Computer Network

1.Explain Simplex, half duplex and full duplex.

Ans –
 Simplex -In simplex transmission mode, the communication
between sender and receiver occurs in only one direction. The
sender can only send the data, and the receiver can only receive
the data. The receiver cannot reply to the sender. Simplex
transmission can be thought of as a one-way road in which the
traffic travels only in one direction—no vehicle coming from the
opposite direction is allowed to drive through.
 Half Duplex - The communication between sender and receiver
occurs in both directions in half-duplex transmission, but only one at
a time. The sender and receiver can both send and receive the
information, but only one is allowed to send at any given time. Half-
duplex is still considered a one-way road, in which a vehicle
travelling in the opposite direction of the traffic has to wait till the
road is empty before it can pass through.
 Full Duplex - In full-duplex transmission mode, the communication
between sender and receiver can occur simultaneously. The sender
and receiver can both transmit and receive at the same time. The
full-duplex transmission mode is like a two-way road, in which traffic
can flow in both directions at the same time.

2.Explain LAN, MAN and WAN?

Ans –
LAN stands for local area network. It is a group of network devices that
allow communication between various connected devices. Private
ownership has control over the local area network rather than the public.
LAN has a short propagation delay than MAN as well as WAN. It covers
smaller areas such as colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on.
MAN stands for metropolitan area network. It covers a larger area than
LAN such as small towns, cities, etc. MAN connects two or more
computers that reside within the same or completely different cities. MAN
is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
WAN stands for wide area network. It covers a large area than LAN as well
as a MAN such as country/continent etc. WAN is expensive and should or
might not be owned by one organization. PSTN or satellite medium is used
for wide area networks.

3.Explain OSI Model of Network?

Ans -OSI Stands for Open System Interconnection. Open System
Interconnection is an open standard for all communication systems.
OSI model is established by International Standard Organization
(ISO). This model has seven layers:
 Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing
interface to the application user. This layer encompasses
protocols which directly interact with the user.
 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the
native format of remote host should be presented in the native
format of host.
 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote
hosts. For example, once user/password authentication is
done, the remote host maintains this session for a while and
does not ask for authentication again in that time span.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end
delivery between hosts.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address
assignment and uniquely addressing hosts in a network.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and
writing data from and onto the line. Link errors are detected at
this layer.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling
wiring, power output, pulse rate etc.

4.Explain TCP/IP Model of Network?

Ans – TCP/IP Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This
defines Internet Model which contains four layered architectures. OSI
Model is general communication model but Internet Model is what the
internet uses for all its communication. The internet is independent of its
underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the
following layers:

 Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which

enables user to interact with the network. For example, FTP,
HTTP etc.
 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow
between hosts. Major protocol at this layer is Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data delivered
between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end
delivery.
 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This
layer facilitates host addressing and recognition. This layer
defines routing. An internet layer is also known as the network
layer.
 Network access Layer: A network layer is the lowest layer of
the TCP/IP model. A network layer is the combination of the
 Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference
model. It defines how the data should be sent physically
through the network.

6.Explain Multiplexing and Demultiplexing?

Ans –
Multiplexing - Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple data
streams from different sources into a single, higher-bandwidth data
stream that can be transmitted over a shared network medium. This helps
to optimize the use of available bandwidth and enables multiple users or
devices to share the same network connection. Common examples of
multiplexing in computer networking include time-division multiplexing
(TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and code-division
multiplexing (CDM).

Demultiplexing - Demultiplexing is the reverse process of separating the

combined data stream into individual data streams, each destined for a
different recipient or application. Demultiplexing is usually performed at
the receiving end of the transmission and is achieved through the use of
demultiplexing protocols that can distinguish between different data
streams based on their source address, destination address, port
numbers, or other characteristics.

There are several types of multiplexing techniques, including:

 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): In TDM, multiple signals are
interleaved together in time. Each signal is given a specific time slot
during which it is transmitted. This is commonly used in digital
systems such as telephone networks.
 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): In FDM, each signal is
assigned a different frequency band within the transmission
medium. This allows multiple signals to be transmitted
simultaneously without interfering with each other. This technique is
often used in analog systems, such as radio and television
broadcasting.
 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM): WDM is used in fiber
optic communication systems, where multiple signals are
transmitted simultaneously on different wavelengths of light within
the same fiber optic cable.
7.Explain is Protocol Layering?
Ans - A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a
language that devices will use to communicate. There are an excellent
range of protocols in use extensively in networking, and that they are
usually implemented in numerous layers.
It provides a communication service where the process is used to
exchange the messages. When the communication is simple, we can use
only one simple protocol.
When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between
different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this
technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us to
separate the services from the implementation.
Each layer needs to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to
give the services to the upper layer. The modification done in any one
layer will not affect the other layers.
The most commonly used model for protocol layering is the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model, which divides the communication
process into seven layers:

8.Write a difference between broadcast and point

to point?
Ans - Broadcast communication refers to a method of sending data to all
devices on a network simultaneously. In a broadcast communication, the
sender transmits data to all devices on the network, and all devices
receive the data. This type of communication is used in networks where it
is important to reach all devices, such as in broadcasting a message to all
clients in a local area network (LAN).
Point-to-point communication, on the other hand, refers to a method of
sending data from one device to another device. In point-to-point
communication, the sender transmits data to a specific recipient device,
and only the recipient device receives the data. This type of
communication is used in networks where it is important to ensure that
the data is only received by the intended recipient, such as in secure data
transmission.
In summary, the main difference between broadcast and point-to-point
communication is the number of devices that receive the data. Broadcast
communication sends data to all devices on the network, while point-to-
point communication sends data to a specific recipient device.
9.Explain the concept incapsulation and
decapsulation.
Ans - Encapsulation and decapsulation are concepts used in computer
networking to describe how data is packaged and unpackaged as it travels
across a network.
Encapsulation is the process of taking data and adding protocol headers
and trailers to it so that it can be transmitted across a network. The
purpose of encapsulation is to add additional information to the data that
is needed for the data to reach its destination. For example, if you were
sending an email, the email message would be encapsulated in a protocol
such as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), which would add
information to the message such as the sender's and recipient's email
addresses.
Decapsulation is the opposite process of encapsulation. It is the process of
removing the protocol headers and trailers from the data that was added
during encapsulation. This is done when the data reaches its destination
and needs to be processed. For example, when an email message arrives
at its destination, the SMTP protocol header is removed so that the email
message can be read and processed by the email client.

10.What is network topology? Explain its types.

Ans - Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a
network, which describes how the devices in a network are connected and
how they communicate with each other.
There are several types of network topology, including:
 Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a
single cable called a bus. The devices communicate with each other
by transmitting data packets along the bus. This topology is simple
and inexpensive to implement, but it can be difficult to troubleshoot
when there is a problem, and performance can suffer as more
devices are added to the bus.
 Star Topology: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a
central hub or switch. The hub or switch is responsible for
transmitting data packets between devices. This topology is easy to
troubleshoot and can handle high traffic volumes, but it can be
expensive to implement and requires a lot of cabling.
 Ring Topology: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a
closed loop, with each device connected to the device before and
after it. Data packets travel in one direction around the ring, and
each device receives and retransmits the data packets until they
reach their destination. This topology is resilient and can handle
 high traffic volumes, but if one device fails, the entire network can
be affected.
 Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, each device is connected to
every other device in the network. This provides multiple paths for
data to travel, which can improve performance and reliability.
However, it can be expensive to implement and can be difficult to
manage as the network grows.
 Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology combines two or more of the
above topologies to create a more flexible and scalable network. For
example, a star-bus topology combines the simplicity of a bus
topology with the reliability and performance of a star topology.

11. State and explain switching and its different

methods?
Ans - Switching is the process of forwarding data packets from one
network node to another. It is a key function of computer networking that
enables devices to communicate with each other across a network.
Switching can be performed using various methods, including:
1. Circuit Switching: In circuit switching, a dedicated physical
connection is established between two devices for the duration of a
communication session. This connection remains active even when
there is no data being transmitted, which can lead to inefficiencies
in network utilization. Circuit switching is commonly used in
traditional telephone networks.
2. Packet Switching: In packet switching, data is broken up into
small packets and transmitted over a shared communication
medium. Each packet contains the source and destination address,
as well as other control information. Packets are then routed
through the network to their destination using the most efficient
path. Packet switching is used in modern computer networks and is
more efficient than circuit switching.
3. Message Switching: In message switching, data is divided into
messages, which are then transmitted from one node to another in
a store-and-forward manner. Messages are temporarily stored at
each intermediate node until the next node becomes available.
Message switching is slower than packet switching but can be useful
in situations where network traffic is low.

12. What is transmission media. Explain it’s

different types.
Ans - Transmission media, also known as communication channels, refer
to the physical means by which data is transmitted from one device to
another in a network. There are three main types of transmission media:
Guided Transmission Media: Guided transmission media are those that
use a physical path to transmit data signals from one device to another.
Examples of guided transmission media include:
 Twisted pair cable: consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
around each other to reduce interference and is commonly used for
telephone and Ethernet connections.
 Coaxial cable: consists of a central conductor surrounded by
insulation, a braided metal shield, and an outer plastic covering. It is
commonly used for cable TV and broadband Internet connections.
 Fiber-optic cable: consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that
transmit data as light signals. It is commonly used for high-speed
Internet connections and long-distance data transmission.
Unguided Transmission Media: Unguided transmission media are
those that use the atmosphere or space as the medium for transmitting
data signals. Examples of unguided transmission media include:
 Broadcast radio: used in radio and television broadcasting to
transmit signals to a large number of devices.
 Microwave: used for short-distance communication, such as
between buildings or within a campus.
 Bluetooth: used for short-range wireless communication between
devices, such as smartphones and headphones.

13. Differentiate between guided and unguided

transmission media.
Guided Transmission Media Unguided Transmission Media

Use a physical path to transmit data Use the atmosphere or space as the
signals medium for transmitting data signals

Examples include twisted pair cable, Examples include broadcast radio,

coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable microwave, and Bluetooth

Typically have higher data transfer rates Typically have lower data transfer
and are more secure rates and are less secure

Can be affected by external factors such Can be affected by external factors

as electromagnetic interference (EMI) and such as weather conditions and
radio frequency interference (RFI) interference from other wireless
 Guided Transmission Media Unguided Transmission Media

signals

Can transmit signals over long

Have a limited range of transmission distances

Need to be physically installed and Do not require physical installation

maintained and are easy to set up

14. Define Pulse Modulation.

Ans - Pulse modulation is a technique of converting analog signals into
digital signals by sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and
representing the samples as a series of pulses. The amplitude, duration,
and position of the pulses are used to represent the magnitude, timing,
and duration of the original analog signal. Pulse modulation is widely used
in digital communication systems to transmit analog signals over a digital
channel.

15. Define quantization and quantization error.

Ans - Quantization is the process of approximating a continuous analog
signal with a discrete set of values. In digital signal processing,
quantization is used to represent an analog signal using a finite number of
bits. The goal of quantization is to minimize the error between the original
analog signal and the quantized digital signal.
Quantization error is the difference between the original analog signal and
the quantized digital signal. The quantization error occurs because the
original analog signal cannot be perfectly represented by a finite set of
discrete values. The quantization error can be reduced by increasing the
number of bits used to represent the signal, but this also increases the
size of the digital signal.

16. What is digital transmission. Also explain

term encoding and modulation
Ans - Digital transmission is the process of sending digital data from
one device to another over a communication channel. Digital data is
represented by binary digits (bits) that can have two possible values,
typically 0 and 1. Digital transmission is widely used in modern
communication systems, including computer networks,
telecommunication systems, and satellite communication systems.
Encoding is the process of converting digital data into a specific format
for transmission. This is necessary because the data needs to be in a
format that can be sent over the transmission medium. Encoding can be
achieved using various techniques such as pulse code modulation (PCM),
differential pulse code modulation (DPCM), and adaptive differential pulse
code modulation (ADPCM).
Modulation is the process of encoding digital data onto an analog carrier
signal for transmission over a communication channel. This is necessary
because most transmission media are designed to carry analog signals,
not digital signals. Modulation can be achieved using various techniques
such as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and
phase shift keying (PSK).

17. Define digital signal also define the terms bit

interval, bit rate, baud rate.
Ans - A digital signal is a sequence of binary digits (bits) that represents
digital data. Each bit in a digital signal can have two possible values,
typically represented as 0 and 1. Digital signals are used in modern
communication systems because they are less susceptible to noise and
interference than analog signals, and they can transmit data more reliably
and efficiently.
Bit interval: The bit interval is the time duration of each bit in a digital
signal. It is usually measured in seconds and is calculated as the inverse
of the bit rate. For example, if the bit rate is 1 Mbps, the bit interval would
be 1 microsecond.
Bit rate: The bit rate is the number of bits that are transmitted per unit of
time in a digital signal. It is usually measured in bits per second (bps) or
its multiples, such as kilobits per second (Kbps) or megabits per second
(Mbps).
Baud rate: The baud rate is the number of signal elements (such as
voltage or frequency changes) that are transmitted per unit of time in a
digital signal. It is usually measured in bauds or symbols per second. The
baud rate is equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits per signal
element.

18. What is throughput? How is it different from

bandwidth
Ans - Throughput is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a
communication channel in a given period of time. It is usually measured in
bits per second (bps), or its multiples such as kilobits per second (Kbps),
megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Throughput
can be affected by various factors such as channel capacity, noise,
interference, and congestion.
The main difference between throughput and bandwidth is that
throughput measures the actual amount of data that is transmitted over a
communication channel in a given period of time, while bandwidth
represents the theoretical maximum capacity of the channel

Unit 2

1. Explain different functions of data link layer.

Ans - Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is
one of the most complicated layers and has complex functionalities and
liabilities. Data link layer hides the details of underlying hardware and
represents itself to upper layer as the medium to communicate. The data
link layer are divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC)
and Media Access Control (MAC) sublayers.
Functionality of Data-link Layer
 Framing - Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer
and encapsulates them into Frames. Then, it sends each frame
bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data link layer
picks up signals from hardware and assembles them into
frames.
 Addressing - Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware
addressing mechanism. Hardware address is assumed to be
unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of
manufacturing.
 Synchronization - When data frames are sent on the link,
both machines must be synchronized in order to transfer to
take place.
 Error Control - Sometimes signals may have encountered
problem in transition and the bits are flipped. These errors are
detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also
provides error reporting mechanism to the sender.
 Flow Control - Stations on same link may have different
speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures flow control that
enables both machines to exchange data on same speed.

2. Explain two different types of IP address

mapping
Ans - IP address mapping refers to the process of associating an IP
address with a physical or logical address of a device on a network. There
are two main types of IP address mapping:
Static IP Address Mapping: In static IP address mapping, an IP address
is manually assigned to a device on the network. This is usually done by a
network administrator or through the configuration settings of the device
itself. Once assigned, the IP address remains the same unless it is
manually changed. Static IP address mapping is commonly used in local
area networks (LANs), where the number of devices is limited and network
traffic is relatively low.
Dynamic IP Address Mapping: In dynamic IP address mapping, IP
addresses are assigned dynamically to devices on the network using the
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). DHCP is a network protocol
that enables network administrators to manage and automate the process
of assigning IP addresses to devices on the network. When a device
connects to the network, it sends a request to a DHCP server for an IP
address. The DHCP server assigns an available IP address to the device
and configures other network settings, such as subnet mask and default
gateway.

3. What is ARP? Explain its operations

Ans - ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol, which is a network
protocol used to map a network layer (IP) address to a physical address
(MAC) address. The ARP protocol operates at the data link layer (Layer 2)
of the OSI model, and it is used by network devices to determine the MAC
address of a device that corresponds to a given IP address.
Here are the operations performed by ARP:
ARP Request: When a device needs to send a data packet to another
device on the same network, it first checks if the destination IP address is
in its ARP cache (a table that stores recently resolved IP-MAC address
mappings). If the IP address is not found in the ARP cache, the device
sends an ARP request broadcast message on the network, asking for the
MAC address that corresponds to the destination IP address.
ARP Reply: When the device with the corresponding IP address receives
the ARP request, it responds with an ARP reply message that contains its
MAC address. The ARP reply is sent directly to the requesting device,
rather than being broadcast on the network.
ARP Caching: The requesting device updates its ARP cache with the IP-
MAC address mapping received in the ARP reply. This caching mechanism
helps to reduce network traffic and improve performance by reducing the
number of ARP requests that need to be sent.

4. Explain classless and classful addressing?

Ans - Classful addressing is a network addressing scheme used in the
early days of the Internet where IP addresses is divided into five classes -
A, B, C, D, and E - based on the number of bits used to identify the
network portion of the address. The number of bits used for the network
portion of the address determined the maximum number of networks and
hosts that could be addressed. For example, Class A addresses used the
first 8 bits to identify the network portion and the remaining 24 bits to
identify hosts on the network. This allowed for up to 126 networks and
16,777,214 hosts per network.
Classless addressing is a more flexible network addressing scheme that
does not rely on fixed network classes. In classless addressing, an IP
address is divided into a network portion and a host portion, and the
length of the network portion can vary. This allows for more efficient use
of IP addresses, as networks can be subdivided into smaller subnets as
needed. Classless addressing is used widely today, particularly with the
adoption of CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing), which allows for the
use of variable-length subnet masks.

5. What is packetizing? Also explain routing and

forwarding
Ans - Packetizing is the process of breaking up a message or data
stream into smaller, more manageable units called packets. Packetizing is
an important part of network communication because it allows data to be
transmitted more efficiently across a network. Each packet contains a
portion of the original message, as well as information about the packet's
source and destination addresses, sequence numbers, and error-checking
codes.
Routing is the process of selecting a path for data to travel from its
source to its destination across a network. Routers are devices that
perform this function in a network. Routers examine the information in
each packet and use routing tables to determine the best path for the
packet to take to reach its destination. The routing tables contain
information about the network topology, such as the addresses of other
routers and the networks they are connected to. Routers use this
information to determine the best path for each packet.
Forwarding is the process of actually sending the packet along the
chosen path from the source to the destination. Once the router has
determined the best path for the packet, it forwards the packet to the
next hop in the path. The next hop is typically the next router along the
path, but it could also be the final destination if the packet has reached its
destination network. Each router along the path performs the same
process of examining the packet, determining the best path, and
forwarding the packet to the next hop until the packet reaches its final
destination.

6. What is CSMA, CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?

Ans - CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) is a network protocol
used in wired and wireless networks to control access to the network
medium. It is a contention-based protocol, which means that devices on
the network compete for access to the medium. When a device wants to
transmit data, it first listens to the medium to determine if it is idle. If the
medium is busy, the device waits until it is idle before attempting to
transmit. This helps to reduce collisions on the network.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
is a variant of CSMA used in wired networks such as Ethernet. In
CSMA/CD, if two or more devices attempt to transmit data at the same
time and a collision occurs, each device stops transmitting and waits for a
random amount of time before attempting to transmit again. This helps to
reduce collisions and improve network performance.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
is a variant of CSMA used in wireless networks. In wireless networks, it is
more difficult to detect collisions because devices cannot listen to the
medium while transmitting. In CSMA/CA, a device that wants to transmit
data first sends a request-to-send (RTS) message to the receiving device.
The receiving device responds with a clear-to-send (CTS) message if it is
ready to receive data. This helps to avoid collisions by reserving the
medium for the duration of the data transmission.

7. Define multiple access. Explain its types.

Ans - Multiple Access (MA) is a technique used in computer networks to
allow multiple devices to share a common communication channel or
medium. MA allows multiple devices to communicate with each other over
the same network, without interfering with each other.
There are three main types of Multiple Access techniques:
1. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): In TDMA, each device is
allocated a specific time slot during which it can transmit data.
TDMA is commonly used in cellular phone networks and satellite
communication systems.
2. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): In FDMA, the
available bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands, and
each device is allocated a specific frequency band on which to
transmit data. FDMA is commonly used in analog communication
systems such as FM radio.
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): In CDMA, each device is
assigned a unique code that is used to transmit and receive data. All
devices transmit on the same frequency band, but each
transmission is uniquely coded, allowing multiple transmissions to
occur simultaneously without interfering with each other. CDMA is
commonly used in cellular phone networks and satellite
communication systems.

8. What is IntServ?
Ans - IntServ stands for Integrated Services, which is a mechanism used in
Quality of Service (QoS) to provide end-to-end QoS guarantees for
individual network flows.
IntServ is a signaling protocol that enables end hosts to request specific
levels of QoS for each flow they generate. This request is then propagated
through the network to ensure that each network device provides the
necessary QoS treatment for the flow.
IntServ is typically used for applications that require strict QoS
guarantees, such as real-time voice and video applications. It provides a
mechanism for end hosts to reserve network resources, such as
bandwidth and buffer space, to ensure that their traffic receives the
necessary QoS treatment.

Unit 3
1.Explain types of transport layer protocol?
Ans - The transport layer protocol is responsible for providing reliable and
efficient communication between two devices on a network. There are two
commonly used transport layer protocols: Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a connection-oriented
protocol that provides reliable data transmission. It ensures that all data
packets are delivered in the correct order, with error checking and
retransmission of lost packets. TCP is used for applications that require
reliable, error-free data transmission, such as email, file transfer, and web
browsing.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a connectionless protocol that
provides unreliable data transmission. It does not ensure that all data
packets are delivered or in the correct order. UDP is used for applications
that require fast, low-latency data transmission, such as online gaming,
video streaming, and voice over IP (VoIP). Since UDP does not have the
overhead of error checking and retransmission, it is faster than TCP but
less reliable.
The main features of UDP are:
Connectionless: UDP does not establish a connection between the
sender and receiver before transmitting data. This means that data can be
sent immediately without any setup or handshake.
Unreliable: UDP does not guarantee delivery of packets, nor does it
check for errors. Packets may be lost or delivered out of order, and it's up
to the application layer to handle any errors or retransmissions.
Lightweight: Since there is no need for a connection setup or error
correction mechanism, UDP has a smaller header size and lower overhead
than TCP.

2. Explain three addressing modes of IPV6?

Ans - IPv6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to
deal with the problem of IPv4 exhaustion. IPv6 is a 128-bits address
having an address space of 2^128, which is way bigger than IPv4. In IPv6
we use Colon-Hexa representation. There are 8 groups and each group
represents 2 Bytes.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) uses different addressing modes to
identify and locate devices on a network. The three addressing modes in
IPv6 are:
Unicast Addressing Mode: In unicast addressing mode, a packet is sent
from a single source to a single destination. A unique address is assigned
to each interface on a device. A packet sent to a unicast address is
delivered to the interface associated with that address.
Multicast Addressing Mode: In multicast addressing mode, a packet is
sent from a single source to a group of destinations. A multicast address
identifies a group of devices, and a packet sent to a multicast address is
delivered to all devices in that group.
Anycast Addressing Mode: In anycast addressing mode, a packet is
sent from a single source to the nearest of several possible destinations.
An anycast address identifies a group of devices, and a packet sent to an
anycast address is delivered to the closest device in that group. Anycast
addresses are typically used for load balancing and to improve network
efficiency.

3. What are the functions performed by transport

layer?
Ans - The transport layer protocol is responsible for providing reliable and
efficient communication between two devices on a network
Some of the key functions performed by the transport layer
include:
Segmentation: The transport layer divides the data received from the
application layer into smaller chunks, known as segments or packets, to
facilitate transmission over the network.
Reassembly: At the receiving end, the transport layer reassembles the
received segments into the original data, ensuring that the data is
complete and in the correct order.
Multiplexing: The transport layer enables multiple applications to share
a network connection by using different port numbers to identify different
applications. This process is known as multiplexing, and it allows multiple
applications to transmit data simultaneously over the same network
connection.
Error Control: The transport layer performs error detection and
correction to ensure that data is transmitted accurately and without
corruption. This can include using checksums or other mechanisms to
verify data integrity and retransmitting lost or corrupted data.
Flow Control: The transport layer regulates the flow of data between the
sender and receiver to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed with
data. This can involve slowing down the transmission rate or buffering
data at the receiving end.
Connection Management: The transport layer establishes, maintains,
and terminates connections between hosts. This can include managing
session setup, maintaining the connection during data transfer, and
terminating the connection when the transfer is complete.

4. Explain stop and wait protocol from transport

layer
Ans - Stop-and-wait protocol is a flow control protocol used in
communication networks at the Transport Layer, which provides reliable
delivery of data between two nodes. It is a simple and efficient protocol
that ensures the correct transmission of packets over an unreliable
communication channel.
In stop-and-wait protocol, the sender sends one packet to the receiver and
waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver. The receiver, upon
receiving the packet, sends an ACK back to the sender indicating that the
packet has been received successfully. If the sender does not receive an
ACK after a certain period of time, it retransmits the packet.
The protocol works as follows:
  The sender sends a packet to the receiver and waits for an ACK.
 The receiver receives the packet and sends an ACK to the sender.
 The sender receives the ACK and sends the next packet.
 If the sender does not receive an ACK after a certain period of time,
it retransmits the packet.

5. What is QoS also explain flow characteristics?

Ans – QoS Stand for Quality of Service and it is an internetworking
issue.We can define quality of service in an simple word as something that
a data flow seek to attain. Quality of Service also control and manages
network resource by setting priorities for specific types of
data(audio,video,files) on the network.QoS can applied to text data as well
as multimedia.QoS may also defined as the ability of a network to achive
maximum bandwith and deals with other network performance.

6. What is PHB and explain its types?

Ans - PHB stands for Per-Hop Behaviour, which is a mechanism used in
Quality of Service (QoS) to define how network traffic should be treated by
each network device along its path from source to destination. PHB
defines the specific behaviour that should be applied to a packet at each
hop in the network, based on its QoS requirements.
There are three types of PHBs, which are defined by the Differentiated
Services (DiffServ) architecture:
Expedited Forwarding (EF): This PHB is used to prioritize traffic that
requires low latency and low packet loss, such as voice or video traffic. EF
traffic is typically given a higher priority than other traffic, and is
forwarded with minimal delay and queuing.
Assured Forwarding (AF): This PHB is used to provide different levels of
service for different types of traffic. AF traffic is divided into four classes,
each of which is assigned a specific drop probability and bandwidth
allocation. The classes are designed to provide different levels of service,
depending on the criticality of the traffic.
Best Effort (BE): This PHB is used for all other traffic that does not
require a specific level of QoS. BE traffic is forwarded with no guarantees,
and is subject to delay, loss, and congestion.
7. Explain WWW and HTTP?
Ans - WWW stands for World Wide Web, which is a system of
interconnected hypertext documents or web pages that are accessed via
the internet. The WWW was invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, and
it has since become a fundamental part of how people access and share
information on the internet.
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which is the primary protocol
used for transmitting data over the World Wide Web. HTTP is a client-
server protocol, where a client, usually a web browser, sends a request to
a server, which then sends back a response containing the requested
data.

8.Explain the client and server in application

layer?
Ans - In the Application layer of the OSI model, client-server architecture is
used to facilitate communication between applications or processes
running on different network devices. The client-server model is a way of
organizing computer resources such that one device, called the client,
requests information or services from another device, called the server.
The client is the device or application that initiates the communication
request, and it typically sends a request message to the server requesting
access to some resource, such as a file or a web page. The client may also
specify the desired format or type of the resource, such as a text file or an
image file.
The server, on the other hand, is the device or application that responds
to the client's request, and it typically sends a response message
containing the requested resource. The server may also include additional
information or metadata with the response, such as the size or type of the
resource.

9.What is pop3 and IMAP4

Ans - POP3 and IMAP4 are both email retrieval protocols used by email
clients to download email messages from an email server.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is a protocol used by email
clients to retrieve email messages from an email server. With POP3, email
messages are downloaded from the server to the client's local machine
and then deleted from the server. This means that once the messages are
downloaded, they are no longer accessible from other devices or email
clients.
IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4) is another
email retrieval protocol that is similar to POP3, but with some important
differences. With IMAP4, email messages are stored on the email server
and are accessed and manipulated directly on the server by the email
client. This means that multiple email clients can access the same set of
messages on the server, and changes made by one client are immediately
visible to all other clients.