BIO 215 Module 1 Lecture notes

Cell structure and function

The cell could be described as a small unit of living protoplasm always

surrounded by cell membrane. The matrix between the nucleus and the cell membrane
known as cytoplasm. This contains a variety of organelles. An organelle is a distinct
part of a cell which has a particular structure and function. The nucleus is the largest
intra cellular cell organelle, which contains deeply staining material known as
chromatin, which has a particular structure and function. It contain DNA, the genetic
material.

In the case of prokaryotic cell, the DNA lies free in the cytoplasm and the
region is known as nucleoid, where as in the case of eukaryotic cells, the DNA is
found inside the nucleus, which is surrounded by nuclear envelope. Some of the
differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are given in the Table 2.1 below.

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Generally the animal cells are similar to plant cells but the former contains
centriole which is absent in plant cell. Some of the chief differences which are present
in the plant cells are
1. Cell wall which is present outside the cell membrane and pores containing fine
threads known as plasmodesmata link the cytoplasm of neighboring cells
through cell walls.
2. Chloroplast-found in photosynthetic plant cells.
3. Large central vacuole.
The function of various cell organelles are given in the Table 2.2 above.

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Cell Division

Cell is a basic unit of structure and function in all living systems. The process

of reproduction or formation of new cells from the pre-existing cells is referred to as

cell division. In lower organisms like bacteria, cell division takes place by fission of

pre-existing cell. But in higher organisms like eukaryotes there are two types cell

division viz., Mitosis and Meiosis.

Mitosis

The term Mitosis was coined by Flemming in 1882. Mitosis is the process by

which a cell nucleus divides to produce two daughter nuclei containing identical set of

chromosomes to the parent cell. It is usually followed immediately by division of

whole cell to form two daughter cells. This process is known as mitotic cell division.

(Cell division = Karyokinesis + Cytokinesis)

Cell cycle

The sequence of events which occur between one cell division and the next is called

cell cycle. It has two main stages.

1. Interphase

2. Mitosis or M phase (period of cell division)

1. Interphase

It is the period between successive cell divisions consisting of process

associated with growth and preparation for mitosis. The period of DNA synthesis

during interphase is called the ‘S’ phase or synthetic phase and it is separated in time

from the previous cell division by a gap called ‘G1’ phase. G1 phase is the period

between the beginning of interphase and that of DNA synthesis (S phase). After DNA

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synthesis a further gap called ‘G2’ phase occurs before the next cell division begins,

which is the period between termination of DNA synthesis and beginning of prophase

of next cell division. The G1 phase shows considerable variation whereas G2 shows

more constancy for a given type of cell. During interphase, each DNA molecule

replicates an exact copy of itself. This copying process produces a chromosome with

two identical functional strands called chromatids, both attached to a common

centromere.

2. Mitotic phase

The mitotic phase leads to separation of replicated DNA into two daughter

nuclei without recombination (Fig 3.2). The M phase consists of two major events

viz., division of nucleus (Karyokinesis) followed by division of cytoplasm

(cytokinesis). The karyokinesis has got four distinct stages as follows.

2.1. Prophase

1. Coiling and condensation of chromosome takes place which make them

visible as thread like Structures.

2. Each chromosome has two identical longitudinal splits called identical or

sister chromatids, which are attached by common centromere.

3. Migration of centrioles to opposite ends of the cell.

4. Disappearance of nucleolus and beginning of the breakdown of the nuclear

membrane.

5. Formation of spindle fibre.

2.2. Metaphase

1. Formation of spindle fibres is completed and chromosomes are attached to the

spindle fibres at the point of centromere.

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2. Movement and arrangement of all chromosomes on metaphase plate or

equatorial plate.

3. Sister chromatids of each chromosome are joined together at the point of

centromere, but their arms are free.

4. Chromosomes are clearly visible.

2.3. Anaphase

1. This is the shortest phase of the mitotic division.

2. This stage begins with splitting of centromere into two, which allow the sister

chromatids to separate and move to opposite poles.

3. The separated sister chromatids are called as new chromosomes.

4. The arms of each chromosome drag behind their centromeres giving them

characteristic shapes depending up on the location of centromere.

2.4. Telophase

1. Chromosomes reach the opposite poles and spindle fibres begin to

disintegrate.

2. Nuclear membrane is reestablished.

3. Nucleoli is reformed

4. Chromosomes again become thinner and longer by uncoiling and unfolding.

Cytokinesis

It is the division of cytoplasm. This stage normally follows telophase and

leads in to G1 phase of interphase. In animals, cytokinesis is accomplished by

formation of cleavage furrow which deepens and pinches the cell into two daughter

cells. In plants, cytokinesis involves the construction of cell plate at the centre of the

cell and spreading laterally to the cell. Later cellulose and strengthening materials are

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added to the cell plate, converting it into a new cell wall.

Significance of mitosis

1. Genetic stability: Mitosis produces two daughter cells which have the same

number of chromosomes as that of parent cell. These daughter cells are

genetically identical to the parent cell and no genetic variation can be

introduced during mitosis.

2. Growth: The number of cells within the organism is increased by mitosis and

this is the basis for growth of organisms.

3. Cell replacement: Replacement of old cells and dead cells in an organism is

achieved by mitosis.

4. Asexual reproduction: Production of new individuals through asexual

reproduction is achieved by mitosis.

Meiosis

Meiosis is the process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce four

daughter nuclei each containing half the number of chromosomes of the original

nucleus or cell. It is also called as reduction division since it reduces the number of

chromosomes in the cell from the diploid number (2 n) to the haploid number (n).

Like mitosis, it involves DNA replication during interphase in the parent cell, but this

is followed by two cycles of nuclear and cytoplasmic divisions known as Meiosis I

(reduction division) and Meiosis II (multiplication division). Thus, a single diploid

cell gives rise to four haploid cells.

First meiotic division (or) reduction division

It has four stages namely Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and Telophase I.

Prophase I

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1. It is the longest phase of meiotic division. It has five sub stages namely,

Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.

2. Chromosomes are scattered throughout the nucleus in a random manner.

Leptotene

1. Progressive condensation and coiling of chromosome fibres.

2. Chromosomes are scattered throughout the nucleus in a random manner.

Zygotene

1. Chromosomes become shorter and thicker.

2. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side and this pairing process is called

synapsis.

3. Each synapsed homologue is called bivalent. It consists of four chromatid

strands called tetrad.

4. Synaptonemal complex also develops during this stage.

Pachytene

1. Exchange of chromosomal segments between non-sister chromatids of the

homologous chromosome. This process is called crossing over.

2. The point of exchange of chromatid during crossing over is called chiasma.

3. The homologous chromosomes are attached to each other by chiasmata.

4. Synaptonemal complex can be seen between synapsed chromosomes.

Diplotene

1. Separation of homologous chromosomes takes place from one another which

begins from the centromere to end of the chromosomes. This process is called

terminalisation.

2. Nuclelus decreases in size.

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3. Nuclear membrane disappears.

Diakinesis

1. This stage begins after the complete terminalization of chiasmata.

2. Chromosomes are in more contracted stage.

3. Due to further contraction and terminalisation, these appear as round bodies

evenly scattered throughout the cell.

4. Nucleolus disappears.

5. The spindle fibres begin to be formed at the end of this stage.

Metaphase I

1. The homologous chromosomes lie on each side of the equatorial plate and

attached with spindle fibres.

2. Due to the contraction of spindle fibres, centromeres of each chromosome are

directed towards the opposite poles towards the equator.

Anaphase I

1. At first anaphase, the centromeres do not divide, but continue to hold sister

chromatids together.

2. The homologues separate and individual chromosome moves to opposite

poles.

3. This leads to reduction of number of chromosomes from diploid (2n) to

haploid (n) state.

Telophase I

1. Chromosomes uncoil and relax and regrouping of chromosomes occur.

2. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.

3. Two haploid daughter nuclei are formed.

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4. Cytokinesis in telophase I divides diploid mother cell into two haploid (n)

daughter cells. This ends the first meiotic division.

The brief period between the first and second meiotic divisions is called

interkinesis.

Second meiotic division (or) multiplication division

The second meiotic division is essentially a mitotic division. However meiosis II

differs from Mitosis in the following ways.

(i) Interphase (interkinesis) prior to meiosis II is very short. It does not have ‘S’

period because each chromosome already contains two chromatids.

(ii) The two chromatids in each chromosome are not sisters throughout. In

Other words some chromatids have alternate segments of non-sister

chromatids due to recombinations.

(iii) The meiosis II deals with haploid chromosome number, whereas normal

mitosis deals with diploid chromosome number.

Meiosis II has four stages. They are prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II

and telophase II.

In prophase II, the spindle apparatus reappears. By metaphase II, the

centromeres have lined up on the equatorial plane. During anaphase II, the centromere

of each chromosome divide, allowing sister chromatids to separate. Cytokinesis

followed by telophase II divide the two cells into four meiotic products.

Synaptonemal complex

It is a protein framework, which is found between paired chromosomes. It

consists of one central and two lateral elements. There are transverse filaments on

both sides of the central element. The lateral elements are attached to homologous

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chromosomes. Synaptonemal complex is considered to be associated with pairing of

homologous chromosomes and recombination. However, its origin and exact role in

synapsis is still not properly known.

Significance of meiosis

Meiosis enables the chromosome number of a sexually reproducing species to

be kept constant from generation to generation.

Meiosis introduces the genetic variation in the offsprings of sexually reproducing individuals by
means of independent assortment and crossing over (recombination).

The comparison between mitosis and meiosis are briefly presented in Table 3.1.

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Chromosomes

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Chromosomes are the darkly stained bodies seen during the metaphase stage of
mitosis. Strasburger discovered chromosomes in 1875 and the term chromosome was
coined by Waldeyer in 1888. Chromosomes are composed of thin chromatin threads
called chromonemata. These chromonemata undergo coiling & super coiling during
prophase and it becomes readily observable by the light microscope. The main features
of eukaryotic chromosomes are given below.
1. Chromosomes are clearly visible during mitotic metaphase. Hence, they are
studied during metaphase.
2. Chromosomes bear genes in a linear fashion and thus are concerned with
transmission of characters, from generation to generation.
3. Chromosomes of eukaryotes are enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
4. Chromosomes vary in shape, size and number in different species of plants
and animals.
5. Chromosomes have property of self-duplication, segregation and mutation.
6. Chromosomes are composed of DNA, RNA and histones. DNA is the major
genetic constituent of chromosome.
Chromosome shape
Chromosome shape is usually observed during anaphase. The shape of
chromosomes is determined by the position of centromere, a part of chromosome on
which spindle fibres are attached during metaphase. Chromosomes have generally
three different shapes, viz, rod shape, J shape and V shape. These shape are observed
when the centromere occupies terminal, sub-terminal and median (middle) position on
the chromosomes, respectively.
Chromosome size
Chromosome size is measured at mitotic metaphase. It is measured in two ways
viz., in length and diameter. Plants usually have longer chromosomes than animals,
the maximum length of chromosome is observed during interphase and minimum
during anaphase. Chromosome size varies from species to species. Maize
chromosomes have the length of 8-12µ. Giant chromosomes have length upto 300µ.
Chromosome number
Each species has definite and constant somatic and gametic chromosome number.
Somatic chromosome is the number of chromosomes found in somatic cells and it is
represented as diploid number (2n). The somatic cells contain two copies of each
chromosome (except sex chromosome) one of which is inherited from father while
other is inherited from mother. These two chromosomes are identical in morphology,
gene content and gene order and they are known as homologous chromosomes.,
Gametic cells or gamets contain one half of the somatic chromosome number which is
represented by haploid number or (n). The genetic chromosome number of a true
diploid species is called basic number. It is the minimum haploid chromosome
number of any species, which is denoted by x. For example, in wheat, the basic
number is 7, whereas the haploid number is 7, 14 and 21 for diploid, tetraploids and
hexaploid species, respectively. Thus, haploid chromosome number differs from basic
number. Both are same in case of true diploid species but differ in case of polyploidy

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species.
Number of chromosomes varies from 2n=4 (n=2) in Haplopappus gracilis
(Compositae) to 2n=> 12000 in some Pteridophytes. In Plant kingdom, chromosome
number is higher in dicots than in monocots.
Chromosome structure
The structure of chromosome becomes easily visible during metaphase due to
coiling of interphase chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of seven parts, viz., (i)
centromere, (2) chromatids, (3) seconday constriction and sataellite, (4) telomere, (5)
chromomere, (6) Chromonema and (7) matrix. A brief description of these parts is
given below:
1. Centromere (Primary Constriction)
It is a localized region of the chromosome with which spindle fibres are
attaced during metaphase is known as centromeres of primary constriction or
kinetochre. Centromere has four important functions, viz., (i) orientation of
chromosomes at metaspace, (ii) Movement of chromosome during anaphase, (iii)
formation of chromatids, and (iv) chromosomes shape. Centromere may occupy
various positions on the chromosome, viz., terminal, sub-terminal, median etc.
Generally, each chromosome has one centromere, but in some cases, the number of
centromere may vary from nil to many. The centromere divides the chromosome in to
two arms of varying length.
2. Chromatid
One of the two distinct longitudinal subunits of a chromosome is called
chromatid. These subunits of a chromosome get separated during anaphase.
Chromatids are of two types viz., sister chromatids and non-sister chromatids. Sister
chromatids originate from homologous chromosomes. Chromatids are formed due to
chromosome and DNA replication during interphase. Two chromatids of a
chromosome are held together by centromere. After separation at anaphase each
chromatid becomes a chromosome.
3. Secondary Constriction
Some chromosome exhibits secondary constriction in addition to primary
constriction. It may be present either in short or long arm of the chromosome. The
chromosomal region between secondary constriction and nearest telomere (end of the
chromosome) is called as satellite or trapant. The chromosome having satellite is
known as satellite chromosomes. The position of secondary constriction in the
chromosome is constant. The number of satellite chromosome in a genome varies
from species to species.
4. Telomere
The two ends of the chromosomes are known at telomeres. Telomeres are highly
stable and they do not fuse or unite with telomeres of other chromosomes. The
structural integrity and individuality of the chromosome is maintained by telomeres.
5. Nucleolar Organizer Region (NOR)
During interphase, nucleolus of the cell is always associated with secondary
construction of satellite chromosome. So the secondary constriction is also called as

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NOR. The NOR contain several copies of gene coding for ribosomal RNA.
6. Chromomeres
The chromosome of some of the species show small bead like structures called as
chromomeres. The distribution of chromomeres in the chromosome is constant.
Available evidence indicates that chromomere represents a unit of DNA replication,
chromosome coiling, RNA synthesis and RNA processing.
7. Chromonema
Under light microscope, thread like coiled structures are found in the
chromosomes and chromatids which are called chromonema (plural chromonemata).
Chromonema is considered to be associated with three main functions. It controls
size of chromosomes, results in duplication of chromosomes and is the gene bearing
portion of chromosomes.
8. Matrix
A mass of aromatic material in which chromonemata are embedded is called
matrix. Matrix is enclosed in a sheath which is known as pellicle. Both matrix and
pellicle are non genetic materials.
Karyotype
Karyotype is a phenotypic appearance of chromosomes of a particular species. In
the study of kayotype, various features of chromosomes are taken into account viz., (i)
number (ii) position of centromere (iii) size (iv) possibility of satellite (v) degree and
distribution of meterchromatin etc. It is represented by arranging the somatic
chromosome complements according the somatic chromosome complements
according to their length keeping their centromeres in a straight line. Thus, the longest
chromosome is placed in the extreme left and smallest in the extreme right.
Idiogram
Diagramatic representation of morphological features of haploid chromosome
complements of a species is known as ideogram.
Heterochromatin
The region of the chromosome, which takes up deep stain during interphase
and prophase, is called heterochromatin. It is classified into two types, constitutive
heterochromatin and facultative heterochromatin.
i. Constitutive Heterochromatin: The regions centromere and telomere of the
chromosome remain permanently in the heterochromatin stage. ie., it does not
revert to euchromatic stage.
ii. Facultative Heterochromatin: It is the region of the chromosome which
undergo euchromatin stage.
Euchromatin: The region of the chromosome, which takes up little stain during
interphase, is called Euchromatin. It is the active region of the chromosome, involved
in transcription.
Classification of chromosomes
Chromosomes can be classified in different ways. The various criteria which are
usually used for classification of chromosomes include, (i) position of centromere, (ii)
number of centromere, (iii) shape at anaphase, (iv) structure and appearance, (v) role

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in heredity essentiality, (vi) role in sex determination, and (vii) structure and function
(Table 5.1). A brief classification on the bases of these criteria is presented below:

References and Further Reading:

www.anilrana13014.webbly.com

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Advanced Biology by William and Simpkins

The Cell – A molecular Approach by Cooper and Hausman.

Schaum’s Outlines – Genetics by Elrod and Stansfield.

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