INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS

1.9
More expensive systems will have multiple lev f h
1s O eac color not· t / ff
·
Digital to Analog Converters (DA Cs). This converts d. .te
1
' JUs on °•They do this with
L'-'?·, from 0.0 to 5.0 volts. So, for examnle a color int a ~gti afnumber, e.g., from Oto 255, to a voltage,
' r , ens1 y o 100 would be d
about_ & 5.0 = 1.96 volts. This is the voltage that would b li converte to a voltage of
40% of the maximum possible value of that color's pho e happ ed to that color's . elec tr on gun so about
. . . sp ors would be hit by electrons. ·.
Note. Printers a1e also raster scan devices and can · f · l h. .
laser.) · give air Y igh quality output (dot matrix or
Look at frame buffer for VGA 640 x 480 monochrome l t·
.
SO bytes/row x480rows=28,800bytessothecentralprocessor f h xe l( on / off). 64O/ 8 =
. 1,s, 0,s into
scene, w1res • the frame buffer and then the display per orms t e fscan conversion
· of the
electron gun on / off . processor scans rame buffer and turns
· Overall Hardware System for interactive graphics.

Host Computer
1/0 Devices CPU, RAM, Display Display
Mass Storage Processor Device

· Fig.1.8

For random scan the host system generates a display file of graphics commands which is executed
by the display processor. For cheap, e.g. PC's, raster scan systems the host processor performs can
conversion (from mathematical model to a frame buffer image). The display processor then just reads
the frame buffer and turns the electron beams on/ off. More expensive raster scan systems will have a
graphics that performs some scan conversion.

1.5. TYPES OF GRAPHIC DEVICES

1.5.1 Output or Video Display Device
J .5.1.1 CRT or (Cathode Ray Tube)
Typically, the p~imary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor. The operation of
most video monitor is based on the standard cathode ray tube (CRT) design.
Basic operation of CRT. A beam of electron (Cathode ray) is emitted by an electron gun, which
passes through focusing and deflection system that directs the beam toward specified positions on the
phosphor coated screen. The phosphor then emits . a sma·11 spo t ofl'1ght at each position.contacted
. bv,
the electron beam. The light emitted by the phosphor fa d es very rapi · ·dly To maintam this screen
k
. . kl ct·
picture, one way is to redraw the picture repeatedly by qmc Y rrec 111 f g the electron beam bac over
the same points. Such a type of display is called refresh CRT.
. . . . . . . h .tted light from the screen to decay to
Persistence. Persistence IS def med as the time It take t e emi : d hi h f ·h rates to maintain
one tenth of its original intensity. Lower persistence phosphors reqwr~ . g_ er rt~ re~ High persistence
.
a picture on the screen without flicker. Such p h osp_h or_s a re used
. m amma ions.
h wstheelectrostaticmethod
phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static picture. Fig. 1.9 5 0
fo r deflection of electron beam.
 COMPUTER GRAPH1cs
1.10
Coater
Screen
Vertical
Base Focusing Deflection Plates
System

Electron
Beam
[

Connector Eledron Horizontal

Pins gun Deflection Plates

Fig. 1.9 Basic design of CRT (Electrostatic deflection fields).

· Working. Beam passes between two pairs of metal plates, one vertical and other horiz~ntal. A
voltage difference is applied to each pair of plates according to the an:ount that t_h~ beam IS to be
deflected in each direction. As the electron beam passes between each pair of plates, It 1s bent towards
the plate with the higher positive voltage. ·
In Fig. 1.9 the beam is first deflected towards one side of the s_creen. Then, as. the beam passes
through the horizontal plates. it is deflected, towards the top or bottom of the screen. To get the proper
deflection, adjust the current through coils placed around the outside of the CRT envelop.
The basic component of electron gun is heated metal, cathode and a control grid. See Fig. 1.10,
heating fila~ent supplies heat, directing a current through the filament causes electrons to be boiled
"off" the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelop, the free, negatively charged
· electrons are then accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage. The accelerating
voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating on the side of CRT envelope near the
phosphor screen or on accelerating anode can be used. ·
Sometimes the electron gun is built to contain the accelerating anode and focussing system
within the -same unit. Refer Fig. 1.10. ·
Resolution. The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap a CRT is
referred to as the resolution. Precisely, the number of points per centimeter that can be plotted
horizontally and vertically. This depends on the type of phosphor used and the focusing and deflection
system.
Aspect Ratio. This is an important property of video monitors. This n~mber gives the ratio of
vertical points to horizontal points necessary to produce equal length lines in both directions on the
screen. An aspect ratio of 3/ 4 means that a vertical line platted with three points has the some length
as a horizontal line platted with four points.

Focusing Electron Beam

Cathode Path
Anode

Control Accelerating
grid Anode

Fig. 1.10 Electron gun operating w ith an accelera ting anod e.

a
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS 1.11

In normal CRT, we have basic two types of scanning :

1.s.1.2 Random-Scan and Raster-Scan Monitor
In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top
to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is tuned on and off to create
a pattern of illuminated spots. Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer or
frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored
intensity values are then retrieved form the refresh buffer and "painted" on the screen one row at a
time. The capability of a raster sc~n is suited for the realistic display of screen containing subtle
shading and colour patterns.

(a) (b)

-o----o-
-o----0-
-o----0-
-0------0-0-

(c)

Fig. 1.11

Refreshing on raster scan is done at tHe rate of 60 to 80 frames per second, some systems are
designed for higher refresh rates. Refresh rates are sometimes described in units of cycles per second,
or hertz (Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame. At this rate, the electron beam traces over all
screen lines from top to bottom. A picture rate below this makes picture to flicker. Interlacing is often
used when higher refresh rates are needed.
1.5.1.J Colour CRT Monitor
To display colour pictures, combination of phosphorus is used that emits different-coloured
light. There are two different techniques for producing colour displays with a CRT.
1. Beam-Penetration Method
2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam-Penetration Method
This method is used with random-scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, (red and green) are
coated onto the inside of CRT screen, displayed colour depends on how far the electron beam penetrated
into the phosphor layers. A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer. A beam of very fast
electrons penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner green layer. At intermediate beam
speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to show two additional colours, orange and
yello w. The speed of electrons is controlled by the beam acceleration voltage.
 COMPUTER GRA
PH1c8
1.12
rs and the quality of pictures is not
Beam-Penetration method produces on1Yfour co1ou ' . . as go0d
• . • · · y to produce colours m random scan .
as with other methods. This method 1s an expensive wa monitors.

2. Shadow':'Mask Method
rod
These methods are commonly used in raster-scan syS tem because they P uce a much Wider
range of colours than the above method.

Electron .Section of
Guns shadow mask

Magnified
phosphor-dot:
triangle

Fig. 1.12 Shadow-mask CRT,

Shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor colour dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot
emits a red light, another emits a green light and the third emits a blue light. Such a CRT has three
electron guns, one for each colour dot, and a shadow-mask grid just behind the phosphor coated
screen. The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, containing
a series of holes aligned with the phosphor dot patterns.
The three beams pass through a hole activating a dot triangle, which appears as a small colour
spot on th~ screen. Phosphor dots, are arranged in triangle so that each electron beam can activate
only its corresponding colour dot when it passes through the shadow mask. Different colour
combinations are obtained by variant intensity levels of electron beam.

1.5.1.4 Direct view Storage Tube

This is an alternative method to monitor a screen image, as it stores the picture information
inside the CRT instead of refreshing the screen. A direct view storage tube (DVST) stores the picture
information as a charge distributes just behind the phosphor-coated screen.

Screen
Storage . Grid

Collector Grid
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\

Focusing
and Deflection
system

Fig. 1.13 DVST.

 1/

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS 1.13

Design of a DVST is shown in Fig. 1.13. Two electron guns are used-:-°~e is ~rirnary ~nd second
is flood gun. First ·one stores the picture patterns an? ~~cond one mamtams _picture display. ~he
rirnary electron gun is used to draw the picture defm1tion on t~e storage gnd, a non conduct1:11g
~aterial. High speed electron from primary gun strikes storage g~1d and knocks out electrons, which
are attached to the collector grid. Storage grid being non-conductmg, the areas where electrons ~av_e
been removed will keep a net positive charge. This stored positive charge pattern on the storage gn~ 1s
the picture definition. The flood gun produces a continuous stream of low spee~ electrons that pass
through the control grid and are attached to the positive areas of the storage gnd. Th_ese low speed
electrons penetrate through the storage grid to the phosphor waiting, without affectmg the charge
pattern on the storage surface.
A DVST monitor have disadvantages and advantages both compared to the refre~h CRT. f:-s no
refreshing is needed, very complex picture can be displayed at very high resolutions without flicker.
Disadvantages of DVST system are that they ordinarily do not display colour and that selected part of
a picture cannot be erased. To eliminate a picture section, it has to be redrawn. The .eras~g and
redrawing take several seconds for a complex picture and because of these reasons, storage displays
have been largely replaced by raster system.

1.5.1.5 Flat Panel Display

The term flat display refers to a class of video device that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compared to a CRT. A signlficant feature of flat panel display is that they are
-thinner than CRTs, and we can hang them on walls or wear them on our wrists. Current uses for flat
panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket video games, laptop computer, armrest
viewing of movies on airlines, as advertisement boards in elevators, and as graphics display in
application requiring rugged, portable monitors.
Flat panel display can be classified into two categories : emissive display and non-emissive
display. The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Plasma panels thin
film electron luminescent displays and light, emitting diodes are example of emissive displays. In flat
CRTs, electron beams are accelerated parallel to the screen, then deflected 90 to the screen. But flat
CRTs have proved to be a failure. Non emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. LCD (Liquid Crystal Device) is an example of non-
emissive flat panel display. ·

1.5.1.5.1 Plasma Panel Display

Fig. 1.14 shows the basic design of plasma panel display. It is also called gas discharge display.
The plasma panel is an array of tiny neon bulbs. Each bulb can be put into on" on" (intensified) state
or on" off" state, and remains in the state until explicitly changed to the other plasma panels typically have
50 to 125 cells per inch, with a 10 to 15 inch diagonal, but 40 by 40 inch panels with 50 cells per inch
Me sold commercially.
The neon bulbs are not discrete units, but rather are part of single integrated panel made of three
layers of glass, as seen in Fig. 1.14. The inside surface of the front layer has thin vertical strips of an
electrical conductor. The centre layer has a number of holes (the bulbs), and the inside surface of the
real layer has thin horizontal strips of an electrical conductor. Matrix addressing is used to tum bulbs
on and off. To tum on a bulb, the system adjusts the voltages on the corresponding lines such that their
difference is large enough to put electrons from the neon molecules thus firing the bulb and making it
glow. Once the glow starts, a lower voltage is applied to sustain it. To turn off a bulb, the system _
momentarily decreases the voltage on the appropriate lines to use than the sustaining voltage. Bulbs
can be turned on or off in about 15 microseconds.
 COMPUTER GRAPH1cs
1.14

0
0
0 0
0 0 00
o0 o o
O O O 0
0 0 0
1 O O O 0 Viewing
2 0 O 0 0000 direction
3 o o o o· o 0 o
0 0 0
4 0 0 0
0 0
5 0 0
0 57
6 0
45
7
2 3
Horizontal Glass 1 Vertical
grid plate grid
wires with wires
(y address) cells (x address)

Fig. 1.14 The layers of a plasma display, all of which are sandwiched
together to form a thin panel.

The plasma panel has the ad vantage of being flat, transparent and rugged and of not ne_eding a
bitmap refresh buffer. It can be used with a rear projection system to mix phot?grap~ic slides _as s_tatic
· background for computer generated dynamic graphics, _b ut has found most use m military applications,
where small size and rigidness are important.

1.5.1.5 :2 Thin-film Electroluminescent Displays

It consists of the same grid like structure as used in plasma display. Between the front and back
panels is a thin (500 nanometer) layer of an electroluminescent material, such as zinc sulfide doped
with m~ganese, that emits light when in a high electric field (approx. 106 volts per centimeter). When
a sufficiently high voltage· is applied to a pair of crossing to electrodes, the phosphor becomes a
conductor in the area of intersection of two electrodes. Electrical energy is then absorbed by the
manganese atoms, which then release the energy as a spot of light similar to the glowing plasma effect
in a plasma panel. ·
These displays are bright and can be switched on and off quickly, and transistors at each pixel
can be used to store the image. Major disadvantage of these displays is that their power consumption
is higher than that of the LCD panel. However, their brightness has led to their use in some portable
computer.

1.5.1.5.3 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)

The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline arrangement of
molecules, yet they flow like liquid. Flat panel display commonly uses nematic (threadlike) liquified
crystal compounds that tend to keep the long axes of the rod shaped molecules aligned. In Fig. 1.15
two glass plates, sandwich the liquid crystal material. Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are
put into the other plate. The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position. Normally, the
molec~le_s ar~ aligned as s~o~n in the "on state" of Fig. 1.17. Polarized light passing through the
matena~ 1s thlfsted so that 1t w1~l pass through the opposite polarize. The light is then reflected back
to the viewer. To turn ?ff t~e pixel, :"e apply, a voltage to the two intersecting conductors to align
the molecules so that hght 1s not thlfsted. This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive
ma trix LCD.

j
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS
1.15

Transparent
Conductor
Nematic
liquid crystal

Polarizer

Transparent
On State Conductor

Transparent
Conductor Nematic
liquid crystal

· Polarizer

Transparent
Off State Conductor
Fig. 1.15 The light-twisting, shutter effect used in the design of
most crystal display devices.

Picture definitions are stored in a refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed at the rate of 60
frames per second, as in the emissive device. Bock lighting is also commonly applied using solid state
electronic device, so that the system is not completely dependent on outside light sources. Colours can
be displayed by using different materials or dyes and by placing a triad of colour pixels at each screen
location.

Another method of constructing LCDs is to place a transistor at each pixel location, using thin
film transistor technology. The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to
prevent charge from gradually leaking out of the liquid crystal cells. These devices are called active
matrix displays.

1.5.1.5.4 Dot Matrix Printer

Characters are formed by pins, fired at a ribbon, producing dots on the paper. Using more and
smaller pins produces higher resolution output. Two standards have emerged 9-pin and 24-pin. Dot
matrix printers typically print upto 200 characters per second in draft mode. They usually have a
sluwer higher resolution (NLQ-Near Letter Quality) mode. Graphics are possible as in colour with a