions) or to derive an equation
(where parameters with known Suppose have two cubes that have the same
dimensions are related). volume. How will their dimensions compare?
The Dimensions have to be the same.

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Semester 1 5
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONT. Example 1
•Whenever have a relation, the two sides of
the equation must have the same dimensions Show that the expression v = k1u + k2at
•Any relationship can be correct only if the where v is the final velocity, u is the initial
dimensions of the two sides of the equation velocity, a is the acceleration, t is the time
are the same and k1 and k2 are dimensionless constants is
•Dimensions of any quantity in Mechanics dimensionally correct.
can be expressed as Solution
[Q ] = M L T a b c
[v] = LT −1
E.g., [E ] = ML2T −2 [F ] = MLT −2 [k1u ] = [k1 ]× [u ] = 1× LT −1 = LT −1
[ρ ] = ML−3 [V ] = L3

[k2 ][a][t ] = [k2 ]× [a]× [t ] = 1× LT −2 × T Example 2

The equation for the change of position of a
[k2 at ] = LT −1 train starting at x = 0 m is given by
x = 12 At 2 + Bt 3
∴, [v ] = [k1u ] & [v ] = [k2 at ] where x is distance, t is time and A and B are
constants.
Determine the dimensions of A and B.
Since dimensions of the LHS are the same as [x ] = [ A][t ]2 [x] = [B][t ]3
the dimensions of the two parts of the RHS, [x]
[B ] = [x]3 = L3 = LT −3
[ A] = 2 AND
the expression is dimensionally correct. [t ]
[t ] T
[A] = L2 = LT −2
T

Another method EXAMPLE 3

Make use of [Q ] = M a b
LT c
The frequency is given in functional form as
Let [A] = M a LbT c and determine a, b and c. υ = f ( L, β , µ )
where L is length and the dimensions of υ, β and µ are
[x] = [ A][t ]2 [x] = [ B][t ]
3
T-1, M2L2T-2 and ML-1, respectively. Use dimensional
analysis to deduce the formula for frequency.
L = M a Lb T c *T 2 L = M a LbT c *T 3
Solution
M 0 L1T 0 = M a LbT c + 2 M: a = 0
[ µ ] : ML−1
υ = f ( L, β , µ ) [υ ] : T [ β ] : M L T
−1 2 2 −2

∴, [A] = 2
L L: b = 1
M: a = 0 T: c + 3 = 0, c = -3
L: b = 1
T υ = k Lx β y µ z
[B] = LT-3
T: c + 2 = 0, c = -2 [υ ] = [k ][ L]x [ β ] y [ µ ]z

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Semester 1 6
 T −1 = 1* Lx ( M 2 L2T −2 ) y ( ML−1 ) z Some Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
−1 −2 y −z • Cannot use dimensional analysis alone to
T =L M L T
x 2y 2y
M L z

determine the value of a dimensionless

T −1 = Lx + 2 y − z M 2 y + zT −2 y constant.
L0 M 0T −1 = Lx + 2 y − z M 2 y + zT −2 y • Dimensional analysis can only show that
M: 2y + z = 0 L: x + 2y – z = 0 the relation is wrong or there is a possibility
T: -2y = -1
x +1 – (-1) = 0 that the relation is correct.
y = 0.5 1+ z = 0
z = -1 x+2=0
x = -2 s = 14 ut + at 2 }
s = ut + 12 at 2 Both dimensionally
correct
k β Cannot use dimensional analysis when
υ = kL−2 β 0.5 µ −1 υ= dealing with trigonometric functions.
µ L2

Additional problems on Dimensional Analysis

3. Check the dimensional correctness of
1. Acceleration for simple harmonic motion is Ah
r k r ∆t = , where A and A' are areas, h
Given by a = − x, where m is mass and A' 2 g d
r m
is height, d is distance, and g is acceleration.
x is displacement. Determine [k].
2. The lift off speed, v, of a boat is a function 4. Check the dimensional correctness of
of the mass of the boat, m, the acceleration due 2 ( P − Po )
to gravity, g, the surface area of the boat, A, v= + 2 m g h , where P and Po are
ρ
and the density of water, ρ. Use dimensional
analysis to determine the formula for lift off pressures, v is velocity, ρ is density, m is mass,
speed of the boat. [One of the Limitations] g is acceleration due to gravity and h is height.

7. The time that an object moves at constant

5. The angular momentum, Λ, is a function of acceleration in one direction is a function of
the mass, m, radius, r, and angular velocity, the acceleration, a, and the displacement, s.
ω. The dimensions of Λ and ω are ML2T-1 Use dimensional analysis to determine the
and T-1, respectively. Use dimensional formula for the time that the object moves at
analysis to determine the formula for angular constant acceleration.
momentum.
8. Determine the dimensions of the constant
6. Determine the dimensions of constants A
and B given that F = A m t − B g h , where F D, given that s = 3 D a t 2 , where s is
is force, m is mass, g is acceleration, and h is displacement, a is acceleration, and t is time.
height.

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Semester 1 7
 VECTORS EXAMPLE
Vectors and Scalars
A scalar quantity is completely specified by a B
single value with an appropriate unit and has no
direction. Displacement
• Examples: Distance, Speed, Temperature, Energy
• Overspeeding- passed by the house at 80 km h-1
A vector quantity is completely described by a
number and appropriate units plus a direction. Distance
A
• Examples: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration,
Force, Electric field
• Passed by the house at 80 km h-1 due west

REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
A line with an arrow pointing in the 1. Equality of vectors
direction of the end point
r
r Vector A or A A Vectors equal when
A r B
Magnitude A or A θA they have equal
θB magnitudes and point
θ
in the same direction
Length is proportional to magnitude of vector C
Angle between x-axis and the line used to state θC
the direction – Positive : Anti clockwise, r r r r r r
A = B = C ⇔ A = B = C & θ A = θ B = θC
Negative : clockwise

Addition of vectors cont.

2. Addition of Vectors (Graphical)
C
C
A
B
A B θA
θA θB A+ B θB ( A+ B ) + C B B+ C
B+A A + ( B+ C )
B B
A θB
A+ B θB
C θA θB
A
A
θA θA
Draw vectors “tip-to-tail”
r r r r r r r r r r
A + B = B + A Commutative law of addition ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
Associative law of addition

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Semester 1 8
 3. Negative of a vector 4. Subtraction of vectors
r r r r
The negative of a vector is defined as the Special case of vector addition A − B = A + (− B)
vector that, when added to the original vector, A
gives a resultant of zero B
r v -B
− A+ A = 0 A A-B

A
Have same magnitude but 5. Multiplication or division of a
-A point in opposite directions vector by a scalar
The result of the multiplication or division of
a vector by a scalar is a vector

r r r COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
n A = An = B
n +ve: The two vectors have the same direction Cartesian coordinates can be used to describe
position.
n –ve: The directions of the two vectors are
r ropposite r r x- and y- axes
B = n A For n +ve B = −n A For n -ve intersect at the
r r origin
Dimensions of A and B can be different or
the same. Points are
r r r r r labeled (x,y)
( n + m) A = n A + m A : n (m A) = n m A
r r r r
n ( A + B) = n A + n B

Components of vectors cont.

Components of vectors cont. r
Any vector A lying in the xy plane can be
r
(x,y) represented by a sum of r
vectors Ax
along the x axis and Ay along the y axis
A=x + y r r r r r
y A A = Ax + A y = A y + A x
Ay r r
Ax : x component vector of A
x θ r r
Ay : y component vector of A
Ax
How find Ax and Ay if have A?
r
y Ax = A cos θ
and Ay = A sin θ
θ
x cf. x = r cosθ and y = r sin θ

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Semester 1 9
 Ax and Ay are scalars,r and are referred to as Unit Vectors
the components of A
A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with
If have Ax and Ay, how find θ? a magnitude of exactly 1.
Ay  Ay 
tan θ = θ = tan −1  
 Unit vectors are used to specify a direction
A Ax  Ax 
A y
and have no other physical significance
θ Ax and Ay either +ve or –ve Unit vectors along the x and y axis are
Ax If have Ax and Ay, how find A?
iˆ along the x axis
r
A = Ax + A y
2 2
y ĵ along the y axis
r r r
θ A = Ax + Ay = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj
Compare with r = x +y2 2
x

Addition of vectors using components

Example
R=A+B
r r
R = ( Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj ) + ( B x iˆ + B y ˆj )
5
A = 4iˆ + 3 ˆj r
4 R = ( Ax iˆ + B x iˆ) + ( Ay ˆj + B y ˆj )
r r
3
B = −4iˆ + 4 ˆj R = ( Ax + B x ) iˆ + ( Ay + B y ) ˆj
B 2 A
1 Add corresponding components.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 What if it is subtraction of a vector?
-1
Since subtraction is a special case of addition,
therefore, subtract corresponding components.

Three dimensional vectors

Example 1
Third unit vector k̂ along the z axis Two vectors in the x-y plane are given by
r r
The three unit vectors A = (10,30 o ) and B = (15,−140 o )
form a set of mutually Determine:
perpendicular vectors r r r r
r (a) C , if A + B = C .

A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ
r r r r
A= Ax + A y + Az
2 2 2 (b) D, if D + B = A

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Semester 1 10
 r
A Ax = 10 cos 30 C = −2.83 iˆ − 4.64 ˆj
30o
Ay = 10 sin 30 C = 2.832 + 4.64 2 = 5.43 units
B 50o
Bx = 15 sin 50 Cx C 
= tan θ c ⇒ θ c = tan −1  x 
B y = 15 cos 50 Cy C 
 y
r C θc  2 . 83 
∴, A = 10 cos 30 iˆ + 10 sin 30 ˆj θ c = tan −1   = 31.4
o

r  4. 64 
and B = −15 sin 50 iˆ − 15 cos 50 ˆj r
r r r ∴, C = (5.43, − 121.4o )
(a ) A + B = C = (10 cos 30 − 15 sin 50) iˆ r
+ (10 sin 30 − 15 cos 50) ĵ or C = (5.43, 238.6o )

r r r r r r
(b) D + B = A ∴, D = A − B
r r r D
D = A − B = (10 cos 30 − (−15 sin 50)) iˆ
+ (10 sin 30 − (−15 cos 50)) ĵ θD
r
D = 20.2 iˆ + 14.6 ˆj Dy D 
= tan θ D ⇒ θ D = tan −1  y 
Dx  Dx 
D = 20.2 2 + 14.6 2 = 24.9 units
 14.6 
θ D = tan −1   = 35.9
o

 20.2 
r r
∴, D = (24.9, 35.9o ) or D = (24.9, − 324.1o )

r
Example 2 v = ( p x + wx ) iˆ + ( p y + w y ) ˆj
An aeroplane flying at a velocity of 900 km h-1 at an = (900 cos 30 + 100 cos 45) iˆ + (900 sin 30 + 100 sin 45) ˆj
angle of 30o to the east enters a region where the
= 850 iˆ + 521 ˆj
wind is blowing at 100 km h-1 in the north easterly
direction. Use vector algebra to determine v = 850 2 + 5212 = 997 km h −1

 vy
 = tan −1 
(a) the new velocity of the plane relative to ground. 521 
θ = tan −1   = 31.5
o

(b) the velocity with which the plane will have to  vx  850 
fly in order that its final velocity is 900 km h-1 at The new velocity of the plane (with respect to the
an angle of 30o to the east. ground) will be a speed of 997 km h-1 at an angle of
θ
v w 45o wy 31.5o to the east.
(a) w
30o p py x
px

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Semester 1 11
 θ
(b) 45o p py But p x = p cos θ and p y = p sin θ
vy
w
wy 30o
v
px
∴, p cos θ = 900 cos 30 − 100 cos 45 and
wx vx p sin θ = 900 sin 30 − 100 sin 45
Looking for p and θ p sin θ p 900 sin 30 − 100 sin 45
= y = tan θ =
v x iˆ + v y ˆj = ( p x iˆ + p y ˆj ) + ( wx iˆ + w y ˆj ) p cos θ p x 900 cos 30 − 100 cos 45
p x iˆ + p y ˆj = (v x iˆ + v y ˆj ) − ( wx iˆ + wy ˆj )  900 sin 30 − 100 sin 45 
θ = tan −1   = 28.2
o

p x iˆ + p y ˆj = (v x − wx ) iˆ + (v y − w y ) ˆj )  900 cos 30 − 100 cos 45 

p x = 900 cos 30 − 100 cos 45 900 sin 30 − 100 sin 45

p= = 804 km h −1
sin θ
p y = 900 sin 30 − 100 sin 45

Product of two vectors How multiply vectors?

( a + b) * ( d + e) = ad + ae + bd + be
1. Scalar Product of two vectors - a scalar quantity
(a + b + c) * (d + e + f )
B
= ad + ae + af + bd + be + bf + cd + ce + cf
Similarly, θ
r r
A
(a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ) * (bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ) = A ⋅ B ≡ A B cos θ
a x bx (iˆ * iˆ) + a x by (iˆ * ˆj ) + a xbz (iˆ * kˆ) also called dot product
+ a y bx ( ˆj * iˆ) + a y by ( ˆj * ˆj ) + a y b z ( ˆj * kˆ) If neither of the two vectors is equal to zero, the
scalar product is zero when θ = 90o
+ a z bx ( kˆ * iˆ) + a z by (kˆ * ˆj ) + a z bz ( kˆ * kˆ)

2. Vector Product of two vectors - a vector quantity

(a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ).(bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ) =
1 0 0 B

a x bx (iˆ.iˆ) + a x by (iˆ. ˆj ) + a xbz (iˆ.kˆ) θ

0 A
0 1 r r r r r r
A × B = C or A ∧ B = C
+ a y bx ( ˆj.iˆ) + a y by ( ˆj. ˆj ) + a y b z ( ˆj.kˆ)
0 0 1 C has both magnitude and Direction

+ a z bx ( kˆ.iˆ) + a z by (kˆ. ˆj ) + a z bz ( kˆ.kˆ) Magnitude of C = AB sin θ

Direction perpendicular to both A and B
(a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ).(bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ) = a x bx + a y by + a z bz
Right hand grip rule gives the direction of C

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Semester 1 12
 Thumb up and fingers aligned with first vector, grip
Note: Magnitude of C is zero if sin θ = 0
towards the second vector. Thumb gives direction of
vector C iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
iˆ × ˆj = kˆ ˆj × kˆ = iˆ kˆ × iˆ = ˆj
ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ kˆ × ˆj = −iˆ iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj
i
k
j

k j
i

(a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ) x (bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ) =

(a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ) x (bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ ) =
0 k̂ − ĵ (a y bz − a z by ) iˆ + (a z bx − a x bz ) ˆj + ( a x by − a y bx )kˆ

a x bx (iˆ × iˆ) + a x b y (iˆ × ˆj ) + a x bz (iˆ × kˆ) = (a y bz − a z by ) iˆ − ( a x bz − a z bx ) ˆj + (a x by − a y bx ) kˆ

− k̂ 0 iˆ i j k
A x B= ax ay az
+ a y bx ( ˆj × iˆ) + a y by ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a y bz ( ˆj × kˆ)
ĵ − iˆ 0 bx by bz
ay az
+ a z bx ( kˆ × iˆ) + a z by (kˆ × ˆj ) + a z bz (kˆ × kˆ) =
ax az ax ay
i - j +
by bz bx bz bx by k
= (a y bz − a z by ) iˆ + (a z bx − a x bz ) ˆj + ( a x by − a y bx )kˆ
= (a y bz − a z by ) iˆ − ( a x bz − a z bx ) ˆj + (a x by − a y bx ) kˆ

A.B=AB cos θ Example

a x bx + a y by + a z bz = AB cosθ A = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ B = 4iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ
Calculate A B and A x B and hence determine the
 a x b x + a y b y + a z bz 
θ = cos −1   angle between A and B
 AB 
A x B = AB sinθ I. A B = a xbx + a y by + a z bz
AB sin θ =
= 3 * 4 + 2 * (−1) + (−1) * (−3)
(a b
y z − a z b y ) + (a x b z − a z bx ) + (a x b y − a y bx )
2 2 2
= 13 units
A = 3 2 + 2 2 + ( −1) 2 = 14

 (a b − a z b y ) + (a x bz − a z bx ) + (a x b y − a y bx ) 
2 2 2 II. A B=AB cos θ
θ = sin 
−1 y z

 AB 
 B = 4 2 + (−1) 2 + (−3) 2 = 26
 

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Semester 1 13
 ∴A B = 14 26 cosθ A x B = (−7 ) + 5 + ( −11) = 195
2 2 2

Comparing I and II 14 26 cosθ = 13 But A x B = AB sin θ

 13 
θ = cos −1   θ = 47 o or − 47 o θ = 47 o ∴= 195 = 14 26 sin θ (180 − 47)
 364 
 195 
i 2 -1 j 3 -1k 3 2 θ = sin −1  

θ = 47 o or 133o
 364 
A x B = 3 2 -1 =
-1 -3 i - 4 -3 j + 4 -1 k
4 -1 -3 From dot and cross product θ = 47 o
= [2*(-3) - (-1)*(-1)] iˆ
ĵ = −7iˆ + 5 ˆj − 11 kˆ
- [3*(-3) - 4*(-1)]
+ [3*(-1) - 4*2] k̂

KINEMATICS – ONE DIMENSION Example

Three towns A, B, C are such that A is 50 km east
Describes motion while Motion along a of C and B is 100 km east of A. A driver leaves A to
ignoring the agents that straight line C and then drives from C to B. Find the distance
caused the motion traveled and the displacement at the end of the
+ and – signs used to indicate vector directions journey.
Some Definitions 50 km 100 km
Position: location with respect to a chosen reference C A B
point
Displacement, S: Change in position during some
time interval: +ve or -ve Distance traveled = 50 + 50 + 100 = 200 km
Distance: the length of a path followed by a particle Displacement = -50 + 50 + 100 = 100 km east of A
Always +ve

Velocity and Speed Instantaneous Velocity

Displacement
Velocity = Vector: -ve or +ve Sometimes slope (velocity) not constant for any
time
segment
Dis tan ce
Speed = Scalar: Always +ve Slope of the curve at any
time
given time gives
Displacement time graphs instantaneous velocity
S
Slope of each segment
S gives velocity for segment slope of the line tangent to
the curve at the given time
t
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the
t1 t2 t3 t4 instantaneous velocity
t

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Semester 1 14
 Acceleration Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity
Velocity changes linearly with time
Acceleration is a vector
Velocity increases with time – positive acceleration
Change in velocity V f − Vi
Average accelerati on = = Velocity decreases with time – negative acceleration
time t f − ti
vf - vi Usually such that timing starts
Velocity Time graphs a= tf - ti at ti, then t f − t i = t
Slope of segment – Acceleration Since one dimension magnitude
V vf - vi
Area under graph - Displacement a= used with one direction positive
t
Similarly have instantaneous and the other direction negative
acceleration when have a curve V f − Vi
a=
t t

V f − Vi From v = u + at
a= Using v for vf and u for vi
t v 2 = (u + at )(u + at )
v−u v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2
a= ⇒ v = u + at ..................... 1
t = u 2 + 2a (ut + 12 at 2 )
S v+u
Average velocity = = v 2 = u 2 + 2as ..................... 3
t 2
∴ s = 12 (v + u )t v = u + at
u + at s = ut + 12 at 2 Kinematic equations for uniformly
s = 12 (u + at + u )t v 2 = u 2 + 2as
accelerated motion

s = ut + 12 at 2 ..................... 2

Example Solution
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 25 m s-1 Start with a sketch
in 250 m. The car then continues moving at 25 m s-1 for one Remember: Kinematic equations are
and a half minute before the driver notice red traffic lights for uniformly accelerated motion
125 m in front, when he applies the brakes and stops just in v
line with the lights.
I II III
a. What was the acceleration during the first 250 m?
b. What was the acceleration when the driver stopped for the t
traffic lights? t1 t2 t3
c. How long did it take from the time the car started to the (a) Acceleration during the first 250 m
time it stopped? u = 0 m s −1 s = 250 m
v = 25 m s −1
v2 − u 2
⇒
d. Assuming the car was driving in one direction, calculate
the displacement of the car, from its original position, v 2 = u 2 + 2as a= a = 1.25 m s −2
2s
when it stopped for the traffic lights.

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Semester 1 15
 (b) Acceleration when stopped (d) Displacement
u = 25 m s −1 v = 0 m s −1 s = 125 m Three sections of uniformly accelerated motion
v2 − u 2 a = −2.5 m s −2
a= I II III
2s
S1 known u, t, a known S3 known
(c) Time taken S3 = 125 m
S1 = 250 m s = ut + at 1
2
2
Three sections of uniformly accelerated motion
I II III s 2 = 25 * 90 + 12 * 0 * 90
v, u, a known t2 known v, u, a known
S2 = 2250 m
v = u + at1 t2 = 90 s t3 =
v−u
v −u a
t1 = S = 250 + 2250 +125 = 2625 m
a
t3 = 10 s
t1 = 20 s
t = 20 + 90 +10 = 120 s

Example Acceleration when stopped

A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 25 m s-1
u = 25 m s −1 v = 0 m s −1 s = 125 − 5 = 120 m
in 250 m. The car then continues moving at 25 m s-1 for one
and a half minute before the driver notice red traffic lights
125 m in front, and decides to apply the brakes. The v2 − u 2 0 2 − 252
a= a=
reaction time of the driver is 0.2 s and when the brakes are 2s 2 *120
applied the vehicle stops just in line with the lights.
What was the acceleration when the driver stopped for the a = −2.6 m s −2
traffic lights?

Solution
The vehicle will continue moving during the reaction time.
1 1
s = ut + at 2 s = 25 * 0.2 + * 0 * 0.2 2 s = 5m
2 2

VERTICAL MOTION Sign Convention

 Applies to all vectors dealing with
Acceleration is always downwards, regardless
Applied to each vector independent of others
of the initial motion
 Object can be:  Can choose up as +ve down as –ve
Dropped – released from rest Or can choose up as –ve down as +ve
Thrown downward  Most of the time choose up as +ve down as –ve
Thrown upward (Convention that we will adopt)
Magnitude of acceleration is g P Displacement of P is +ve
−2 +
Depends on location g ≈ 9.8 m s Displacement of Q is –ve
Origin
For object moving up v is +ve
For object moving down v is –ve
Acceleration, always acting down, is –ve
Q

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Semester 1 16
 Example Example cont.
A bullet is shot vertically up from an edge of a e) The velocity when the bullet passes the top
cliff that is 98 m above the water level with an of the cliff.
initial speed of 49 m s-1. f) The time elapsed when the bullet passes the
Determine: top of the cliff
a) Time elapsed when the bullet is at a height of g) The time taken before the bullet hits the
44.1 m above the cliff. water.
b) The velocity of the bullet when it is 44.1 m h) The velocity of the bullet just before it hits
above the cliff the water.
c) The maximum height reached by the bullet
d) The time taken to reach the maximum height

Solution (b) Velocity, 44.1 m above

(a) Time for 44.1 m above S = + 44.1 m, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1
S = + 44.1 m, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1 Which kinematic equation can be used to find velocity?
Which kinematic equation can be used to find time? v 2 = u 2 + 2as
s = ut + 12 at 2 v 2 = 49 2 + 2 * ( −9.8) * 44.1
44.1 = 49t + 12 (−9.8)t 2 v 2 = 2401 − 864.36
v 2 = 1536.64
44.1 = 49t − 4.9t 2
v = 39.2 m s −1 or v = −39.2 m s −1
t 2 − 10t + 9 = 0
On way up On way down
(t − 1)(t − 9) = 0
On way up On way down
t = 1 s or t = 9 s

(c) Maximum height v = 0 (d) Time to maximum height v = 0

S = 122.5 m, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1
S = ?, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1
v = u + at
v 2 = u 2 + 2as 0 = 49 + ( −9.8)t
0 = 49 + 2 * ( −9.8) * S max
2 t =5s
Could also use s = ut + 12 at 2
0 − 492 − 2401 122.5 = 49t − 4.9t 2
S max = =
2 * (−9.8) t 2 − 10t + 25 = 0
− 19.6
(t − 5)(t − 5) = 0
S max = 122.5 m t=5s

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Semester 1 17
 (e) Velocity when passes top of cliff S = 0 (f) Time when passes top of cliff S = 0
v = ?, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1 t = ?, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1
v 2 = u 2 + 2as s = ut + 12 at 2
v 2 = 49 2 − 2 * 9.8 * 0 0 = 49t − 4.9t 2
v 2 = 2401 t 2 − 10t = 0
v = ± 2401 t (t − 10) = 0
v = 49 m s −1 or v = −49 m s −1 t = 0 s or t = 10 s

On way down On way up On way down

On way up

(g) Time to hit water S = -98 (h) Velocity when hit water S = -98
t = ?, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1 v = ?, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 49 m s-1
s = ut + 12 at 2 v 2 = u 2 + 2as
− 98 = 49t − 4.9t 2
v 2 = 49 2 + 2 * ( −9.8) * ( −98)
t 2 − 10t − 20 = 0 v 2 = 4321.8
10 ± 10 2 − 4 * 1 * (−20) v = ± 4321.8
t=
2 *1 v = +65.7 m s −1 or v = −65.7 m s −1
t = 11 .7 s or t = − 1.7 s

“On way up” On way down

“On way up”
On way down Therefore, velocity when hit water is -65.7 m s-1.
Not realistic

Symmetry aspect
KINEMATICS – TWO DIMENSIONAL
Projectile motion
• Velocity at 45 m: + 40 m s-1 An object moves in both the x and y directions
• Velocity at 0 m: + 50 m s-1 simultaneously.
• Time taken from top of cliff to maximum Combination of vertical and horizontal motion.
height and time from maximum height to top Acceleration along the vertical (y direction) is the
of cliff acceleration due to gravity.
The acceleration along the horizontal (x direction)
is zero.
In both directions have uniformly accelerated
motion ax= 0 and ay= -g

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Semester 1 18
 The vertical and horizontal accelerations are not EXAMPLES OF PROJECTILES
dependent on each other.
Horizontal and vertical motions can be separated
and for each direction the kinematic equations
applied

Parameter x - component y - component

Acceleration ax = 0 ay = -g

Velocity vx = ux vy = uy - gt

Displacement x = uxt y = u y t − 12 gt 2

PROJECTILES EXAMPLES CONT. Initial Velocities

ux = u cosθ
u
uy u = u sinθ
y
θ
θ ux
;

Trajectory Equation, y = f(x)

x
For horizontal motion, x = uxt = t u cosθ. ∴ t =
u cos θ
For vertical motion, y = t u sin θ − 2 gt
1 2

. 2
x  x 
y= ⋅ u sin θ − 12 g  
θ u cos θ  u cos θ 
sin θ 1 x2
=x −2g 2
cos θ u cos 2 θ

g Example 1
y = x tan θ − x2
2u cos 2 θ
2

A stone is thrown from the edge of a building 45 m high

g
y = bx – cx2, where b = tanθ and c= with an initial velocity of 20 ms-1 and at an angle of 30°
2u cos 2 θ
2
above the horizontal.
Equation of a parabola a) Calculate the time it would take the stone to hit the
ground.
The projectile motion will follow a parabolic path – Referred b) How far from the building does the stone hit the ground.
to as the trajectory c) Calculate the maximum height, above ground, reached
by the stone
d) Calculate the velocity of the stone just before striking the
ground.

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Semester 1 19
 (a) Time to hit ground (b) Far from building when hit ground
y = -45 m, a = -9.8 m s-2, u = 20 m s-1, θ= 30o ux = 17.3 m s-1, t = 4.22 s
ux = u cos θ = 20 cos 30 = 17.3 m s-1 x = u xt
uy = u sin θ = 20 sin 30 = 10 m s-1 x = 17.3 * 4.22 x = 73.1 m
y = u y t − 12 gt 2
c) Maximum height, H
− 45 = 10t − 4.9t 2
vy = 0, uy =10 m s-1, ay = -9.8 m s-2, y = H
4.9t 2 − 10t − 45 = 0
v y = u y + 2a y y
2 2

10 ± 10 − ( 4 * 4.9 * (−45))
2
t=
2 * 4.9 0 = 102 + 2 * ( −9.8) * H
10 2
t = 4.22 s or -2.18 s H= = 5. 1 m
2 * 9. 8
Not realistic Height above ground = 5.1 + 45 = 50.1m

(d) Velocity when hit ground Example 2

When hit ground y = -45 m
An object is projected at an angle θ above the x-axis
vy 2 = uy 2 − 2 gy with an initial velocity u. Assuming level surface,
vy 2 = 10 2 − 2 * 9.8 * ( −45) vx determine expressions for:
(a)The time to reach the highest point
v y = ± 100 + 882
(b)The highest point reached (Maximum height, H)
v y = ± 31.3 m s −1 v vy
v y = −31.3 m s −1  vy  (c)The time of flight, T
θ = tan −1  
vx = ux = 17.3 m s-1  vx  (d)The range of the projectile, R
B
 − 31.4 
θ = tan −1   180 – 61.3
v = vx + v y u
2 2
 17.3  uy
H
θ=- 61.3o or θ= 118.7o O C θ
θ = - 61.3o R ux

(a) Time to reach the highest point vy = 0 (c) Time to reach point C, T y = 0
t = tB, ay = -g, uy = u sin θ, ux = u cos θ t = T, ay = -g, uy = u sin θ, ux = u cos θ
vy = uy - gt y = u y t − 12 gt 2
0 = u sin θ - gtB
,
u sin θ 0 = T u sin θ − 12 gT 2
tB =
gT 2 = 2T u sin θ
,
g
;

; (b) Maximum height vy = 0 gT = 2u sin θ

v y = u y + 2a y y 2u sin θ
2 2

T=
0 = (u sin θ ) − 2 gH
2
g
2 gH = u 2 sin 2 θ
u 2 sin 2 θ
⇒H =
2g

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Semester 1 20
 (d) Range, R Example 3
x = ? x = uxt
t = T, ux = u cos θ, x = R A projectile is fired with a velocity u m s-1 at an angle θ
2u sin θ above the horizontal.
T= (a)Illustrate graphically the trajectories for θ = 15°,
g
2 u sin θ ⇒ R = u 2 sin θ cosθ
2 30°, 45°, 60°, and 75°.
∴ R = u cos θ * (b)At what value of θ is the range maximum?
g g
Trigonometry:
sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
sin(θ + θ) = sin(2θ) = sinθ cosθ + cosθ sinθ.
= 2 sin θ cos θ
u 2 sin 2θ
∴R =
g

u 2 sin 2 θ
H=
Trajectories for different angles 2g
As θ increases, sin θ increases and H increases
75o
60o u 2 sin 2θ
(b) R =
g
y

45o Range takes a maximum value when sin2θ is maximum.

30o i.e., sin 2θ = 1; 2θ = 90° = π/2; θ = 45° = π/4.
Since sin φ = sin (180 – φ), sin 2θ = sin (180 – 2θ), get
15o same range R for launching at θ or angle 90 - θ.
x

Additional Examples on Projectiles

ux 95 m s-1
Example uy
A stone is thrown at a velocity of 95 ms-1 at an 40o
angle of 40° to the vertical. After 9 s it strikes
the top of a vertical cliff. Calculate
(a) the height of the cliff (a) Height of cliff
(b) the horizontal distance to the cliff
ux = 95 sin40, uy = 95 cos 40, t = 9 s, y = ?
(c) the velocity of the stone just before it strikes
the cliff. y = u y t − 12 gt 2 ⇒ h = 9 * 95 cos 40 − 12 * 9.8 * 9 2
h = 258 m

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Semester 1 21
 (b) Horizontal distance to cliff  v   − 15.4 
tan θ =  y  =  
x = u xt  vx   61.1 
= 9 * 95 sin 40
= 550 m  − 15.4 
θ = tan −1   = −14.2o
(c) Velocity before strikes the cliff  61.1 
v y = u y − gt vx = u x
The velocity just before striking the cliff is 63.0 m s-1
= 95 cos 40 − 9.8 * 9 = 95 sin 40 at an angle of 14.2o below the horizontal
= −15.4 m s −1 = 61.1 m s −1
−1
v = v y + vx = (−15.4) 2 + 61.12 = 63.0 m s
2 2

Example (a) Height of cliff

A stone thrown horizontally outward with an initial
ux = 20 m s-1, uy = 0, t = 4 s, y = ?
velocity of 20 m s-1 from the top of a cliff strikes
the water before the cliff 4 s later. y = u y t − 12 gt 2 ⇒ y = 0 * 4 − 12 * 9.8 * 42
(a) What is the height of the cliff above the y = −78.4 m
water?
(b) How far from the cliff does the stone strike Height of cliff is 78.4 m
the water? (b) How far from cliff?
x = u xt
= 20 * 4
= 80 m

5 m s-1
Example

A girl playing at a distance of 2.4 m from a house 60o

on a level ground throws a ball towards the 1.2 m 0.8 m
window of the house from a height of 1.2 m above
the ground. The initial velocity of the ball is 5 m s-1 2.4 m
at an angle of 60o above the horizontal. The base of ux = 5 cos60 = 2.5 m s-1, uy = 5 sin60, x = 2.4 m
the window is 80 cm from the ground and the x 2.4
length of the window (from base to top of window) x = u xt ⇒ t = = = 0.96 s
ux 2.5
is 1 m. Will the ball hit the window?
y = u y t − 12 gt 2 = 0.96 * 5 sin 60 − 12 * 9.8 * 0.962
y = −0.359 m From reference point
y = (1.2 − 0.359) = 0.841 m From ground

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 22
 Example 15 3
45
A and B are two points 60 3 m apart on a level ground
Q
A particle P is projected from A towards B with speed
P
45 ms-1 at 30° to the horizontal. At the same instant a
30o 60o
particle Q is projected from point B towards A with
A B
speed 15 3 ms-1 at 60o to the horizontal 60 3

xP xQ
(a)Show that at any given time, the particles P and
Q are at the same height.
(a) y P = u yP t − 12 gt 2
(b)Find the time t when the two particles collide and
hence find, their height above the ground when = 45t sin 30 − 12 gt 2 = 45
t − 12 g t 2
( )
2
they collide. = 12 45t − g t 2

yP = 1
2 (45t − gt ) 2 (b) When collide xP for P and xQ for Q
xP = u xPt = 45t cos 30 = 45 3
t
yQ = u yQt − gt 1
2
2 2

xQ = u xQt = 15 3 t cos 60 = 15 3
t
= 15 3 t sin 60 − 12 gt 2 2

= 15 3 * 3
− 12 gt 2 But xP + xQ = AB = 60 3
2

= 15 * 32 − 12 gt 2 ∴ 60 2
3
t = 60 3 ⇒ t = 2 s

= 1
(45t − g t ) 2
= yP
y P = yQ = (45t − gt )
1
2
2

(45 * 2 − 9.8 * 2 )
2
= 1
2
2
= 25.4 m
Thus at any given time yP = yQ

Example

A particle is projected from a point O at ground 55o

2m 2m
level, with an angle of projection of 55o to the
horizontal. It just clears the top of each of two 2m
walls that are 2 m high. If the first of the walls is a
(a) x = 2 m, y = 2 m, θ = 55o
distance of 2 m from O, find
(a)The projection speed u y = u sin 55 u x = u cos 55
(b)The distance of the second wall from O y = u y t − 12 gt 2 ⇒ 2 = t u sin 55 − 12 gt 2
2
x = u xt ⇒ 2 = t u cos 55 thus, t =
u cos 55
2
2  2 
∴2 = u sin 55 − 12 g  
u cos 55  u cos 55 

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Semester 1 23
 2
2  2 
∴2 = u sin 55 − 12 g   4.9t 2 − 6.83t + 2 = 0
u cos 55  u cos 55 
4 6.83 ± 6.832 − 4 * 4.9 * 2
∴ 2 tan 55 − 2 = 12 g t=
u cos 2 55
2
9.8
2g 2 * 9.8
∴u 2 = = t = 0.418 s or t = 0.975 s
(cos2 55)(2 tan 55 − 2) (cos2 55)(2 tan 55 − 2)
−1 The first time (0.418 s) is for the first wall.
= 69.6 ∴ u = 8.34 m s For the second wall t = 0.975 s
(b) y = 2 m, θ = 55o, u = 8.34 m s-1 x = u x t ⇒ x = 8.34 * 0.975 cos 55
y = u y t − 12 gt 2 ⇒ 2 = 8.34t sin 55 − 4.9t 2 = 4.7 m
⇒ 4.9t 2 − 6.83t + 2 = 0

Example
Bullet Monkey
A hunter aims at a monkey hanging on a tree branch.
y1 = u t sin θ − 12 gt 2 y2 = 12 gt 2
At the instant the bullet leaves the gun the monkey
x
lets go off the branch and falls down under free fall. x = u t cosθ ⇒ u t = Displacement from
Will the bullet hit the monkey? cosθ ground is y3
∴ y1 =
x
sin θ − 12 gt 2 y3 = y − y2
y2
cosθ = y − 12 gt 2
= x tan θ − 12 gt 2
from diagram = tan θ
y
y
x
y3
∴ y3 = x tan θ − 12 gt 2 = y1
y1
θ The monkey and the bullet will be at same height.
The bullet will hit the monkey
x

DYNAMICS NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Why do objects move the way they do? Force acting on them First Law:
What is force? Push or pull. In the absence of external forces, an object remains at
rest or continues to move with constant speed in a
Forces are what cause any change in the velocity of an object straight line (Constant velocity).
Unit of force is Newton, N Second Law:
What happens when push an object? The acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to the net force acting on the object and is in the
Object does not move
direction of the net force.
Object changes velocity
ΣF= m a (A vector equation)
The person pushing moves in the direction opposite
ΣFx= m ax , ΣFy= m ay, ΣFz= m az
the direction in which he is pushing
1 N = 1 kg m s-2

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Semester 1 24
 Example Sometimes Newton’s second law given in terms of change
in linear momentum
F3x
F3y F3 Linear Momentum
F1 F2 P=mv r
∆v
F= m a = m
ΣF = (F2 + F3x - F1) i + F3y j ∆t
r ∆ ( mvr )
F=
ΣFx = F2 + F3x - F1 ∆t
The time rate of change of linear momentum of an object is
ΣFy = F3y equal to the net applied force

ΣF 0 Therefore, there is acceleration

Conservation of momentum
Example
Isolated system – Constituents of the system interact with
each other, but there is no outside agency that acts on A loaded gun of mass Mg = 5 kg freely suspended is at rest
them in any way. before being fired. If the mass of the bullet mb = 10 g and
the velocity with which the bullet leaves the nozzle,
∆P Σmv f − Σmvi
ΣF= 0 = ∆t =0
vb = 1000 m s-1, what is the recoil velocity of the gun?
∆t
Σmv f = Σmvi System = gun + bullet.
The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains ΣPi = ΣPf ΣPi = 0 Since both gun and bullet at rest
constant in time.
Pf = Pg + Pb = 0 m g v g = − mb v b
If there is no external force applied to a system, the total
linear momentum of that system remains constant in time − mb v b
vg = v g = −2 m s −1
mg

What would be the recoil velocity if the gun was Impulse of Force
tightly held by a person of mass, mp = 95 kg Body of mass m Initial velocity u
Force acts for time t
New System = gun + bullet + person m(v - u)
Velocity changes from u to v such that F = t
Pf = Pg + p + Pb = 0 ( m g + m p )v g + p = − mb vb F t = m(v - u)
− mb vb
vg + p = v g + p = −0.1 m s −1 Impulse. Change in momentum
mg + m p
If force is not always constant during the time of interaction
Recoil of tightly held gun much less than that of a -Average force and average impulse during time interval
loosely held gun

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 25
 Example Free fall motion
u1 = 0 m s-1, a1 = -g = -9.8 m s-2, S1 = -4.9 m
When a 98 kg man jumps into a swimming pool from a
v1 = u1 + 2 a1 s1
2 2
height of 4.9 m, it takes 0.4 s for water to reduce his speed
to zero. What average force is exerted by water on the v1 = 0 2 + 2 * (−9.8) * (−4.9) ⇒ v = ± 96.04
2
man?
Since velocity is downwards, v1 = -9.8 m s-1
m(v - u)
Fav = t
This is the initial velocity of the man at the water surface
u : Initial velocity at water surface Motion in water
v : Zero – Water reduce speed of man to zero u2 = v1 = u = -9.8 m s-1, v2 = 0 m s-1, t = 0.4 s
First determine u m(v2 - u2) = 98 * (0 − (−9.8)) = 2401 N
1.The man experiences free fall up to the water surface, a = -g Fav = t 0 .4
2. The water reduces the velocity to zero – force to calculate
Note that the direction of F is opposite the direction of motion

Third Law: Mass and Weight

If object 1 exerts a force F12 on object 2, then object 2 Mass – A measure of amount of matter in an object.
exerts an equal and oppositely directed reaction force
F21 on object 1. Does not depend on place where body is.
F21
F12 = - F21 Weight – The magnitude of the gravitational force exerted
1 by the earth (or any large object like moon and other
2 planets) on the body.
W = mg
Will there be acceleration? F12 Depends on place where body is
Distinguish between forces exerted on the object and forces The force exerted, at the surface, on the body is called the
exerted by the object. Normal Reaction force, N or R
N
Motion of body depends on forces exerted on the body
No acceleration because gravitational force on body and
F21 are opposite and equal in magnitude N Always perpendicular to surface

Resolve forces into components in the directions of the

Examples on application of Newton’s laws accelerations and apply Newton’s laws
Example 1 θ1 θ2
The figure shows a mass m T1 T2 T2 sinθ2
θ1 θ2 T1 sinθ1
θ2
hanging from three wires. θ1
Determine the tensions T1 and T2 T1 T1 cosθ1 T2 cosθ2
T2
mg
Identify all the forces acting at the point
mg
and the respective accelerations
Choose the direction of accelerations as positive
ax = 0, ay = 0 m T2 cos θ 2 − T1 cos θ1 = ma x = 0 .................... 1
Draw a free body diagram T2 T2 sin θ 2 + T1 sin θ1 − mg = ma y = 0 .................... 2
T1
T cos θ1
mg From 1 , T2 = 1
cos θ 2

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 26
 T2 sin θ 2 + T1 sin θ1 − mg = 0 .................... 2 Example 2
T cos θ1 Pulley system - Pulley assumed to be massless and frictionless
T2 = 1
cos θ 2
T1 cos θ1 The Figure shows a pulley system with
Substitute for T2 in 2 sin θ 2 + T1 sin θ1 − mg = 0 blocks m1 and m2 hanging. Assuming m2
cos θ 2
accelerates downwards, determine the
T1 cos θ1 magnitude of the acceleration of the
T1 sin θ1 + sin θ 2 = mg
cos θ 2 blocks and the tension on the strings.
T
T1 cos θ1 Identify all the forces acting on the blocks
[T1 sin θ1 + sin θ 2 ] cos θ 2 = mg * cos θ 2 m2 a
cos θ 2 Free body diagrams T
T T
T1[sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2 ] = mg cos θ 2 a m1 m g
2
m1 m2
mg cos θ 2 mg cos θ1 m 1g
T1 = T2 =
sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2 sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2
m1g m2g

Apply Newton’s laws

From 1: T = m1a + m1 g
T T m2 − m1
T = m1 g + m1 g
m1 m2 m1 + m2
 m − m1 
T = m1 g  2 + 1
m1g m2g  m1 + m2 
m1: m1a = T − m1 g .................... 1  m − m1 + m1 + m2 
T = m1 g  2 
 m1 + m2 
m2:− m2 a = T − m2 g .................... 2  2m2 
T = m1 g  
1 - 2 :m1 a + m2 a = m2 g − m1 g  m1 + m2 
m − m1
a= 2 g T=
2m1m2
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
g

FRICTION Kinetic Friction

Force applied – Resistance to motion
Resistive force – Frictional force
N
Two types of frictional forces fk F
 Between surfaces moving w.r.t each other
-Kinetic or Sliding friction, fk mg
 Between surfaces at rest w.r.t each other Frictional force - always oppositely directed to motion
-Static friction, fs When F = fk – There is no acceleration
Frictional force - always oppositely directed to motion From experiments f k ∝ N f k = µk N

Coefficient of fk

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Semester 1 27
 Example 1 Free body diagrams
a
Figure shows an object moving up an inclined plane. N T
Determine the magnitude of acceleration and the a T N T
fk a m1 T
tension on the string.

θ
m1g cosθ m2g fk

sin
m2
a

g
m1g cosθ

θ
Identify forces and

m
1

sin
m1g
θ

g
the directions of

m
1
N T a m2g
respective Apply Newton’s Law
m1 T
accelerations fk N − m1 g cos θ = 0 .................... 1
θ

m1g cosθ T − m1 g sin θ − f k = m1 a .................... 2

sin

θ m1g
g
m
1

m2g m2 g − T = m2 a .................... 3
From 1: N = m1 g cosθ f k = µk N

T − m1 g sin θ − f k = m1 a .................... 2 T − m1 g sin θ − µ k m1 g cos θ = m1a .................... 2

m2 g − T = m2 a .................... 3 m2 g − T = m2 a .................... 3
N = m1 g cos θ From 3 T = m2 ( g − a)
  g 
f k = µ k N ⇒ f k = µ k m1 g cos θ T = m2  g −  (m2 − m1 sin θ ) −
m1 g
µ k cos θ  
 m
 1 + m2 m1 + m2 
2 + 3 : m2 g − m1 g sin θ − µ k m1 g cos θ = (m1 + m 2 )a
 m − m1 sin θ m1µ k cos θ 
T = m2 g 1 − 2 + 
a=
g mg
(m2 − m1 sin θ ) − 1 µ k cos θ  m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
T=
m2 g
(m1 + m2 − (m2 − m1 sin θ ) + m1µ k cosθ )
Without friction a =
g
(m2 − m1 sin θ ) m1 + m2
m1 + m 2 T=
m2 g
(m1 + m1 sin θ + m1µ k cos θ )
m1 + m2
Friction reduces the acceleration
T = 1 2 (1 + sin θ + µk cos θ )
mm g
m1 + m2

Example 2 No acceleration - ax = 0

A block with a mass m = 10 kg is pulled along a F cos 25 − f k = ma x = 0 .................... 1

horizontal surface at constant velocity by a force F
whose magnitude is 50 N and is applied at an angle Block pulled along horizontal surface - ay = 0
of 25o above the horizontal. What is µk between N + F sin 25 − mg = ma y = 0 .................... 2
block and surface? From 1: f k = F cos 25 ⇒ µ k N = F cos 25
N
N F sin 25 F= 50 N F sin 25 From 2: N = mg − F sin 25
N
fk F cos 25 F cos 25
25 ο
F cos 25 ∴ µk = F sin 25
fk mg − F sin 25 fk F cos 25
mg
= 0.59
mg mg

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 28
 Suppose the object was pushed instead of being pulled Static Friction
N
F= 50 N
F sin 25
F cos 25 Force applied insufficient to move object ⇒ F = f s
fk fs varies with applied force
fk
Of interest is maximum fs
mg i.e. fs that just allows object to start moving
f k = µ k N = F cos 25
fs = µs N
N = mg + F sin 25
Body at rest – Larger force needed to set it in motion
F cos 25
µk = than to keep it at constant velocity.
mg + F sin 25
f s > f k ⇒ µs > µk
= 0.38

Example Weight and body accelerating vertically

Find the relation between θ
and µs for the block to just Suppose body of mass m is at rest on a lift.
fs start moving down N mg − N = ma = 0
mg cosθ N = mg cos θ N = mg
θ
sin

θ mg
g
m

f s = µ s N = mg sin θ Weight of body is mg

N fs µ s mg cos θ = mg sin θ
mg sin θ mg
µs = = tan θ
mg sinθ mg cosθ mg cos θ

Suppose lift accelerates down Suppose lift accelerates up

N N
N − mg = ma
mg − N = ma
N = m( g + a)
a N = m( g − a) a
Weight of body is m(g+a) > mg
mg Weight of body is m(g-a) mg
Weight is less than mg Body feels as if weighs more
Body feels as if weighs less
If a = g (lift under free fall) Weight =0
Body feels weightless

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 29
 WORK ENERGY AND POWER
W = Force * Displacement
Work
Force Applied and object moves in the direction of the F W=FS
force (negative or positive) – work done [W ] = [F ][S ] = MLT −2 L
Examples = ML2T −2
 When object lifted up against gravitational force S
 When object dragged along a rough surface F sinθ F Units: 1 kg m2 s-2
-Force to drag the object does +ve work =1Nm
θ
-Frictional force does –ve work = 1 J (Joule)
F cosθ
The sign of the work depends on the direction of the
S
force relative to the displacement F cosθ in direction of motion
Work is done even if object moves with constant
velocity. W = FS cosθ = F S Scalar quantity

Conservative and non conservative forces Power

Conservative forces Rate at which work is done
 work done independent of path taken. W
 work done on a closed path is zero
P=
t
Example: gravitational force
Units: 1 kg m2 s-2 s-1
Non conservative forces = 1 J s-1
= 1 W (watt)
 work done dependent on path
 work done on closed path is not equal to zero
Example: Friction
Non conservative forces cause change in mechanical
energy - Later

Example 1 Example 2
A crane lifts 1000 kg steel beam to a height of 50 m in A horizontal force of 5 N is needed to maintain a
70 s. velocity of 2 m s-1 for a block of mass 10 kg sliding
Calculate the work done and the power. over a rough surface.
Work done against gravity - F should be slightly > mg How much work is done in a minute?
F = mg = 9 800 N S = ut = 2 x 60 = 120 m
W = FS = 9800*50
W = F S = 5 x 120 = 600 J
= 490 000 J = 490 kJ
The work is done against friction.
W 490 000
P= = = 7 000 W
t 70
= 7 kW

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 30
 Energy Work Energy Principle
Ability or capacity of a body to do work When work is done on an object, its energy will
Several forms of energy change such that the work done on the object is
 Kinetic – virtue of its motion equal to the change in the energy of the object
Potential (Gravitational) – virtue of position Law of conservation of energy
Chemical – Stored in fuels (coal, petrol, e.t.c.) Energy can not be destroyed or created; it can only
Nuclear – Conversion from mass to energy be transformed from one form into another, but the
(nuclear fission, fusion) total energy of the system is unchanged
E = mc2
Thermal useful output work or energy
Efficiency ,η =
Electrical Total input work or energy
Deal with Mechanical – Kinetic and potential

Kinetic energy To get the change in K.E of a body, find the work
needed to change the velocity from u to v.
To get K.E of a body, find the work needed to give it
Consider a body of mass m initially moving with
its speed.
velocity u before force F is applied to give it
Consider a body of mass m initially at rest before
displacement S.
force F is applied to give it displacement S.
W = FS But F = ma and S = 12 at 2 W = FS But F = ma and S = ut + 12 at 2
∴W = ma ( 12 at 2 ) = 12 ma 2t 2 = 12 m(at ) 2 ∴W = ma (ut + 12 at 2 )
v −u
From v = u + at , v = at From v = u + at , a =
t
∴W = 12 mv 2  v − u  v −u 2 
∴W = m   ut + 12 t 
Thus K .E = 12 mv 2  t  t 

v −u
∴W = ma (ut + 12 at 2 ) a= Alternatively,
t
v −u u+v
 v − u  v −u 2  W = FS F = ma a= S= t
∴W = m  ut + 12 t  t 2
 t  t 
 v −u  v −u u +v
W = m (ut + 12 vt − 12 ut ) ∴W = mas = m * t
 t  t 2
W = m(v − u )( 12 v + 12 u ) = 12 m(v − u )(v + u )
(
= 12 m v 2 − u 2 )
1
2 (
= m v −u 2 2
)= 1
2 mv − mu
2 1
2
2

= KE f − KEi

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 31
 Potential energy (Gravitational) Example 1
How much work is required to raise a 0.2 kg block
Consider a mass m lifted through a vertical
to a height of 2 m and simultaneously give the block
displacement h
a velocity of 6 m s-1?
W = FS = mgh
P.E = mgh
W = Σ∆E ∆E = ∆P.E and ∆K.E
∆P.E = mgh = 0.2 * 9.8 * 2 = 3.92 J
If mass is lifted from its original height ho to a new
height h ∆K .E = 12 mv 2 = 12 * 0.2 * 62 = 3.60 J
W = FS = mg ( h − ho ) = mgh − mgho
W = Σ∆E = ∆P.E + ∆K .E = 7 . 52 J
= change in P.E

Example 2 P.E converted to K.E W = M .Ebot − M .Etop

A 3 kg block starts from rest and slides 4 m along a W = mv − mgh = mv 2 − mg (4 sin 30)
1
2
2 1
2
plane that is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of
30o. After sliding for 4 m the velocity of the block is = 12 * 3 * 52 − 3 * 9.8 * 4 sin 30 = −21.3 J
5 m s-1. Use work energy principle to determine the The work is done by frictional force
coefficient of friction between the block and the
plane. W = − f k S = −µ k RS But R = mg cosθ
W
4m v=0 ∴W = − µ k mgS cosθ ⇒ µk = −
mgS cosθ
h − 21.3
v = 5 m s-1 ⇒ µk = − = 0.21
30o 3 * 9.8 * 4 * cos 30
For both K.E and P.E it is the change that is important

In the absence of resistive forces, the total

mechanical energy remains constant.
Could be used to calculate the velocity of an object
under free fall.
Example 3 30 m
20 m
A roller-coaster car of mass 200 kg starts at the top
of a 30 m hill with a speed of 4 m s-1 and dives 10 m
down into a valley whose deepest point is 10 m,
before climbing to the top of a 20 m hill. Assuming At every point total M.E is constant
the surfaces are smooth, find the magnitudes of the mgh30 + 12 mv30
2
= mgh10 + 12 mv102 = mgh20 + 12 mv20
2

velocities at the deepest point and at the top of the

20 m high hill
1
2
mv102 = mgh30 + 12 mv30
2
− mgh10

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 32
 1
2 mv102 = mgh30 + 12 mv30
2
− mgh10 COLLISSIONS AND EXPLOSIONS
r r
v = 2 g ( h30 − h10 ) + v
2 2
 Momentum always conserved Σpi = Σp f
10 30
Σp x i = Σp xf Σp yi = Σp yf Σp zi = Σp zf
v10 = 2 g ( h30 − h10 ) + v30
2

 Energy always conserved ΣEi = ΣE f

−1
= 2 * 9.8(30 − 10) + 4 2 = 20.2 m s Some collisions – K.E conserved : Elastic collisions
Some collisions – K.E not conserved : Inelastic
Similarly, v20 = 2 g (h30 − h20 ) + v30
2
Stick together
Elastic collisions
Do not stick together
= 2 * 9.8(30 − 20) + 4 2
Perfectly elastic
= 14.6 m s −1 e.g. ball bouncing back to same height all the time

Before: m1 m2
Example 1 u1 u2

A ball of mass m1 traveling at speed u1 eastwards m1 m2

After: v1 v2
collides with another ball of mass m2 traveling at
speed u2 eastwards. The collision is perfectly Momentum conservation
elastic and after the collision the balls continue m1u1 + m2u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v2 .................... 1
moving along the same direction. K.E conservation
(a) Express the velocities of the balls after the
m1u1 + 12 m2u 2 = 12 m1v1 + 12 m2 v2
1 2 2 2 2
collisions in terms of the masses and the initial 2

m1u1 + m2u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v2

velocities of the balls. 2 2 2 2
.................... 2
(b) Determine the velocities for m1 = 3 kg,
m2 = 5 kg, u1 = 8 m s-1 and u2 = 6 m s-1. Two equations, two unknowns – solve simultaneously

Could use any of the methods for solving

Another way of solving the simultaneous equations
simultaneous equations.
m u + m2u2 − m2 v2 From 1 m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u 2 ) ........... 3
e.g. From 1 v1 = 1 1
m1 From 2 m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 )........... 4
Substitute in 2 and solve
m1 (u1 − v1 )(u1 + v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u2 )(v2 + u 2 ) 5
m1u1 + m2u 2 =
2 2

2 5 ÷ 3
 m u + m2u2 − m2 v2  m1 (u1 − v1 )(u1 + v1 ) m2 (v2 − u2 )(v2 + u2 )
m1  1 1  + m2 v2 2 =
 m1  m1 (u1 − v1 ) m2 (v2 − u 2 )
Quadratic equation – Two possible solutions
One of the solutions is v1 = u1 and v2 = u2 u1 + v1 = v2 + u 2 ........... 6

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 33
 m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u 2 ) ........... 3 2u1m1 − u2 m1 + m2u2 = v2 (m1 + m2 )
u1 + v1 = v2 + u 2 ........... 6
2u1m1 − u 2 m1 + m2u2
m
u1 − v1 = 2 (v2 − u 2 ) ........... 7 v2 =
From 3
m1 m1 + m2

m2 m From 6 v1 = v2 + u2 − u1
6 + 7 2u1 = v2 + u 2 +
v2 − 2 u 2
m1 m1 2u1m1 − u 2 m1 + m2u 2
v1 = + u 2 −u1
2u1m1 = v2 m1 + u2 m1 + m2 v2 − m2u 2 m1 + m2
2u1m1 − u 2 m1 + m2u 2 = v2 (m1 + m2 ) 2u1m1 − u 2 m1 + m2u2 + ( m1 + m2 )(u2 − u1 )
v1 =
m1 + m2

Do not stick together

2u m − u m + m2u2 + ( m1 + m2 )(u2 − u1 ) Inelastic collisions
v1 = 1 1 2 1 Stick together
m1 + m2 Perfectly inelastic

2u2 m2 − u1m2 + m1u1 e.g. Ballistic pendulum

v1 = A bullet fired into a suspended block
m1 + m2 Can be used to determine the velocity of the bullet
m1+ m2 m1+ m2
v2 = 7.5 m s −1 m1
m2 vf h
v1
v2
−1
v1 = 5.5 m s Before
Immediately
after Collision
Later

conservation of momentum
Example
m1v1 + m2 v2 = ( m1 + m2 )v f .................... 1
An object of mass m1 = 4 kg moving to the
Usually the block is at rest ⇒ v2 = 0
right with a speed u1 = 5 m s-1 collides with an
m1v1 = ( m1 + m2 )v f .................... 2 object of mass m2 = 3 kg moving to the left
Mechanical energy is conserved: K.Ebottom = PEtop with speed u2 = 2 m s-1. After the collision, m1
moves to the left at speed v1 = 1 m s-1 and m2
( m1 + m2 )v f = (m1 + m2 ) gh
1 2
2 moves with velocity v2.
v f = 2 gh ⇒ v f = 2 gh .................... 3
2
(a) Calculate the velocity v2(magnitude and
3 in 2 and solve for v1 direction).
(m1 + m2 ) (b) Determine whether the collision is elastic or not.
m1v1 = (m1 + m2 ) 2 gh ⇒ v1 = 2 gh
m1

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 34
 Solution v2 is +ve, therefore, m2 moves to the right.
Before the collision After the collision 1 1
(b) K .E Before = m1u12 + m2 u 22
2 2
m1 m2 v1 m1 m2
u1 1 1
= * 4 * 5 2 + * 3 * 2 2 = 56
u2 v2 2 2
1 1
Let right be +ve K .E After = m1v12 + m2 v22
2 2
m1u1 − m2u2 = −m1v1 + m2v2 1 1
= * 4 *12 + * 3 * 6 2 = 56
m u − m2u2 + m1v1 4 * 5 − 3 * 2 + 4 *1 2 2
v2 = 1 1 =
m2 3 K.EBefore = K.EAfter, therefore, the collision is
elastic.
v 2 = 6 m s −1

vo
CIRCULAR MOTION t1 ∆s to r r
r v1 − vo
B ∆x A a=
Uniform circular motion - horizontal circle v1 r ∆θ r ∆t
r
∆v
Constant speed in a circular path. C =
∆t
Magnitude of velocity constant, but direction r r
continuously changes - Acceleration a = n ∆v
What is the direction of this acceleration? where n is 1/∆t is positive
Let vo and v1 be velocities with a time interval ∆t.
r
The direction would be that of ∆v

What is the magnitude of the ac?

vo vo
∆v ∆θ t1 ∆s to vo
∆v ∆θ
B ∆x A
v1 v1 r ∆θ r v1
∆v is towards the center, therefore, acceleration is
towards the centre. C

Centripetal acceleration, ac. From changing direction

Velocity triangle similar to triangle ABC, same ∆θ
with two equal sides.

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 35
 ∆x ∆v Centripetal force, Fc = m ac is also directed towards
B A
the centre
r ∆θ r v ∆θ v Some external energy has to provide the centripetal
force.
C Angular speed
∆v ∆v ∆x ⇒ ∆v = v∆x
a= But , = Position of object at any given time is specified by an
∆t v r r angle θ, measured from the starting point.
The rate at which θ changes with time is the angular
∆v  v∆x  = v ∆x speed, ω
a= =  ∆θ
∆t  r∆t  r ∆t ω= θ = ωt
∆t
∆x v2 Magnitude of This is the angle (in radians) swept out per second
But , =v ∴ ac = centripetal acc.
∆t r Units: s-1. Sometimes referred to as angular frequency

Period Acceleration
The period, T of a circular motion is the time
ac =
v2 ω 2r 2
required to complete one revolution or cycle of the = = ω 2r
motion r r
One complete cycle = 2π radians Example
From θ = ω t , 2π = ω T ⇒ T =
2π
ω Assuming the orbits of the planets around the sun to
Speed be circular, find (i) the angular frequency, (ii) the
Speed,v, radius r. speed, (iii) the centripetal acceleration and (iv) the
What is the distance travelled in time T? centripetal force of the earth rotating around the sun.
The distance between the earth and the sun is 1.5 x
dist 2π r 2π
v= = = 2π r ÷ = ωr 1011 m and mass of the earth is 6 x 1024 kg.
time T ω

365 d 24 h 60 min 60 s
(i) T = 1 year = 1 y * * * * Vehicles on bends
1y 1d 1h 1 min
Vehicle in circular motion - ac
= 3.15 × 10 7 s
External force needed to provide
2π 2π
ω= = = 2.0 × 10 −7 rad s −1 the needed Fc
T 3.15 × 107 Fc can be provided by friction on a
r
(ii) v = ωr = 2.0 × 10 −7 *1.5 × 1011 = 3.0 × 10 4 m s −1 flat road.
Slippery surface
ac = ω 2 r = (2.0 × 10 −7 ) *1.5 × 1011
2
(iii) Fc provided inadequate
= 6.0 × 10−3 m s −2 Fc can also be provided by banking
(iv) Fc = mac = 6 × 10 24 * 6 × 10 −3 = 3.6 × 10 22 N the road, say by angle θ.
The force is provided by the gravitational attraction Direction of ac
of the sun θ

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 36
 N N cosθ At other speeds some frictional force is needed to
N cos θ = mg ........ 1 keep the vehicle from sliding:
N sinθ N sin θ = Fc  down the bank at lower speeds
Direction of ac  up the bank at higher speeds.
mv 2 ........ 2
θ mg N sin θ = Example
r
2 The radius of a curve on a flat road is 60 m.
mg
sin θ =
mv v2
From 1 and 2 ⇒ tan θ = (a) Calculate the coefficient of friction needed by a
cos θ r rg vehicle negotiating the curve at 45 km h-1
The banking angle is ideal for only one value of speed (b) Will it be possible for the vehicle to negotiate the
v that satisfies the equation. curve at 90 km h-1?
The banking angle is independent of the mass of the (c) Calculate the banking angle for a vehicle moving
vehicle. at 45 km h-1 not to rely on friction.

Example Conical Pendulum

45 km h −1 = 12.5 m s −1 90 km h −1 = 25 m s −1
An object of mass m suspended
mv 2 v2
µ mg = ⇒µ= from a string of length L moves
with constant speed v in a
r rg
12.52
θ horizontal circle of radius r.
(a) µ 45 = = 0.27 T sin θ = mac
60 * 9.8 L T cos θ = mg ⇒ T =
mg
T Tcos θ cos θ
252
(b) µ90 = = 1.06 Not possible since µ can mg v2
60 * 9.8 never be greater than 1 r ∴ sin θ = mac = m
Tsinθ cos θ r
v2
(c) tan θ = = 0.27 ⇒ θ = 14.9o ∴ v = rg tan θ
2

rg mg But r = L sin θ ∴ v = Lg sin θ tan θ

Non-uniform (speed) circular motion Non-uniform (speed) circular motion

Object moving in a circle with varying speed. Circular Motion in a Vertical Plane
Direction changes - Centripetal acceleration, ac mass on string
Speed changes - Tangential acceleration, at ΣFT = mg sin θ = mat
ΣFr = T − mg cos θ = mac
a = ac + at at = g sin θ
at ac
a T θ T provides fraction of Fc
F = Fc + Ft
mg cos θ mg sin θ by the weight of the object
The other fraction provided
Responsible for
Responsible for change change in speed mg Depends on the position of the mass
in direction with time with time

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Semester 1 37
 A At top (A) Example– plane in a vertical loop at
T − mg cos θ = mac constant speed
180o 2 A pilot of mass m in a jet aircraft executes
T θ mv A
T − mg cos( π ) = a loop-the-loop in a vertical circle of radius
mg cos θ mg sin θ top r 2.70 km at a constant speed of 225 m s-1
B  vA2 
Ttop = m − g  Determine, in terms of g, the force exerted
At bottom (B)  r  by the seat on the pilot at;
360o
mvB
2
 vB 2  • the bottom of the loop
Tbot − mg cos(2π ) = ⇒ Tbot = m + g  • the top of the loop
r  r 

mv 2 mv 2
(a) ∑ F = N bot − mg = r (b) ∑ F = Ntop + mg = r
mv 2 Ntop mv 2
N bot = + mg N top = − mg
r mg r
mgv 2 mgv 2
= mg + = − mg
rg rg
 v2   v2 
Nbot = mg 1 +  = mg  − 1
 rg   rg 
 225 2   2252 
= mg 1 +  = 2.9mg = mg  − 1 = 0.9mg
 2.7 × 10 × 9.8   2.7 ×10 × 9.8 
3 3
mg

Uniformly accelerated circular motion Angular acceleration, α

Uniformly accelerated linear motion – Kinematic Eq. The (time) rate of change of angular speed
What about uniformly accelerated circular motion? ∆ω ∆ (v r ) 1 ∆v
Study the relation between linear parameters and their α= = =
corresponding (rotational) angular parameters.
∆t ∆t r ∆t
1 rev = circumference
v = ωr at
= 2π r length 1
∴ α = at ⇒ at = α r
linear angular
= 2π rad r
speed speed
linear angular
∴s = θ r angle acceleration acceleration
linear angular
s = 2π r and
displacement displacement θ = 2π

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Semester 1 38
 Rotational Kinematic Equations Example
s =θ r v =ωr at = α r A centrifuge in a medical laboratory rotates at 3600
revolutions per minute. When switched off, it rotates
Linear 50 times before coming to rest.
s = ut + 12 at 2 θ r = ωi r t + 12 α r t 2 Find the (a) angular acceleration
v = u + at ω f r = ωi r + α r t (b) time it takes to stop
v 2 = u 2 + 2as (ω r ) = (ω r )
f
2
i
2
+ 2α r θ r
Solution
ω f r = ωi r + 2α θ r 2
ωi = 3600 rev / min = 3600 rev * 1 min * 2π rad
2 2 2 2

θ = ωi t + 12 α t 2 Rotational Kinematic 1 min 60 s 1 rev

ω f = ωi + α t Equations for uniformly = 120 π rad s −1

ω f 2 = ωi 2 + 2α θ accelerated rotational motion ωf = 0

2π rad OPTICS
θ = 50 rev * = 100π rad What is optics?
1 rev
The study of light and properties of light
(a) Have ωi , ω f and θ . To determine α
What is light?
ω f 2 − ωi 2 0 2 − (120π )2
ωf 2
= ωi + 2α θ ⇒ α =
2
= Electromagnetic wave with speed in vacuum
2θ 2 *100π c = 2.997925 x 108 m s-1
α = −72π rad s = −72π s
−2 − 2
c ≈ 3.0 ×108 m s −1
(b) Have ωi , ω f and α . To determine t Is it always necessary to treat light as a wave?
ω f − ωi 0 − 120π Depends on properties of interest.
ω f = ωi + α t ⇒ t = =
α − 72π
t = 1.67 s

SOME PROPERTIES OF LIGHT GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

• Light travel in straight lines called rays.
EXPLAIN WITH ASSUMPTION • Rays – Direction of advance of wavefronts of waves
REFLECTION
THAT LIGHT TRAVEL IN
REFRACTION STRAIGHT LINES – Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts
DISPERSION (RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION
OF LIGHT - GO

INTERFERENCE
Wavefronts
TREAT AS A WAVE
DIFFRACTION WAVE OPTICS
POLARIZATION
Rays

ABSORPTION ENERGY OF LIGHT

EMISSION IS QUANTIZED -
SCATTERING QUANTUM OPTICS

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Semester 1 39
 REFLECTION Two types of reflection
Light incident on polished surface such as • Specular reflection - From a smooth surface
mirror – bounces back : Reflection • Diffuse reflection - From a rough surface
LAWS OF REFLECTION INCIDENT REFLECTED
(i) φr = φi
(ii) The incident ray, the normal and the
reflected ray all lie in one plane
SPECULAR
Incident Reflected INCIDENT REFLECTED
Normal
Ray Ray
φi φr

DIFFUSE

REFLECTION AT PLANE (SMOOTH) SURFACES

IMAGE FORMATION BY PLANE MIRRORS POINT OBJECT CONT.
FROM TRIANGLES ABO AND ABI
POINT OBJECT
AB AO AB AI
= and =
O I sin φ i sin(90 − φi ) sin φ r sin(90 − φ r )
A
φi φr
AB AO
90−φi 90−φr = and AB
=
AI
φi φr sinφi sin(90 − φi ) sin φ i sin(90 − φ i )
φr B AO AI
=
sin(90 − φi ) sin(90 − φ i )

AO = AI

Properties of image formed by plane mirrors Quadrilaterals ABCD and A’B’CD are similar
A'B' = AB
• Image not formed by actual rays (virtual image)
• Image is same size as the object
• Image formed behind the mirror
• Image is upright
• Image as far behind the mirror as object is in front
• Image is laterally inverted
Are these all the properties of the image formed by
a plane mirror? Note
C B' • Distance measured from mirror
B
• Real ray/object – solid line
• Virtual ray/object – dotted line
• Distance to real object/image: +ve
A • Distance to virtual obj/image: –ve
D A'

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Semester 1 40
 EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 1 The image of a tree just covers the length of a mirror
In an Optician’s room a plane mirror is used of length 4 cm. The tree is 72 m from the mirror and
to read the image of a chart placed behind the the eyes of the observer are 50 cm from the mirror.
(a) Use a ray diagram to illustrate the formation of the image.
patient’s eyes. The mirror is 1.5 m in front of
(b) Calculate the height of the tree.
the eyes of the patient and the chart is 0.6 m
behind his eyes. How far would the image of (a) A A'
the chart be from the eyes of the patient? C
h E M N
0.6 m 1.5 m h
2.1 m D
C E C' 0.5
2.1 m M X = 3.6 m B B'
x 72 m 72 m

EXAMPLE 2 CONT. Reflection on more than one plane mirror

• Image from one mirror can act as object for
Triangle CED and A'EB' are similar another mirror. Multiple images result.
Some examples
CD A′B ′ 0.04 h ′
= i.e = i.e A E = h • Object placed in between two parallel mirrors
CE A′ E CE A′E CE 0.04 facing the object
Triangles ECM and EA’N are similar • Object placed in between mirrors perpendicular
to each other
EM EN
= i.e A' E = EN = 72.5 Example 3
CE A' E CE EM 0 .5 Two mirrors, M1 and M2 edge to edge with angle α (α
> 90o) between them.
h 72.5 Ray incident on M1 with angle of incidence θ. What is
∴ = h = 5.8 m
the angle through which the final emergent ray from M2
0.04 0.5
is rotated with respect to the incident ray on M1?

M1
Example 4
dθ
X θd
a ac M2 Ray incident on mirror.
d α c Mirror rotated by angle θ about a horizontal
c W From triangle WXY
2d + 2c + e = 180 axis in the plane of the mirror and
But b = 180 - e = 2d + 2c perpendicular to the plane of incidence while
incident ray is fixed.
c =180 - (α +d)=180 - α - d
e ∴ b = 2d + 2(180 − α − d ) Derive a general expression for angle through
which the reflected ray is rotated.
b = 2d +2(180 - α) - 2d = 2(180-α)
Y b
Required angle is angle b

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Semester 1 41
 N1 N2 REFLECTION AT CURVED
Reflected, M1

α M1 SPHERICAL SURFACES
i2 θ • MADE FROM SECTION OF A SPHERE
Incident ray i r1 r 2
1 Reflected, M2 • TWO TYPES
M2
θ CONCAVE MIRROR
Required angle is α CONVEX MIRROR
α = (i2 + r2) - (i1 + r1)
But r2 = i2 = i1 + θ
Therefore, α = 2i1 +2θ - 2i1 = 2θ

CONCAVE MIRROR
M M
φ φ
P - POLE φ φ
C φ P C φ P
F1 F2 F1
C - CENTRE OF CURVATURE
Line through C and P - Principal Axis
CP – Radius of Curvature, R

SPHERICAL ABERRATION
M close to P
M • Non-paraxial rays – F1 between F and P
φ small, paraxial rays φ • Rays converge to different points near the image point.
F1 = F φ • Image appears blurred - Spherical aberration
PARABOLOIDAL MIRROR
F – Focal point C φ P • Mirror from section of a paraboloidal surface.
MF ≈ PF F1 • All parallel rays reflected through f.

R
∴ PF = CF = = f
2 F
f – Focal length

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 42
 IMAGE LOCATION BY RAY TRACING
EXAMPLES OF RAY DIAGRAMS
• Ray incident parallel to the principal axis
reflected through F
THERE ARE FIVE POSSIBLE REGIONS OF
• Ray incident through F reflected parallel to the OBJECT POSITIONS
principal axis
OBJECT BEYOND C
• Ray incident through the centre of curvature,
OBJECT AT C
C, reflected back through C.
OBJECT BETWEEN C AND F
ANY TWO OF THE THREE RAYS CAN BE USED. OBJECT BETWEEN F AND MIRROR
THIRD RAY CAN BE USED AS A CHECK OBJECT AT F

EXAMPLE 1: OBJECT BEYOND C OBJECT AT C

IMAGE IS:
IMAGE IS:
INVERTED

SMALLER SAME SIZE AS

THAN OBJECT O OBJECT
I C F
O C F INVERTED
2 I REAL

3 REAL AT C

1 M BETWEEN C
AND F

OBJECT BETWEEN C AND F OBJECT BETWEEN F AND MIRROR

IMAGE IS: IMAGE IS:
INVERTED UPRIGHT

LARGER THAN I LARGER THAN

THE OBJECT CO F THE OBJECT
C FO I

REAL VIRTUAL

BEYOND C BEHIND THE

MIRROR

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 43
 OBJECT AT F
MIRROR EQUATION
IMAGE IS:
SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR MIRRORS
UPRIGHT
• DISTANCE TO REAL OBJECTS AND IMAGES IS
LARGER THAN THE POSITIVE
OBJECT • DISTANCE TO VIRTUAL OBJECTS AND
O IMAGES IS NEGATIVE
C F VIRTUAL • OBJECT AND IMAGE HEIGHT ABOVE THE
PRINCIPAL AXIS IS POSITIVE
• OBJECT AND IMAGE HEIGHT BELOW THE
BEHIND THE PRINCIPAL AXIS IS NEGATIVE
MIRROR

A B OAF and PDF similar

I PD PF -hi f
= i.e. = .................. 1
O F P OA OF ho u − f
D IA’F and PBF similar
A' IA' IF -hi v − f
= i.e. = .................. 2
PB PF ho f
- LOOK FOR SIMILAR TRIANGLES f v− f
From 1 and 2 =
-Triangles to include sides parallel to the mirror u− f f
and those parallel to the principal axis. i.e. vu − vf − uf + f 2 = f 2
vu = vf + uf
1 1 1
= + MIRROR EQUATION
f u v

hi
MAGNIFICATION EQUATION M=
ho CONVEX MIRROR
From 1 and 2
f ............. v − f ..............
−M = 3 and − M = 4
u− f f

FROM 3 − Mu + Mf = f .................. 5
FROM 4 Mf = f − v .................. 6
C F2 F1 P
FROM 5 AND 6 − Mu + f − v = f
− Mu = v v
M =− MAGNIFICATION
EQUATION
u

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 44
 IMAGE LOCATION BY RAY TRACING
Ray incident parallel to the principal axis reflected
as if from F.
C F P Ray incident directed towards F reflected parallel to
the principal axis.
Ray incident directed towards C reflected back along
path of incidence.
N.B. Reflected ray does not pass through F.
F is a virtual focal point
Focal length is negative

Characteristics of image formed by convex mirror

RAY DIAGRAM EXAMPLE For any position of the object, the image formed
by a convex mirror is always upright, smaller
than the object, virtual and behind the mirror
MIRROR EQUATION - CONVEX MIRROR
• Using a ray diagram for convex mirror, the mirror
and magnification equations can be derived (refer
O I F C to concave)
• N.B. Since image and focal point are virtual – v
and – f for image distance and focal length.

EXAMPLE 1 v
M =
v
>1 ∴v > u I
Ou M
A spherical mirror is to be used to form, on a u 5.00 m
screen 5.00 m from the object, an image that is v = u +5
five times the size of the object. −v − (u + 5) i.e. u + 5 = 5u
(a) What type of mirror is used? M= = −5 =
u u
(b) Calculate the object distance from the mirror 5
(c) Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror u = = 1.25 m
4
1 1 1
SOLUTION (c) R = 2f and= + v = u + 5 = 1.25 + 5 = 6.25 m
f u v
a) Image formed on screen (real), Image larger
1 1 1
than object: Concave mirror = + ⇒ f = 1.04 m ( 2d . p )
f 1.25 6.25
b) v and u are positive i.e. in front of the mirror
R = 2.08 m ( 2 d . p )

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 45
 EXAMPLE 2 REFRACTION
Light incident on transparent material divides at surface,
When a 2 cm object is placed 15 cm in front of a into two parts: Reflected part and Transmitted part
mirror, a virtual image that is 0.5 cm high is formed.
Transmitted part bends away or towards the normal –
What is the focal length of the mirror? refraction
IMAGE VIRTUAL ⇒ MAGNIFICATION IS POSITIVE How bends depends on index of refraction, n
−u c
M=
−v
u
=
0. 5 1
2
=
4
∴v =
4
= −3.75 cm n= c: speed of light in vacuum
v: speed of light in medium
1 1 1 1 1 I
v RL I
= + = − i.e. f = −5 cm RL
f u v 15 3.75 Glass 1 θ θ
Air 1 θθ
Glass 2 Air 2 φ
φ RR
RR

If n1 < n2, bend towards normal, θ > φ

Ιf n1 > n2, bend away from normal, θ < φ A' N
WAVEFRONTS
B'
Why bend away or towards normal? A RAY
C'
AIR 1 n1 B
D'
C
GLASS 2 n2 D E'
E F'
F G'
G
WHAT HAPPENS TO SPEED OF WAVEFRONT AT SURFACE?

SNELL’S LAW
N
C'
 From less dense to more optically dense –
θ1
speed reduces AIR 1 n1 θ1 D'
 CD less than C’D’ GLASS 2 n2 C
D θ2
 DE = D’E’, EF = E’F’ etc.
θ2
Result: propagation in medium 2 changes
c c
n1 = and n2 =
v1 v2

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 46
 ct ct
LET t BE TIME FOR CC’ TO DD’ ∴ C ' D' = and CD = ....... 1
n1 n2
C'D' = v1t and CD = v2t
From triangles CC'D' and DD'C
c c C ' D'
But v1 = and v2 = CD '
= sin θ 1 ⇒ C ' D' = CD' sin θ1
n1 n2
and
ct ct CD
∴ C ' D' = and CD = ....... 1 = sin θ 2 ⇒ CD = D' C sin θ 2
n1 n2 D' C
ct ......... 2
FROM 1 CD ' sin θ1 = n
From triangles CC'D' and D'DC 1

C ' D' and

= sin θ1 ⇒ C ' D' = D' C sin θ1 ct
D' C D ' C sin θ 2 = ......... 3
n2

CD ' sin θ 1 =
ct .........
2 CD ' sin θ 2 =
ct ......... 3 APPARENT DEPTH
n1 n2
OBJECT IN WATER VIEWED FROM
From 2 and 3 ABOVE THE WATER – DEPTH VIEWED
NOT ACTUAL DEPTH OF THE OBJECT
n1CD' sin θ1 = ct and n2 CD' sin θ 2 = ct
i.e n1CD' sin θ1 = n2 CD' sin θ 2
Air
Thus n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 Snell's Law Apparent
depth Water Real
Examples of using Snell's Law in Giancoli I
depth

EXAMPLE (a ) n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 θ2 x n2

An object placed at the bottom of a
But For θ small
transparent material of index of refraction n1 θ2 a
sin θ ≈ θ ≈ tan θ θ1 n1 Real
and thickness t is viewed from a material of t depth
x x
refractive index n2. ∴ n1 = n2 θ1 d
t a O
Assuming n1 > n2, Determine; n2
i.e., a = t
(a) the apparent depth of the object n1
(b) Displacement from the bottom, d =t −a
(b) the displacement of the image from the n2 n
bottom. d =t− t = t (1 − 2 )
n1 n1

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 47
 EXAMPLE 2 Snell’s law at first surface
n1 sin a = n2 sin b
c
n3 x2 n1 tan a = n2 tan b
A container contains a medium of thickness t1 and x x
refractive index n1. above this is another medium of x1 n1 1 = n2 1
thickness t2 and refractive index n2. To an observer t1 a1
t2 n b b a2 n2
looking from the top of medium 2, what is the 2 ⇒ a1 = t1
apparent depth of an object placed at the bottom of c n1
medium 1? Snell’s law 2nd surface
Assume the observer is in air and n1> n2 b a1 n3 sin c = n2 sin b
t1 n1 d2 n3 tan c = n2 tan b
a a x2 x2
d1 n3 = n2
a2 t2 + a1

n2 n2 n3
a1 = t1 a1 = t1 d 2 = (t1 + t 2 ) − (t 2 + a1 )
n1 n1 n2
n n n
⇒ a2 = 3 (t2 + a1 ) = 3 t2 + 3 2 t1
x2 x2 n n3 n
n3 = n2
a2 t2 + a1 n2 n2 n2 n1 d 2 = (t1 + t 2 ) − (t 2 + 2 t1 )
n2 n1
n3 n
∴ a2 = t 2 + 3 t1 i.e, a2 = a13 + a23 n3 n
n2 n1 d 2 = (t1 + t 2 ) − t 2 − 3 t1
n n2 n1
d1 = t1 − a1 = t1 (1 − 2 ) d 2 = (t1 + t2 ) − a2
n1 n n
d 2 = t1 (1 − 3 ) + t 2 (1 − 3 )
n n1 n2
d 2 = (t1 + t 2 ) − 3 (t 2 + a1 )
n2
i.e, d 2 = d13 + d 23

s
LIGHT PASSING THROUGH A AC
= sin(θ1 − θ 2 )

RECTANGULAR SLAB n1 θ1
t
= cosθ 2
A AC
Ray refracted on entering and on emerging ⇒ AC =
t
from the slab. If side of incidence and that of n2 cos θ 2
emergent are parallel, incident ray and θ2
emergent ray have same direction. However, t
θ2 B
the emergent ray is laterally displaced
s
D C ∴ s = AC sin(θ1 − θ 2 )
n1 θ1
t sin(θ1 − θ 2 )
s=
cos θ 2

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 48
 CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL FOR CRITICAL ANGLE
INTERNAL REFLECTION
n1 sin θ C = n2 sin 90
θ2 n1 > n2
n2 n2 θ2 n1 sin θC = n2
n2
n1 n1 θ C = sin −1
θ1 θ1 n1
n2 For n1 ~ n2 θc very large
n2
θi θr
n1 θc n1
Critical angle
Total Internal
Reflection

EXAMPLE - APPLICATION OF
LIGHT INCIDENT FROM A LESS
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
DENSE MEDIUM
OPTICAL FIBRES Fig.32.34, Giancoli
 Consist of glass or plastic core (high n) • NO CRITICAL ANGLE
surrounded by outer coating of low n n1
n1 θ1 θ1 n1
 Light propagates in zigzag path
undergoing several total internal n2 n2 n2
reflections. θ2 θ2
 Can be used in telecommunications and in θr(max)
medicine (endoscopes to examine internal SNELL'S LAW n1 sin 90 = n2 sin θ r (max)
organs)  n1 
θ r (max) = sin −1  
 n2 

FISH EYE VIEW REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

n2 > n1 δ is the angle of deviation
A
Horizontal
δ A + 90 + 90 + b = 360
as seen by r2
fish i1 r1
a c
i2
A +b = 180
Air b
r1 + i2 + b = 180
n2 n1
Water n1
θr(max)θc θc θr(max)
How can r2 and δ be determined?
Snell's law and geometry
r1 + i2 = A a+c=δ

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 49
 SYMETRICAL PASSAGE OF LIGHT
THROUGH A PRISM
 SPECIAL CASE
 ANGLE OF DEVIATION IS MINIMUM
i1 = r2 and i2 = r1
A

δ
i1 r2
r1 i2

n1 n2 n1

A n1 sin i = n2 sin r Example

But r+r = A Determine the minimum angle of deviation for a
δ
 A light ray passing through a flint glass prism of
i i ∴ n1 sin i = n 2 sin  
r r 2
apex angle 65° placed in water.
n1 n2 n1 n1=nw = 1.333, n2 = ng = 1.66, A = 65°
δ min = (i − r ) + (i − r ) ⇒ 2i = δ min + 2r = δ min + A δ min + A
sin
δ min + A δ + A  A n2 2 n2 A δ +A
i.e, i = ∴ n1 sin  min  = n 2 sin   = ⇒ sin = sin min
2  2  2 n1 A n1 2 2
sin
δ min + A 2
sin
n2
δ min + A
= 2
Thus n A
n1
sin
A
= sin −1  2 sin 
2 2  n1 2

 n2 A
δ min + A = 2 sin −1  sin  EXAMPLE
 n1 2
n A A LIGHT RAY IS PASSING THROUGH AN
δ min = 2 sin −1  2 sin  − A EQUIANGULAR FLINT GLASS PRISM
 n1 2
SUBMERGED IN WATER AT AN ANGLE OF
 1.66 65  INCIDENCE OF 50°. DETERMINE
δ min = 2 sin −1  sin  − 65
 1.33 2
(a) THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION OF THE
δ min = 19.2o EMERGENT RAY FROM THE PRISM
NOTE: Not always have symmetrical (b) THE ANGLE OF DEVIATION.
passage of light.

Not to be reproduced/SC2019
Semester 1 50
 A = 60o A = 60o
A A
i1 = 50o i1 = 50o
δ δ
a c r2
a c r2 r1=37.9o
i1 r1 i2 i1 r1
b b
i2 i2=22.1o
n2=1.66 n1=1.333 n2=1.66 n1=1.333 r2=27.9o
n1=1.333 n1=1.333
 n2 A
Snell's law at 1 st surface a = i1 − r1 = 12.1o δ min = 2 sin −1  sin  − A
 1.333 sin 50 
1.333 sin 50 = 1.66 sin r1 ⇒ r1 = sin −1   = 37 .9
o
 n1 2
 1.66  c = r2 − i2 = 5.8 o
r1 + i2 = A = 60 ⇒ i 2 = 60 − r1 = 22.1  1.66 60 
δ min = 2 sin −1  sin  − 60
o

δ = a + c = 17.9 o  1 . 333 2 
Snell's law at 2 nd
surface
 1.66 sin 22.1 
1.66 sin 22.1 = 1.333 sin r2 ⇒ r2 = sin −1   = 27.9 o δ min = 17.0o
 1.333 

DISPERSION OF LIGHT BY A PRISM Index of Refraction of Crown Glass for

Some Wavelengths of Light
• INDEX OF
REFRACTION
VARIES WITH Colour Wavelength λ Index of
(nm) Refraction
WAVELENGTH
Violet 361 1.539
• n SMALLER FOR
Blue 434 1.528
LONG WAVELENGTH
Green 486 1.523
Yellow 589 1.517
Orange 656 1.514
Red 768 1.511

DISPERSION CONT. DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

 LIGHT CONSISTING OF TWO OR
MORE COLOURS INCIDENT ON
PRISM
 COLOUR WITH SMALLER INDEX White
Red
REFRACTED LESS
Violet
 EMERGENT RAYS NO LONGER
TRAVEL IN SAME DIRECTION
 LIGHT DISPERSED BY THE PRISM

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Semester 1 51
 FORMATION OF RAINBOW

THIN LENSES
TWO TYPES TO BE CONSIDERED Real F
ONE THICK IN THE MIDDLE (BICONVEX)
OTHER THIN IN THE MIDDLE C F
(BICONCAVE)

f +ve
f

Biconvex (Convex) Biconcave (Concave) Convex lens (Converging lens)

Virtual F

F C
F'

f
f -ve
f
Concave lens (Diverging lens)

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Semester 1 52
 LENS MAKERS’ EQUATION
1  1 1  f: focal length of lens
= (n − 1) −  n: index of refraction, lens
f  R1 R2 
material
R1 R2 R1 R2
R1: radius of curvature,
F' first surface
R2: radius of curvature,
second surface

f R1 - Positive R1 - Negative
R2 - Negative R2 - Positive

IMAGE FORMATION, CONVEX LENS REM. PASSAGE THROUGH RECTANGULAR SLAB

t sin(θ1 − θ 2 )
 Ray incident parallel to the principal axis is s=
refracted such that it passes through F. cos θ 2
 Ray incident through F’ emerges from the
lens parallel to the principal axis. For thin lenses t is very small
Result: s very small (negligible)

ARE THESE THE ONLY RAYS THAT

CAN BE USED?

IMAGE FORMATION, CONVEX LENS EXAMPLES OF RAY DIAGRAMS

 Ray incident parallel to the principal THERE ARE FIVE POSSIBLE REGIONS OF
OBJECT POSITIONS
axis is refracted such that it passes
through F. OBJECT BEYOND 2F’
OBJECT AT 2F’
 Ray incident through F’ emerges from
OBJECT BETWEEN 2F’ AND F’
the lens parallel to the principal axis.
OBJECT BETWEEN F’ AND LENS
 Ray incident through the central part of
OBJECT AT F’
the lens passes undeviated.

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Semester 1 53
 OBJECT BEYOND 2F’ OBJECT AT 2F’

I
I O F' F
O F' F
REAL, INVERTED REAL
SMALLER THAN OBJECT INVERTED
BETWEEN F AND 2F AT 2F
CAMERA SAME SIZE AS OBJECT

OBJECT BETWEEN 2F’ AND F’ OBJECT BETWEEN F’ AND LENS

I
O F' F
VIRTUAL
REAL UPRIGHT
INVERTED I F' O F
BEYOND 2F IN FRONT OF THE LENS
LARGER THAN THE OBJECT
LARGER THAN THE OBJECT SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

OBJECT AT F’ IMAGE FORMATION, CONCAVE LENS

 Ray incident parallel to the principal
axis is refracted such that it appears
to have passed through F.
 Ray incident directed towards F’
VIRTUAL
emerges from the lens parallel to the
UPRIGHT O principal axis.
F' F  Ray incident through the central part
AT INFINITY of the lens passes undeviated.
LARGER THAN THE OBJECT

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Semester 1 54
 LENS EQUATION
Sign conventions for lenses
• Distance to real objects and images is +ve.
• Distance to virtual objects and images is –ve.
• Object and image height above the principal axis
VIRTUAL O F I F' is +ve.
UPRIGHT • Object and image height below the principal axis
is –ve.
IN FRONT OF THE LENS
SMALLER THAN THE OBJECT -Look for similar triangles
-Triangles to include sides parallel to the mirror and
FOR ANY POSITION OF THE OBJECT those parallel to the principal axis.

A B A B

E D E D
C C
I F' O F I F' O F
ho f
Triangles CDF and IAF are similar = ...................1
hi f −v
CD CF h f Triangles OEF’ and CBF’ are similar
= ⇒ o = ...................1
IA IF hi f −v OE OF ' ⇒ ho = f − u ...................2
=
CB CF ' hi f

ho f
= ...................1
hi f −v MAGNIFICATION EQUATION
ho f − u ho
=
f
= ...................2 ...................1
hi f hi f −v
ho f − u
From 1 and 2 = ...................2
hi f
f f −u
= ⇒ uv − uf − vf + f 2 = f 2 FROM 1 AND 2
f −v f
1 f
vu = vf + uf = ⇒ Mf = f − v.................3
M f −v
1 1 1 1 f −u
= + LENS EQUATION = ⇒ Mf − Mu = f .................4
f u v M f

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Semester 1 55
 Mf = f − v.................3 MIRRORS LENSES

Mf − Mu = f .................4 • u +VE: OBJ. IN FRONT • u +VE: OBJ. IN FRONT

• u –VE: OBJECT AT • u –VE: OBJ. AT BACK
3 IN 4 BACK • v +VE: IMAGE AT
• v +VE: IMAGE IN BACK
f − v − Mu = f FRONT • v –VE: IMAGE IN
− Mu = v
• v -VE: IMAGE AT BACK FRONT
• f & R +VE FOR CONC. • f +VE FOR CONV
v • f & R –VE FOR CONV. • f –VE FOR CONC
M =− MAGNIFICATION EQUATION
u
NOTE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN IMAGE FORMATION
CONCAVE LENS RAY DIAGRAM CAN ALSO BE
– CONCAVE MIRROR & CONVEX LENS
USED TO DERIVE THE LENS AND MAGNIFICATION
– CONVEX MIRROR & CONCAVE LENS
EQUATIONS.

REM: THREE POSITIONS FOR u > f

VARIATION OF M WITH u
f
−v M=
M=
u
⇒ v = − Mu REM :
1 1 1
= + f −u
f u v
u = 2f, M = -1
1 1 1 1 M −1
∴ = − ⇒ =
f u Mu f Mu f < u <2f, M < -1
,

f u > 2f, M > -1

Thus, Mu = fM − f i.e., M =
f −u
FOR f NEGATIVE – M ALWAYS +VE AND M < 1
FOR f POSITIVE 2 CASES - u < f AND u > f
FOR u < f, M IS +VE & M > 1

COMBINATION OF LENSES/MIRRORS EXAMPLE 1

Two thin converging lenses separated by
 TREAT PROBLEM LENS/MIRROR BY
D=50 cm are placed such that on the left is a
LENS/MIRROR
lens of focal length of magnitude 10 cm and
 FIRST FIND IMAGE OF FIRST LENS on the right is a lens of focal length of
AS IF SECOND LENS WERE NOT magnitude 15 cm. An object is placed 15 cm
PRESENT to the left of the left lens.
 USE IMAGE AS OBJECT FOR SECOND a) Determine the position of the final image
LENS/MIRROR using (i) lens equation (ii) graphical method.
 CONTINUE UNTIL RAYS HAVE GONE b) In both cases determine the magnification and
THROUGH ALL THE LENSES/MIRRORS characterise the final image.

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 a(i) Lens 1: f1 = 10 cm, u1 = 15 cm, v1 = ? (ii) D=50 cm
1 1 1 u −f
= − = 1 1
v1 f1 u1 f1u1
fu 10 × 15
i.e, v1 = 1 1 = = 30 cm
u1 − f1 15 − 10 I1
O F'1 F1 F'2 F2
Lens 2: f 2 = 15 cm, u 2 = ?, v2 = ?, D = 50 cm
u2 = D − v1 = 50 − 30 = 20cm
fu 15 × 20
v2 = 2 2 = = 60 cm
u2 − f 2 20 − 15
∴, Final image is 60 cm at the back of Lens 2.

hi 2 hi1 hi 2
D=50 cm (b) M = = × = M1 × M 2
ho ho hi1
− v1 − v2 − 30 − 60
∴M = × = × =6
u1 u2 15 20
I1
O F'1 F1 F'2 F2 I2 FROM MEASUREMENT M ~ 6
CHARACTERISTICS:
REAL (v2 +VE)

(M > 1)
UPRIGHT (M +VE)
LARGER THAN OBJECT
FROM MEASUREMENT I2 IS ~60 cm AT BACK OF L2 AT THE BACK OF L2

EXAMPLE 2 (a) Lens 1: f1 = 10 cm, u1 = 15 cm, v1 = ?

1 1 1 u −f
A convex lens and a concave lens separated by = − = 1 1
D=20 cm are placed such that on the left is a v1 f1 u1 f1u1
convex lens of focal length of magnitude 10 cm
fu 10 × 15
and on the right is a concave lens of focal length of i.e, v1 = 1 1 = = 30 cm
magnitude 15 cm. An object is placed 15 cm to the u1 − f1 15 − 10
left of the left lens. Lens 2: f 2 = −15 cm, u2 = ?, v2 = ?, D = 20 cm
a) Calculate the position and magnification of the u2 = D − v1 = 20 − 30 = −10cm Virtual object
final image and characterise it.
fu ( −15) × (−10) = 30 cm
b) Use graphical method to find the position, v2 = 2 2 =
magnification and characteristics of the final u2 − f 2 ( −10) − (−15)
image. ∴, Final image is 30 cm at the back of Lens 2.

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Semester 1 57
 − v1 − v2 − 30 − 30
∴M = × = × = −6 EXAMPLE 3
u1 u2 15 − 10
A convex lens and a concave mirror separated
Characteristics: Real (v2 +ve)
by D=50 cm are placed such that on the left is
Inverted (M -ve)
(
Larger than the object M > 1 ) a convex lens of focal length of magnitude
10 cm and on the right is a concave mirror of
At the back of L2
(b) radius of curvature of magnitude 30 cm. An
object is placed 15 cm to the left of the lens.
I1 I2
Calculate the position and magnification of
O F'1 F2 F1 F'2 the final image and characterise it.

Lens: f1 = 10 cm, u1 = 15 cm, v1 = ? 60 cm in front of the mirror > D (50 cm)

1 1 1 u −f
= − = 1 1 Lens: f1 = 10 cm, u3 = ?, v3 = ?, D = 50 cm
v1 f1 u1 f1u1
u3 = D − v2 = 50 − 60 = −10cm
fu 10 × 15
i.e, v1 = 1 1 = = 30 cm fu
v3 = 1 3 =
10 × (−10)
= 5 cm
u1 − f1 15 − 10
u3 − f1 (−10) − 10
Mirror: f 2 = 15 cm, u 2 = ?, v2 = ?, D = 50 cm
− v1 − v2 − v3 − 30 − 60 − 5
u2 = D − v1 = 50 − 30 = 20cm M= × × = × ×
u1 u2 u3 15 20 − 10
fu 15 × 20
v2 = 2 2 = = 60 cm M =3
u2 − f 2 20 − 15
Is this the final image? NO!

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
CHARACTERISTICS: THE CAMERA
REAL (v3 +VE)
UPRIGHT (M +VE)
LARGER THAN OBJECT (M > 1)
IN FRONT OF LENS

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Semester 1 58
 THE EYE DEFECTS OF VISION
Two types
• Distant objects not well focused
- Near sightedness (Myopia)
• Near objects not well focused
-Long sightedness (Hyperopia)
• Optically similar to camera
• Cornea-lens system forms image on retina (film)
• Focal length of lens varied using ciliary muscles
(accommodation)
• Near point – closest distance ~25 cm
• Furthest point – furthest distance – infinity.

EXAMPLE
NEAR SIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA) A short sighted person can not see objects that are
more than 3 m away clearly. What is the focal length
of the weakest correcting lens?
Weakest correcting lens when I1 is at the furthest point.
u = ∞, v = _3 m,
1 1 1 1 1 = 1
= + = + ⇒ f = −3 m
f u v ∞ −3 −3
Opticians use power, P, of lens rather than focal
length. 1
P=
f
For f in metres P is in Diopters

EXAMPLE
FAR SIGHTEDNESS (HYPEROPIA) A long sighted person has 100 cm as his near point.
What is the lowest power of the lens to enable print
at 25 cm to be read?

For lowest power, I1 should be formed at near point

u = 25 cm, v = _100 cm,
1 1 1 3 3
= + = = ⇒ P=3D
f 25 − 100 100cm 1m

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Semester 1 59
 Compound Microscope
Fo I2 I1
• TWO CONVEX LENSES TO INCREASE M
FE
• OBJECTIVE – NEAREST TO OBJECT
• EYEPIECE – NEARER TO THE EYE
• OBJECTIVE – SHORT f PRODUCE REAL
ENLARGED I1
• EYEPIECE – LONG f
Fo< FE
SIMPLE MAGNIFIER OF I1

LENS/MIRROR ABERRATIONS
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
M

C P
F2 F1

CHROMATIC ABERRATION

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Semester 1 60