Module 4

CO4 – Explain the basic principles of semiconductor physics, photoelectric

effect, LASER action and nanoscience
M4.01 – Discuss the basic principles of semiconductor devices such as diodes and
transistors.
Electron volt (eV)
 Electron volt is a unit of energy used in solid state, atomic, nuclear and particle physics
 It is the energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference
of one volt.
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
Energy Bands in Solids
 The range of energy possessed by the electrons in a solid is called the energy band.
 Valence band is the range of energy possessed by the valence electrons. It is the most
occupied band.
 Conduction band is the range of energy possessed by the conduction electrons. It is
the least occupied band.
 The energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the
valence band is called the forbidden energy gap.

Conductors
 A good conductor or a metal has approximately half-filled conduction band or else the
conduction band overlaps with the valence band.
 Energy Bandgap (Eg) is zero
 Conductors have high conductivity (102 Ω-1m-1 to 108 Ω-1m-1)
 Conductors have low resistivity (10-2 Ωm to 10-8 Ωm)
 Examples – Gold, Silver, Aluminium
Insulators
 In an insulating material, the valance band is filled and empty conduction band.
  There is a large forbidden energy band gap between the valance band and conduction
band (> 3eV).
 Insulators have low conductivity (10-11 Ω-1m-1 to 10-19 Ω-1m-1)
 Insulators have high resistivity (1011 Ωm to 1019 Ωm)
 Examples – Rubber, Mica
Semiconductors
 In a semiconductor, the valance band is filled like an insulator and the forbidden energy
gap between valance band and conduction band is less than 3eV.
 Conductivity between Conductors and Insulators (105 Ω-1m-1 to 10-6 Ω-1m-1)
 Resistivity between Conductors and Insulators (10-5 Ωm to 106 Ωm).
 Examples – Germanium, Silicon
 Semiconductors can be generally classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic
semiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Extremely pure semiconductors without any impurities are known as intrinsic
semiconductors.

 At absolute zero (0 K), intrinsic semiconductors have completely filled valence band
and empty conduction band.
 When the temperature is increased, the thermal energy is sufficient for the electrons in
the valence band to jump into conduction band leaving oppositely charged vacancies
known as holes in the valence band.
 Both the electrons and holes take part in the conduction.
 In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons is equal to the number of hole.
 Examples: Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si)
Extrinsic Semiconductors
 At room temperature the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is very low.
 The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor so as to increase its
conductivity is called doping.
 Doped semiconductors are called Extrinsic semiconductors
 There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors – n-type semiconductor and p-type
semiconductor.
n-type semiconductors
 When a pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor crystal, an n-type
semiconductor is formed.
 For each impurity atom added, a free electron is created in the crystal.
 In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are
the minority charge carriers (ne >> nh).
 The pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence it is
known as donor impurity.
 In n-type semiconductors an extra energy level called donor energy level is produced
just below the conduction band.
 Pentavalent impurities – Arsenic (As), Phosphorous (P), Bismuth (Bi) and Antimony
(Sb)

p-type semiconductors
 When a trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor crystal, an n-type
semiconductor is formed.
 For each impurity atom added, a hole is created in the crystal.
 In a p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the
minority charge carriers (nh >> ne).
 The trivalent dopant accepts an extra electron and hence it is called acceptor impurity.
 In p-type semiconductors an extra energy level called acceptor energy level is
produced just above the valence band.
 Trivalent impurities – Boron (B), Indium (In), and Gallium (Ga).
Band structures of Extrinsic semiconductors

p-n Junction
 A junction formed when a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor are brought
together is called a p-n junction.
 Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and
drift.
 Due to concentration differences, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side.

 Due to diffusion, a layer of negative charge is developed at the p-region of the junction
and a layer of positive charge is developed at the n-region of the junction. This
positively and negatively charged region is called depletion region.
 The potential difference between the depletion region is called potential barrier.
 The thermally generated electrons on the p-region moves towards the n-region and the
thermally generated holes on the n-region moves towards the p-region due the potential
barrier. This motion is called drift.
 The value of potential barrier is 0.6 to 0.7 V for a p-n junction made up of silicon and
is approximately 0.3 V for a germanium p-n junction.
p-n Junction diode
 A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for
the application of an external voltage.
p-n Junction diode under forward bias

 In forward bias, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the
negative terminal to the n-side of the p-n junction diode.
 Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach
p-side and holes from p-side cross the junction and reach the n-side. This process under
forward bias is known as minority carrier injection.
 Due to forward bias, the width of the depletion region reduces.
 Due to forward bias, the value of potential barrier decreases.
 The junction offers a very low resistance called forward resistance and the current
increases sharply with forward voltage.
 The current increases slowly till the forward bias voltage reaches 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7
V for Si p-n junction. These voltages are called knee voltage (Vk).
 After knee voltage, there is an exponential rise in the forward current.
p-n Junction diode under Reverse bias

 In forward bias, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the
negative terminal to the p-side of the p-n junction diode.
 When a diode is reverse biased, due to the attraction from the reverse biasing, holes and
electrons move away from the junction.
 Due to reverse bias, the width of the depletion region increases.
 Due to reverse bias, the value of potential barrier increases.
 The junction offers a very high resistance called reverse resistance.
 If the reverse-bias voltage across a p-n junction diode is increased, at a particular
voltage the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This phenomenon is
called breakdown of the diode and the voltage at which it occurs is called the breakdown
voltage (Vbr).
Application of diodes
1) Diode as rectifier
 Rectifier is a device which converts AC to DC.
 p-n junction diode offers very low resistance in the forward bias and very high
resistance in the reverse bias.
 If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of
the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating
voltages and the circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier.

2) Diode as a voltage regulator (Zener diode)

 A diode meant to operate in the breakdown region under reverse bias is called a Zener
diode.
 Once the breakdown occurs, the potential difference across the diode does not increase
even if the applied battery potential is increased. Such diodes are used to obtain constant
voltage output. The current through the diode changes but the voltage across it remains
essentially the same.

3) Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photodetectors)

 A Photodiode is a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent
window to allow light to fall on the diode.
 It is operated under reverse bias.
 Under illumination electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
 Due to electric field of the junction, electrons and holes are separated before they
recombine.
 Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an emf.
 When an external load is connected, current flows.
 The magnitude of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light
(photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity).

4) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light
 An LED converts electrical energy to light energy.
 It is a heavily doped p-n junction in forward bias.
 The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover
  When an electron makes a transition from conduction band to valance band photons
with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap is emitted.
 The compound semiconductor Gallium Arsenide – Phosphide is used for making LEDs
of different colours.

5) Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into electricity (Solar Cell)
 A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls
on the p-n junction.
 It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no
external bias is applied, and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to
be incident.
Transistors
 A transistor is a three terminal device.
 There are two types of transistors: n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor.
 A transistor is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of a p-type semiconductor between
two layers of n-type semiconductors (n-p-n transistor) or by sandwiching a thin layer
of an n-type semiconductor between two layers of p-type semiconductors (p-n-p
transistor).
 Depending upon the size and doping concentration the different regions in the transistor
are designated as Emitter, Base and Collector.
 Emitter is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of majority
carriers for the current flow through the transistor. This is the segment on one side of
the transistor.
 Base is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.
 Collector is moderately doped. It is larger in size than emitter, which is larger than base.
This segment collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter.

 Suitable potential differences should be applied across the two junctions to operate the
transistor. This is called biasing the transistor.
 In normal operation of a transistor, the emitter–base junction is always forward-biased
whereas the collector–base junction is reverse-biased.
 A transistor can be operated in three different modes: common emitter configuration or
CE configuration (here the emitter region is grounded), common collector
configuration or CC configuration (here the collector region is grounded) and common
base configuration or CB configuration (here the base region is grounded).
Applications of Transistors

1) Transistor as a switch
 When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation state it acts as a switch.
 If the input voltage is very low the transistor is said to be in cut off state and it does
not conduct (switched off)
 If the input voltage is very high the transistor is said to be in saturation state and it
conducts (switched on)
 Thus a low input switches the transistor off and a high input switches it on.

2) Transistor as an amplifier
 Amplifiers are used to amplify alternating signals.
 Transistors can act as amplifiers while they are functioning in the active region or when
it is correctly biased.
 If the transistor is properly biased, the collector (output) current 𝐼𝐶 is directly
proportional to the base (input) current 𝐼𝐵 and the transistor act as a current amplifier.
𝐼𝐶 ∝ 𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛.

3) Transistor as an oscillator
 Oscillator is a device used to convert dc voltage into ac voltage.
 When a portion of the output power of an amplifier is returned back (feedback) to the
input in phase with the starting power it acts as an oscillator.
 The feedback can be achieved by inductive coupling (through mutual inductance) or
LC or RC networks.

M4.02 – Explain photoelectric effect and its applications.

Photoelectric effect
 When light of sufficient wavelength is incident on some metal surface, electrons are
ejected from the metal. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.
 The electrons ejected from the metal are called photoelectrons.

Laws/Properties/Experimental observations of Photoelectric effect

1) The photoelectric effect is frequency dependent:

  There is a particular frequency above which the photoemission of electrons happens.
This frequency is called as threshold frequency (υ0).
2) The photoelectric current is intensity dependent:
 The number of photoelectrons generated determines the photocurrent.
 If the incident wave frequency is higher than or equal to the threshold frequency the
photocurrent generated is proportional to the intensity of radiation.
3) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process:
 There is no time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of photoelectrons
for the incident wave with sufficient frequency.

Einstein’s Explanation to Photoelectric effect

 Einstein explained photoelectric effect using Planck's quantum theory.
 According to quantum theory, light consists of small packets of energy called quantum
or photon.
 If ‘h’ is the Planck’s constant, ‘c’ is the velocity of light, ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is
the wavelength of the incident photon. The energy (E) of a photon is given by,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 =
𝜆
 According to Einstein, when a photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 is incident on a metal surface,
its energy is used for two purposes.
1. Energy required to remove electron from the metal surface called photoelectric
work function (hυ0).
2. Kinetic energy of the emitted photo electrons. If m is the mass of the electron
1
and v is its velocity, then kinetic energy 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
 Therefore, Einstein’s photoelectric equation can be written as
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
= 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
1
ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Photocells
 Photocells are sensors used to detect light or the intensity of light.
 Photocells convert light energy into electrical energy by employing photoelectric effect.
 The main parts of the photocell are an evacuated glass tube, which contains two metal
electrodes namely Anode (Collector) and Cathode (Emitter).
 The metal electrodes are kept at a potential difference by an external battery or source
through a rheostat and a commutator.
 In series to the source an ammeter or a galvanometer is connected.
 The emitter electrode or cathode C is plated with materials which shows photoelectric
effect.
 When light of suitable frequency is incident on the emitter electrode through the
transparent evacuated glass tube, photoelectric effect happens, and photoelectrons are
emitted from the emitter electrode or cathode.
 These photoelectrons pass through the anode terminal and to the positive of the battery
through the ammeter and produces a current.
 This current is termed as photocurrent.
Applications of Photoelectric Effect
 Photoelectric cell is used as an illumination meter to measure the illuminating power of
light sources.
 A burglar alarm can be constructed with a photoelectric cell.
 Photoelectric cell is used in relay circuits.
 Photoelectric cell is used to reproduce sound recorded in a talkie film.
 An array of photoelectric cell is used in television cameras for the conversion of light
into electric signals.
 Photoelectric cells are used in automatic cameras to detect the ambient light and adjust
the lenses to get clear photographs.

Solar cell
 Solar cells are semi-conductor devices which use sunlight to produce electricity.
 An unbiased p–n junction is used for charge carrier separation.
 The generation of emf/voltage by a solar cell is due to the three basic processes:
generation, separation and collection of mobile charge carriers.
 When light falls on the p-n junction electron-hole pairs are generated on the depletion
region (generation).
 The electron moves towards the n side and hole moves towards the p side due to the
potential barrier (separation).
 Electrons and holes are collected by the contacts on the n and p side (collection)
 If the ends of the contacts are connected to a load, these charge carriers flow through
the conducting wire to the load and create a current.
Applications of Solar cells
 Solar cells along with storage batteries are used in many electrical appliances
 Solar cells are used as energy source in satellites and space stations
 Solar cells are used in calculators
 Solar cells are used to power the electric vehicles.

M4.03 – Discuss the principles of LASER action and explain the working of
semiconductor laser and He – Ne laser.
 LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Absorption, Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission
Absorption
 An atomic system can exist in different energy levels.
 The energy level of an atom with lowest energy is called ground state and levels of
higher energy are called exited states.
 An atom in the ground state can absorb energy and undergo transition to exited states.
This process is called absorption.
 An atom in exited state can come down to ground state by emitting a photon in two
ways: Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission.
Spontaneous emission
 Since the atoms prefer to stay in the ground state, the excited atoms return to the ground
state without any external stimuli by emitting a photon of same frequency as that of the
originally absorbed photon. This process is called spontaneous emission.
 The direction and phase of the spontaneously emitted photons are random.
 Spontaneous emission cannot produce lasing action.

Stimulated emission
 A photon striking an exited atom can induce a transition from exited state to the ground
state by emitting another photon. This process is called stimulated emission.
 The major feature of the stimulated emission is that the emitted radiation has the same
phase and frequency as that of the stimulating photon.
 Stimulated emission can produce lasing action.

Basic operation of LASER

 A laser is basically an optical oscillator.
  It consists of an amplifying medium placed inside a suitable optical resonator or cavity.
 Generally, the laser action involves the following processes:
Pumping
 Pumping is the process of excitation of ground state atom to excited state.
 There are different pumping methods employed in various lasers.
Population inversion
 Population inversion is the necessary condition to achieve lasing action.
 In atomic system, under normal conditions, the number of atoms in the ground state is
much higher than that in the exited states.
 By supplying energy from outside, atoms in the ground state undergo transition to
exited states.
 As a result of this, the number of atoms in the exited state becomes higher than that at
the ground state. This condition is called population inversion.
Amplification
 The optical cavity or resonator of laser usually consists of two mirrors between which
the amplifying medium is located.
 Under population inversion condition, a spontaneously emitted photon can induce
exited atom to emit an identical photon. These two photons will stimulate two more and
so on.
 Since the amplifying medium is placed inside an optical resonator, radiation produced
in the amplifying medium bounces back and forth between the mirrors. In this way, it
gets amplified.
Coherent emission
 The amplified waves in the cavity are in same phase so that the output laser light is
coherent.
 The output laser light will have high directionality and high intensity.

Methods for producing Population inversion

1) Optical Pumping
 Optical pumping is a process in which light energy is used to excite electrons from a
lower to higher energy level for attaining population inversion.
 Optical pumping is used in solid state laser
 Example: Ruby Laser

2) Electron excitation
 This is a type of electrical pumping.
 Direct electron excitation by gaseous discharge is used to produce the population
inversion.
 This method is used in some of the gaseous ion lasers.
 Example: Argon laser.

3) Inelastic atom-atom collisions

 In this method a high voltage electric discharge acts as a pump source.
 However, in this method, a combination of two types of gases A and B are used.
  During electric discharge, gas A at ground state gets excited to higher energy state and
becomes A*.
 The excited state A* collides with gas B at ground state and excites it to higher energy
state B*. Thus population inversion condition is achieved in gas B.
 Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser uses this method.
A* + B = A + B*

4) Chemical pumping
 In chemical pumping, chemical reactions are employed for achieving population
inversion condition.
 In this method a molecule is caused to undergo a chemical change in which one of the
products of the reaction is a molecule or an atom in an excited state.
 The lasers which employ chemical pumping are called chemical lasers.

Characteristics of LASER
 Laser light is monochromatic:
The laser radiation is composed of a single colour or wavelength
 Laser light is highly coherent:
The waves in the laser radiation are in same phase and frequency
 Laser light is highly intense:
Since the number of waves per unit area is large and are in same phase, the laser light
is highly intense.
 Laser light is highly directional and has low divergence:
This is because of the fact that the laser light is highly coherent.

He-Ne LASER

 Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is gas laser.

Construction
 The essential parts of He-Ne laser are shown in the figure.
 The working substance of this laser is a mixture of helium and neon gas in the ratio
10:1.
 The gas mixture is placed in a long discharge tube, typically 50 cm long and 0.5 cm
diameter.
 The pressure inside the tube is nearly 1 mm of mercury.
  Discharge electrodes are attached to the discharge tube.
 The tube has a fully silvered mirror and partially silvered mirror (transparent) at its
ends.
Working
 When the discharge is maintained in the tube by an electric field, electrons are
produced.
 Electrons collide with atoms in the tube.
 The helium atoms are soon raised to higher energy states by electrons collisions.
 When the excited helium atoms collide with the neon atoms in the ground state, the
excitation energy of helium is transferred to the neon atoms.
 In this way, a large number of neon atoms are raised to the excited states and population
inversion is achieved.
 Under this condition, a spontaneously emitted photon can trigger laser action and an
intense laser beam is emitted through the partially silvered mirror by amplification
between the two mirrors.
 The output of He-Ne laser has a wavelength of 632.8 nm.

Semiconductor LASER
 The most compact laser is the semiconductor diode laser, also called as the injection
laser.
Construction
 In its simplest form the diode laser consists of a p-n junction in a doped single crystal
of a suitable semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs).
 The junction layer is very thin of the order of micrometers in length.
 The end faces of the crystal are made partially reflective by polishing to form an optical
resonator.
Working
 When a forward bias is applied to the diode, electrons are injected into the p side of the
junction and holes are injected into the n side.
 The recombination of holes and electrons within the junction region result in
recombination radiation.
 If the junction current density is large enough, a population inversion can be obtained
between the electron levels and hole levels. Stimulated emission can then occur and
thereby lasing action.
 The threshold current density for gallium arsenide injection laser is about 104 A/cm 2
and the emitted radiation is in the near infrared, about 830 to 859 nm.

Applications of LASER
 Laser can be used as tool for surgery (Ophthalmic surgery).
 Laser is used for precision cutting, drilling, and welding.
 Laser beam can be used as a carrier of information (telephone signal through optical
fiber cables).
 Laser based methods are used to guide missiles and pilot-less fighter planes.
 Laser is used for range finding (measurement of distance of faraway objects).
 Laser is used in Holography or 3D imaging.
  Laser is used to initiate fusion reaction.
 Laser is used to read and write data in CD/DVD systems.
 Laser is used in printing technology (Laser printer).
 Laser is used in textile industry to perfectly cut many layers of cloths together.

M4.04 – Summarize the basic concepts of nanoscience and its importance

Significance of Nanomaterials
 The study of objects and phenomena at a very small scale (1-100 nanometers) is called
nanoscience.
 In nanometer scale the material properties are size and shape dependent.
 The large surface area of nanomaterials enhances the properties such as reactivity,
strength and electrical characteristics.
 Nanotechnology is the design, characterization, production and application of
structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at nanometer scale.
Distinguishing properties of Nanomaterials
 A bulk material should have constant physical properties, but at the nanoscale size-
dependent properties are observed.
 Percentage of atoms at the surface of a material is increased
 Increased surface area
 Aspect ratio or surface to volume ratio will increase considerably
Properties of bulk gold and nano gold particles
Properties Bulk Gold Nano Gold
Colour Yellow Red
Electrical conductivity Conductive Less Conductive
Magnetism Non-Magnetic Becomes Magnetic
Chemical reactivity Chemically inert Explosive, Catalytic

Characteristics of Nanomaterials
 Nano fiber is stronger than spider web
 Nano metal is 100 times stronger than steel
 Nano catalysts respond more quickly in reaction
 Nano plastics that conduct electricity.
 Nano coatings are frictionless
 Nano materials that change colour and transparency
 Nano scale powders better than metal for radiation protection.
Developments of Nanoscience to Technology
 Nanotechnology enables computational power. The computer simulations help for
studying the drug discovery process.
 Nano-engineering is leading to better fuel cells and photovoltaic cells.
 Nano-engineered catalysts can be used extraction of oils.
  The replacement of carbon black in tyres by inorganic clays is a new technology
(Leading to the production of environmentally friendly, wear-resistant tyres).
 LED s produced on nanoscale dimensions.
 Nanotechnology improves medical imaging.
 Nanomaterials will yield lighter, faster, safer durable, reliable bridges, pipelines etc.
 Nano coatings used in shipping industry.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
 Carbon is tetravalent material so that it can form a sheet like structure.
 Carbon nanotube is an allotrope of carbon
 If the sheet of carbon atom network is folded like tube of nano scale diameter, it is
called as carbon nanotube.
 There are two types of carbon nanotubes, namely single walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) and Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).
 The single walled carbon nanotube is a two dimensional hexagonal lattice of carbon
atoms rolled up as a hollow cylinder.
 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) consisting of nested single-wall carbon
nanotubes which are weakly bound together by van der Waals interactions in a tree
ring-like structure.
 The length of the tube might be larger than the diameter of the CNTs.
Properties of carbon nanotubes
 Length to diameter ratio is about 106.
 Density is one sixth of steel
 Young’s modulus is five times greater than steel
 Tensile strength is fifty times higher than steel
 High chemical stability
 Good thermal conductivity
 Tunable electrical conductivity
Applications of carbon nanotubes
 Medical applications:
Nanotubes can help with cancer treatment
Nanotubes can help with treating cardiovascular diseases
Nanotubes play an important role in blood vessel cleanup
Nanotubes are used in tissue engineering
 Used to make temperature resistant adhesive tape
 CNTs are used in modern bicycle parts since they had better hardness with less weight
 CNTs are used as epoxy resins in wind turbines, marine paints and a variety of sports
gear such as skis, ice hockey sticks, baseball bats, hunting arrows, and surfboards.
 CNTs are used in shuttle badminton rackets so that they are light weight and strong.
 CNTs can be applied to camera and telescope systems to decrease the amount of light
and thereby allow for more detailed images to be captured.