COURSE MATERIAL

B. Tech VI- Semester

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT I (SYLLABUS)

COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS Rankine cycle – improvisations, Layout

of modern coal power plant, Super Critical Boilers, FBC Boilers, Turbines,
Condensers, Steam & Heat rate, Subsystems of thermal power plants – Fuel
and ash handling, Draught system, Feed water treatment. Binary Cycles and
Cogeneration systems.

Objectives of the unit

Understanding of

 Power plant engineering concepts

 Thermal power plant, layout, working
 Thermodynamic cycle and processes
 Basics about super critical boilers, FBC boilers and condensers
 Coal and Ash handling systems
 Boiler Draught
 Feed water treatment
 Binary cycles and cogeneration systems

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Introduction to power plant engineering

A power plant is an industrial facility used to generate electric power with the
help of one or more generators which converts different energy sources into
electric power.

A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location

that is utilized for the generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale,
usually in the order of several 1000 Watts. These are generally located at the
sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the cities or the load centers,
because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with several
operating constraints like the waste disposal etc.

Electricity is produced at an electric power plant. Some fuel source, such as coal,
oil, natural gas, or nuclear energy produces heat. The heat is used to boil water
to create steam. The steam under high pressure is used to spin a turbine.

For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient
generation but also the fact that the power is transmitted efficiently over the
entire distance and that’s why, the transformer switch yard to regulate
transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.

At the center of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC
generator or an alternator, which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped
to convert energy from the mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical
domain by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors.

Thermal power plant

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is the most
conventional method of generating electric power with reasonably high
efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water available to
superheated steam for driving the steam turbine.

The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled to an alternator rotor, the

rotation of which results in the generation of electric power. Generally in India,
bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler which has volatile
content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16 %. To enhance the
thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its pulverized
form.

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In coal fired thermal power plant, steam is obtained in very high pressure inside
the steam boiler by burning the pulverized coal. This steam is then super heated
in the super heater to extreme high temperature. This superheated steam is
then allowed to enter into the turbine, as the turbine blades are rotated by the
pressure of the steam.

The turbine is mechanically coupled with alternator in a way that

its rotor will rotate with the rotation of turbine blades. After entering into the
turbine, the steam pressure suddenly falls leading to corresponding increase in
the steam volume. After having imparted energy into the turbine rotors, the
steam is made to pass out of the turbine blades into the steam condenser of
turbine. In the condenser, cold water at ambient temperature is circulated with
the help of pump which leads to the condensation of the low pressure wet
steam.

In thermal power plants, the heat energy obtained from

combustion of solid fuel (mostly coal) is used to convert water into steam, this
steam is at high pressure and temperature. This steam is used to rotate the
turbine blade turbine shaft is connected to the generator.

Fig. A typical thermal power plant

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. Components of a thermal power plant

Fig. Layout of a basic thermal power plant

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 Fig. Layout of a modern thermal power plant

Fig. The four circuits of modern thermal power plant

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A steam power plant, also known as thermal power plant, is using steam as
working fluid. Steam is produced in a boiler using coal as fuel and is used to drive
the prime mover, namely, the steam turbine. In the steam turbine, heat energy
is converted into mechanical energy which is used for generating electric power.
Generator is an electro-magnetic device which makes the power available in the
form of electrical energy.

The layout of the steam power plant consists of four main circuits. These are:
1. Coal and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Water and steam circuit and
4. Cooling water circuit

1. Coal and ash circuit

Coal from the storage yard is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of coal
handling equipment like belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc., ash resulting from
the combustion of coal in the boiler furnace collects at the back of the boiler and
is removed to the ash storage yard through the ash handling equipment.

Ash Disposal:

Indian coal contains 30% to 40% ash. A power plant of 100MW 20 to 25 tonnes
of hot ash per hour. Hence sufficient space near the power plant is essential to
dispose such large quantities of ash.

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 2. Air and Flue gas circuit

Air is taken from the atmosphere to the air preheater. Air is heated in the air
preheater by the heat of flue gas which is passing to the chimney. The hot air is
supplied to the furnace of the boiler.

The flue gases after combustion in the furnace, pass around the boiler tubes.
The flue gases then passes through a dust collector, economizer and pre-heater
before being exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney. By this method
the heat of the flue gases which would have been wasted otherwise is used
effectively. Thus the overall efficiency of the plant is improved.

Air Pollution:

The pollution of the surrounding atmosphere is caused by the emission of

objectionable gases and dust through the chimney. The air pollution and smoke
cause nuisance to people surrounding the planet.

3. Feed water and steam flow circuit

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The steam generated in the boiler passes through super heater and is supplied
to the steam turbine. Work is done by the expansion of steam in the turbine and
the pressure of steam is reduced. The expanded steam then passes to the
condenser, where it is condensed.

The condensate leaving the condenser is first heated in a l.p. water heater by
using the steam taken from the low pressure extraction point of the turbine.
Again steam taken from the high pressure extraction point of the turbine is used
for heating the feed water in the H.P water heater. The hot feed water is passing
through the economizer, where it is further heated by means of flue gases. The
feed water which is sufficiently heated by the feed water heaters and
economizer is then fed into the boiler.

4. Cooling water circuit

Abundant quantity of water is required for condensing the steam in the

condenser. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from various
sources such as river or lake, provided adequate water supply is available from
the river or lake throughout the year.

If adequate quantity of water is not available at the plant site, the hot water
from the condenser is cooled in the cooling tower or cooling ponds and
circulated again.

Advantages of thermal power plants

1) Initial cost is low compared with hydro-plant.

2) The power plant can be located near load center, so the transmission
losses are considerably reduced.
3) The generation of power is not dependent on the nature’s mercy like
hydro plant.
4) The construction and commissioning of thermal plant requires less period
of time than a hydro plant.

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 Disadvantages of thermal power plants

1) It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke

and fumes.
2) It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plants.
3) The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse
effect on the lives in the water and disturbs the ecology.

List of thermal power plants in Telangana--- to be observed

Rankine cycle

The Rankine cycle is a model used to predict the performance of steam turbine
systems. It was also used to study the performance of reciprocating steam
engines. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine
that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing phase change.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Thermodynamic analysis:

1-2: Isentropic compression process in the pump

2-3: Isobaric heat absorption process in the evaporator.

3-4: Isentropic expansion process in the expander.

4-1: Isobaric heat rejection process in the condenser.

The Rankine cycle is a model used to predict the performance of steam turbine
systems. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine
that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing phase change.

Rankine cycle is a reversible cycle which have two constant pressure and two
constant temperature processes. Working fluid in Rankine cycle undergoes
4 processes, expansion in turbine, heat addition in Boiler, heat rejection in
Condenser and compression in pump.

The thermal efficiency improvement techniques of Rankine cycle are:

i. By decreasing average temperature at which heat is rejected from the

working fluid (steam) in the condenser. (Lowering condenser Pressure)
ii. By increasing steam temperature entering the turbine.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Super critical boilers

A supercritical steam generator is a type of boiler that operates at supercritical

pressure, frequently used in the production of electric power. In contrast to a
subcritical boiler in which bubbles can form, a supercritical steam
generator operates at pressures above the critical pressure

Advantages of SC Technology

I ) Higher cycle efficiency means Primarily – less fuel consumption – less per MW
infrastructure investments – less emission – less auxiliary power consumption –
less water consumption

II ) Operational flexibility – Better temp. control and load change flexibility –

Shorter start-up time – More suitable for widely variable pressure operation 28

Economy

Higher Efficiency (η%)

 Less fuel input.

 Low capacity fuel handling system
 Low capacity ash handling system.
 Less Emissions.

Approximate improvement in Cycle

 Efficiency Pressure increase: 0.005 % per bar

 Temp increase : 0.011 % per deg K

At supercritical pressures, steam turbine efficiency improves significantly

compared to the typical subcritical cycle. Ultra-supercritical steam conditions
provide even greater efficiency improvements. The combination of utilizing
supercritical throttle pressures along with an increase in throttle temperatures
results in cost reductions in fuel usage and handling, flue gas treatment and ash
disposal. B&W's supercritical and ultra-supercritical boilers are designed to take
full advantage of variable pressure turbine operation.

Specific advantages include:

 For a given output, lower fuel consumption, and thus lower carbon
emissions, than other less efficient systems
 The load change rate capability of the system is not restricted by the
turbine
 Steam temperature at the inlet and outlet of the re heater is nearly
constant over a wide load range

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  The boiler feed water pump power is significantly reduced at lower loads
 Short start up times
 Higher plant efficiency over the entire load range

Supercritical boilers have working range of pressure and temperature above

220.64 bars and 374°C (Critical pressure and temperature of water). There
occurs no bubbles formation in this type of boiler. Subcritical boilers works
below critical pressure and temperature.

Supercritical Pressure:

Critical point in water vapor cycle is a thermodynamic state where there is no

clear distinction between liquid and gaseous state of water. Water reaches to
this state at a critical pressure above 22.1 MPa and 374oC.

A steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water is heated,

vaporized and converted into steam at a pressure higher than atmospheric
pressure.

A Boiler is the biggest and most critical part of a thermal power plant.
Applications of Boiler:

• Operating steam engines.

• Operating steam turbines.

• Operating reciprocating pumps.

• Industrial process work in chemical engineering.

• For producing hot water required to be supplied to room in very cold

areas.

• In thermal power stations.

• The heat content of the steam is large and thus it is suitable for process
heating in many industries like sugar mills, textile mills, dairy industry and
also in chemical industries.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Definition of some useful terms used in Boiler:

 Boiler shell: The boiler shell consists of a hollow cylindrical body made up
of steel plates riveted or welded together.

 Furnace: Furnace is that part of the boiler in which the fuel is conveniently
burned to produce heat. This heat is utilized in generating steam in the
boiler.

 Grate: The grate is a space on which the fuel is burnt. It consist of a

combination of several cast-iron bars so arranged that the fuel may be
placed on it. Some space is always provided in between two consecutive
bars so that may flow to the fuel from below the great and ashes may
drop into the ash pit provided beneath the Grate. Grate may be circular
or rectangular in shape.

 Grate area: The area of the great upon which the fuel burns is called great
area. Grate area is always measured in square meters.

 Heating surface: The heating surface is the surface of a boiler which is

exposed to hot gases on one side and water of the other.

 Water space and steam space: Water space is the volume of the boiler
which is occupied by water. The remaining space is called steam space
because it is needed for storage of steam in the boiler until it id s drawn
off through the steam pipe.

 Flue gases: Flue gases are hot gases produced due to the combination of
fuel in the boiler furnace. Flue gas usually contains water vapor (H2O),
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen (N2). Flue gas
includes complete and incomplete products of combustion of fuels.

Classifications or Types of Boiler:

There are large number of boiler designs, but they may be classified according
to the following ways:

According to the circulation of gases:

 Fire-tube boiler

 Water-tube boiler

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fire-tube boiler:

Fire tube boilers are those boilers in which hot gases produced by the
combination of fuel in the boiler furnace while on their way to chimney pass
through a number of tubes (called fuel tubes or smoke tubes) which are
immersed in water.
Heat is transferred from the hot gasses to water through the walls of tubes.

Example of fire tube boilers are Cochran boiler, locomotive boiler etc.

Fire tubes boilers are also known as a smoke tube boiler.

Water-tube boiler:

Water-tube boilers are those boilers in which water flows through a number of
tubes (called water tubes) and the hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel
in the boiler furnace while on their way to chimney pass surrounding the tubes.

The heat from the hot gases is transferred to the water through the walls of the
water tubes. Examples of water tube boilers are Bab-cock and Wilcox boiler,
Benson boiler, etc.

According to Circulation of water:

i. Free circulation

ii. Forced circulation

Free circulation:

In any water heating vessel heat is transmitted from one place to another not
by condition but by convection because water is a bad conductor of heat.

Let vessel containing water be heated at its bottom, as the water in the bottom
portion is heated therefore its density becomes reduced in comparison to the
density of water in the upper portion of the vessel, as a result, the less dense
water at the bottom portion of the vessel rise up and comparatively more dense
and cold water at the upper portion of the vessel comes down to take its place
and thus a convection current is set up in the water until temperature off all
water becomes the same.

The method of circulation of water described above is known as free circulation.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 In boilers like Lancashire, Babcock, and Wilcox, etc. free circulation of water
takes place.

Advantages of free circulation:

The advantages of free circulation are:

Free circulation of water helps to maintain a uniform temperature true

everywhere within the boiler so that unequal expansion of various parts of the
boiler is prevented.

Free circulation of water facilities the escape of steam from the heating surface
as soon as it formed. If steam does not escape quickly after its formation the
boilerplates do not remain constantly in touch with water and as a result, these
plates may be overheated.

Forced Circulation:

In forced circulation, pumps are used to maintain the continuous flow of water
in the boiler. In such a case, the circulation of water takes place due to pressure
created by the pump.

The forced circulation system is adopted in more high pressure, high capacity
boilers of all of which are water tube type boiler.

Advantages of forced circulation:

i. The rate of heat transfer from the flue gases to the water higher.

ii. Tubes having comparatively smaller diameters can be used. This reduces
the overall weight of the boiler.

iii. The number of boiler drums required may be reduced.

iv. Less scale formation in the boilers is required.

v. Steam can be quickly generated.

vi. The fluctuation of load can be easily met without taking the help of any
complicated controlled device.

vii. Chance of overheating of the boilerplates in minimum.

viii. Weight per unit mass of steam generated is less.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

According to the number of tubes used:

According to the number of tubes, Boilers may be classified as:

i. Single tube boiler

ii. Multi-tube boiler

Single tube boiler:

Cornish boiler may be termed as a single tumbler boiler because it has only one
flue tube.

Multi-tube boiler:

Cochran boiler may be termed as multi-tube boiler because it has a number of

flue tubes.

According to the nature of use:

According to nature use, boilers are classified as

Stationary boilers

locomotive boilers

Marine boilers.

Stationary boilers:

For the generation of thermal power and for process work (in chemical, sager
and textile industries) boilers used are called stationary boiler.

Locomotive boilers:

Boilers used in locomotive steam engines are called locomotive boilers.

Marine boilers:

Boilers used in steamships are called marine boilers.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

According to the nature of the fuels used:

1. Fuel-fired

2. Gas fired

3. Liquid fuel fired

4. Electrically fired

5. Nuclear fired

NOTE:

Babcock and Wilcox boilers use solid or gaseous fuel.

Volex boilers use oil fuel.

According to the pressure of the boiler:

1. High-pressure boiler

2. Medium-pressure boiler

3. Low-pressure boiler

High-pressure boiler:

The pressure of the boiler above 80 bar.

Medium-pressure boiler:

It has a working pressure of steam from 20 bar to 80 bar. It is used for power
generation or process heating.

Low-pressure boiler:

This type of boiler produces steam at 15-20 bar pressure. This is used for process
heating.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

According to the position of the axis of the boiler shell:

According to the position of the axis of the boiler shell, boilers are classified as:

1. Vertical boiler

2. Horizontal boiler

Vertical boiler:

If the boiler axis is vertical, it is called a vertical boiler. For example, Cochran
boiler.

Horizontal boiler:

If the boiler axis is horizontal, it is called a horizontal boiler.

For example, Lancashire boiler.

So this are the classifications of the Boiler, now see the schematic diagram of a
Boilers.

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Fire Tube Boiler Schematic Diagram:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Water Tube Boiler Schematic Diagram:

Types of Fuel Used in Boiler:

The fuel has been categorized in three formats:

Solid Fuels:

Wood, Coal, Briquettes (a block of compressed coal dust), Pet Coke, Rice Husk.

Liquid Fuels:

LDO (Light Diesel Oil), Furnace oil.

Gaseous Fuels:

LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas), LNG (Liquified Natural Gas), PNG (Piped Natural
Gas) can be used to carry out the combustion for a specific purpose.

The Necessity of Boiler:

The most common function for any boiler, whether it is an industrial or

residential boiler, is to serve as the central heating mechanism for a home,
business facility, hospital, commercial complex, etc.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

No matter what setting they are used in, boilers operate with the same basic
functions and mechanisms that work together to create a contained, heat-
generating combustion process.

Boilers draw natural gas from gas lines running through our streets and use this
gas to fuel the combustion process for heat creation and distribution throughout
a building.

The boiler system relies on a burner to initiate the combustion process, and then
heat in the form of steam or hot water moves through the system using pumps,
radiators, and heat exchangers.

Boiler manufacturers are making use of rapidly improving technology to build

equipment that is cost-efficient, environmentally friendly, and powerful.

Cochran boiler:

Cochran Boiler is a vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, low
pressure, multi-tubular, solid fuel fired, fire tube boiler with internally
fired furnace. It is the modified form of a simple vertical boiler. In this boiler, the
fire tubes are placed horizontally.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A vertical boiler with horizontal fire-tubes is a type of small vertical boiler, used
to generate steam for small machinery. It is characterized by having many
narrow fire-tubes, running horizontally. Boilers like this have been widely used
on ships as either auxiliary or donkey boilers.

Main Parts of Cochran Boiler:

The Main parts of Cochran boiler are:

1. Shell

2. Grate

3. Combustion chamber

4. Fire tubes

5. Fire hole

6. Firebox (Furnace)

7. Chimney

8. Man Hole

9. Flue pipe

1. Shell:

The main body of the boiler is known as a shell.

It is hemispherical on the top, where space is provided for steam.

This hemispherical top gives a higher volume to area ratio which increases the
steam capacity.

2. Grate:

The area where the fire is placed known as a grate.

It is placed at the bottom of the furnace where coal is burnt.

3. Combustion Chamber:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the shell to prevent overheating of the
boiler.

Hot gases enter the fire tubes from the flue pipe through the combustion
chamber.

The combustion chamber is connected to the furnace.

4. Fire Tubes:

There are various fire tubes whose one end is connected to the furnace and
other to the chimney.

A number of horizontal fire tubes are provided, thereby the heating surface is
increased.

5. Fire Hole:

The small hole is provided at the bottom of the combustion chamber to place
fuel is known as a fire hole.

6. Fir Box (Furnace):

It works as a mediator of fire tubes and combustion chamber.

It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that the gases can be deflected back till
they are passed out through the flue pipe to the combustion chamber.

7. Chimney:

It is provided for the exit of flue gases to the atmosphere from the smokebox.

8. Man Hole:

It is provided for the inspection and repair of the interior of the boiler shell.

9. Flue Pipe:

It is a short passage connecting the firebox with the combustion chamber.

Working Principle of Cochran Boiler:

The Cochran boiler works as same as other fire tube boiler.

First, The coal is placed at the grate through the fire hole

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Then the air is entering into the combustion chamber through the atmosphere
and fuel is sparked through fire hole.

Then flue gases start flowing into the hemispherical dome-shaped combustion
chamber. This flue gases further moves into the fire pipes. And then

Heat is exchanged from flue gases to the water into the fire tubes.

The steam produce collected into the upper side of the shell and taken out by
when the required pressure generated and then

The flue gases now send to the chimney through a firebox where it leaves into
the atmosphere.

Now, this process repeats and runs continuously. The steam generates used into
the small industrial processed.

Various boiler mounting and accessories are attached to the boiler for its
efficient working:

1. Pressure Gauge: It measures the pressure of steam inside the boiler.

2. Safety Valve: It blows off the extra steam when the steam pressure inside the
boiler reaches above safety level.

3. Water level Indicator: The position of the water level in the Cochran boiler is
indicated by the water level indicator.

4. Stop Valve: Stop valve is used to transfer steam to the desired location when
it is required. Otherwise, it stops the steam in the boiler.

5. Blow off Valve: It is used to blow off the settle down impurities, mud, and
sediments present in the boiler water.

The application of Cochran boiler are:

 Variety of process applications in industries

 Chemical processing divisions

 Pulp and Paper manufacturing plants

 Refining units

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Besides, they are frequently employed in power generation plants where large
quantities of steam (ranging up to 500 kg/s) having high pressures i.e.
approximately 16 mega pascals (160 bar) and high temperatures reaching up to
550 °C are generally required.

Features of Cochran boiler:

 In the Cochran boiler, any type of fuel can be used.

 It is best suitable for small capacity requirements.

 It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and about 75%
thermal efficiency with oil firing.

 The ratio of the grate area to the heating surface area varies from 10: 1 to
25:1

The advantages of Cochran Boiler:

 Low floor area required.

 Low initialization cost.

 It is easy to operate.

 Transport from one place to another is very easy.

 It has a higher volume to area ratio.

Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler:

 Low steam generation rate.

 Limited pressure handles capacity.

 It is difficult to inspect and maintain.

Babcock and Wilcox boiler

The Babcock and Wilcox boiler are also is known as Longitudinal Drum Boiler or
Horizontal Tubes Boiler it is water tube boiler in water tube boiler water

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

remains inside the tube and hot gases are remains outside the tubes . ...
According to their name this boiler is known as Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is a water tube boiler, used in steam power plants. In this type of boiler,
water is circulated inside the tubes and hot gases flow over the tubes.

This is a Horizontal drum axis, natural draft, natural circulation, multitubular,

stationary, high pressure, solid fuel fired, externally fired Water tube boiler.

A Babcock and Wilcox Boiler Parts or Construction consists of:

 Drum

 Water Tubes

 Uptake and Down take header

 Grate

 furnace

 Baffles

 Super heater

 Mud box

 Inspection Door

 Water Level Indicator

 Pressure Gauge

Drum:

This is a horizontal axis drum which contains water and steam.

Water tubes are placed between the drum and furnace in an inclined position
(at an angle Water tubes:

of 10 to 15 degrees) to promote water circulation.

Uptake and Down take Header:

This is present at the front end of the boiler and connected to the front end of
the drum. It transports the steam from the water tubes to the drum. and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is present at the rear end of the boiler and connects the water tubes to the
rear end of the drum.

It receives water from the drum.

Grate:

Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door.

Furnace:

The furnace is kept below the uptake-header.

Baffles:

The fire-brick baffles, two in number, are provided to deflect the hot flue gases.

Super heater:

It increases the temperature of saturated steam to the required temperature

before discharging it from the steam stop valve.

Mud Box:

This is used to collect the mud present in the water.

Mud box is provided at the bottom end of the down-take header.

Inspection Door:

Inspection doors are provided for cleaning and inspection of the boiler.

Water Level Indicator:

The water level indicator shows the level of water within the drum.

Pressure Gauge:

The pressure gauge is used to check the pressure of steam within the boiler
drum.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Working Principle of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

The working of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is first the water starts to come in the
water tubes from the drum through down take header with the help of a boiler
feed pump which continues to feed the water against the drum pressure.

The water present in the inclined water tubes gets heated up by the hot flue
gases produced by the burning of coal on the fire grate.

These fuel gases are uniformly heated the water tube with the help of a baffle
plate which works deflect the flues gas uniform throughout the tubes which
absorbed the heating maximum from the flue gases.

As the hot flue gases come in contact with water tubes, It exchanges the heat
with heater and converts into the steam.

Continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water
tubes to the drum is thus maintained.

The circulation of water is maintained by convective current and it’s known as

Natural Circulation.

The Steam generated is moved upward, due to density difference and through
the up-take header, it gets collected at the upper side in the boiler drum.

Anti-priming pipe inside the drum which works separates the moisture from the
steam and sends it’s to the superheated.

The super heater receives the water-free steam from an anti-priming pipe. It
increases the temperature of the steam to the desired level and transfers it to
the main steam stop valve of the boiler.

The superheated steam stop valve is either collected in a steam drum or send
it’s inside the steam turbine for electricity generation.

Applications Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

The main application Babcock and Wilcox boiler to produce high-pressure

steam in power generation industries.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of Babcock and Wilcox:

 The overall efficiency of this boiler is high.

 The steam generation rate is higher about 20 ton per hour at pressure 10
to 20 bars.

 The tubes can be replaced easily.

 The boiler can expand and contract freely.

 It is easy to repair maintenance and cleaning.

Disadvantages of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

 It is less suitable for impure and sedimentary water, as a small deposit of

scale may cause the overheating and bursting of tubes. Hence, water
treatment is very essential for water tube boilers.

 Failure in feed water supply even for a short period is liable to make the
boiler overheated. Hence the water level must be watched very carefully
during the operation of a water tube boiler.

 The maintenance cost is high.

A locomotive boiler is a device that is used to create steam from water by using
heat energy. This is a horizontal drum axis, multi-tubular, natural circulation,
artificial draft, forced circulation, medium pressure, solid fuel fired fire
tube boiler that has an internal fire furnace

A locomotive boiler is a Fire Tube Boiler. It is a horizontal drum axis, multi-

tubular boiler. Because this boiler has 116 general fire tubes and 38 super-
heated fire tubes. Locomotive Boiler is an internally fired boiler. That’s means
boiler furnace located inside the main boiler shell or barrel. This boiler uses solid
fuel like coal. It is also a forced circulation, mobile or portable type, and medium
pressure fire tube boiler. The most common use of this boiler is in railway
locomotive engines and in the marine sector because of its mobility. This boiler
has a high steam generation rate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Working of Locomotive Boiler:

The locomotive boiler uses solid fuel like coal. At first, the solid fuel is inserted
on the grate. Then it ignites from the fire hole. When the fuel is burning inside
the fire hole, it starts to generate necessary hot flue gases. Then a fire brick arch
provides the path to flow the hot flue gases to a definite path before it entering
into the long fire tubes of this boiler. As we know it also stops entering the burnt
solid fuel particles into the fire tubes during the operation of the boiler. You will
find two air in damper to flow fresh air into the combustion chamber.

When hot flue gases pass through the boiler firetubes then it heats the water
surrounding the fire tubes. Water becomes heated by this continuous process
and water becomes saturated steam. Generated saturated steam is collected at
the top. Then this saturated steam from the dome (which is present at the top
of the boiler) enters into the main steam pipe through the regulator valve. After
this stem steam travels through the main steam pipe and reaches to the super-
heater header. Form this super-heater header steam enters into another pipe
called super heater element pipes. It is the place where saturated steam
becomes superheated. Then superheated steam enters into the steam pipe of
the smoke box.

When saturated steam becomes superheated then it goes to the cylinder

containing piston. By this superheated steam engine piston moves inside the
cylinder. Piston use to connect with the wheels of the steam engine and the
wheels start rotating like a locomotive train. Then the exhaust steam from the
cylinder enters into the blast pipe. When you are sending steam into the cylinder
then only steam will come out as exhaust gas.

Burnt gases and smoke after passing through the fire tubes of the boiler then it
enters into the smoke box. Then the exhaust steam coming out from the blast
pipe and it pushes the smoke out of the boiler through the chimney. Smoke from
burned solid fuel cannot escape out from the boiler by its own. For this reason,
an artificial draft is created by exhaust steam which coming out from the steam
engine cylinder. This artificial draft also pushes the smoke out of the smoke box
and creates suction pressure for the hot flue gases. There is a platform under
the Grate called ash-pit where ash is stored after burning of solid fuel.

Application of Locomotive Boiler:

Locomotive boilers are mostly used in railways and marines sectors. But the
efficiency of this boiler is very less. This boiler cannot work in heavy load
conditions. Locomotive Boiler is also used in traction engines, in portable steam
engines, steam rollers, and some other steam road vehicles.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The best advantage if this boiler is it’s portable. Because you can take and place
this boiler in any place. The price of this boiler is less and it is capable of handling
fluctuating demands of steam. This boiler has a high steam generation rate. It
comes with the compact in size and easy operates.

After all those advantages it has some disadvantages like corrosion and scale
formation. This boiler cannot work under heavy load conditions due to its
overheating problems

Lancashire boiler

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Lancashire Boiler is a horizontal type and stationary fire tube boiler.
This boiler was invented in the year 1844, by William Fairbairn. This is an
internally fired boiler because the furnace uses to present inside the boiler.

Lancashire boiler is a horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft,

two-tubular, low pressure, stationary, fire tube boiler with furnace located
internally. Its main purpose is to create steam and then this steam is used to
drive steam turbines for power generation. It has high thermal efficiency and it
is about 80 to 90 percent. It is mostly used in locomotive engines and marines
etc.

Construction

1. Safety valve:

It is used to blow off the steam when the pressure of the steam inside the boiler
exceeds the working pressure.

2. Water Level Indicator:

It indicates the level of water in the boiler. It is placed in front of the boiler. Two
water level indicators are used in the boiler.

3. Pressure gauge:

The function of the pressure gauge is to indicate the pressure of the steam inside
the boiler.

4. Steam stop valve:

Its function is to stop and allows the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam
pipe.

5. Feed check valve:

It stops and allows the flow of water inside the boiler.

6. Blow off Valve:

Its function is to remove the sediments or mud periodically that is collected at

the bottom of the boiler.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

7. Manhole:

It is a hole provided on the boiler so that a man can easily enter inside the boiler
for the cleaning and repairing purpose.

8. Fusible plug:

It is used to extinguish the fire inside the boiler when the water level inside the
boiler falls to an unsafe level and prevents an explosion. It also prevents the
damage that may happen due to the explosion.

9. Grate:

It is a platform that is used to burn solid fuel.

10. Fire door:

It is used to ignite the fuel present inside or outside the boiler.

11. Ash pit:

It is used to collect the ash of the fuel after the fuel is burnt.

WORKING

 Lancashire boiler consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell filled with water

surrounding two large fire tubes.

 The cylindrical shell is placed over brickwork which creates several

channels for the flow of hot flue gases.

 Solid fuel is provided by the fire door which then burnt over grate at the
front end of each fire tube.

 A small arc shape brickwork is provided at the end of the grate to deflect
the flue gases upward and prevent the entry of burning coal and ashes
into the interior part of the fire tubes.

 The fire tubes are slightly conical at the rear end to increase the velocity
of hot flue gases.

 When hot flue gases are allowed to pass through the downward channel
at the front end of the fire tubes. Now, these gases pass through the side

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 channel towards the rear end of the fire tube and finally escape out
through the chimney.

 There are dampers at each side channel to regulate the airflow.

 The feed check valve is used to feed the water uniformly to the boiler
shell.

 Once the boiler is at quickly, water converts into steam by absorbing the
heat from the flue gases. This steam is stored at the upper portion of the
boiler where the anti-priming pipe separates the water from steam. Thus
the steam stop valve receives the dry steam for various purposes.

 A manhole is provided at the top and bottom of the shell to allow a man
to enter into the boiler and clean it.

 A blow-off valve is provided to remove the mud that has settled down. It
is also used to clean the boiler.

Advantages

 It has high thermal efficiency; the thermal efficiency is about 80 to 90%.

 It is easy to operate.

 It can easily meet the load requirement.

 Easy to maintain.

 Generate a large amount of steam and hence more reliable.

 Low consumption of electricity due to natural circulation.

Disadvantages

 It is a low-pressure type boiler, so high-pressure steam is not produced.

 Tedious maintenance of brickwork.

 It has a limited grate area due to the small diameter of the flue tubes.

 The steam production rate is low. It is about 9000 kg/hr

 Corrosion occurs in the water legs.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Area of Application the Lancashire boiler is used to drive steam turbines,
locomotives, marines, etc. it is used in industries like paper industries, textile
industries, sugar industries, tire industries, and Etc.

FBC Boiler (Fluidized Bed Combustion)

A bed of solid particles is said to be fluidized when the pressurized fluid (liquid or
gas) is passed through the medium and causes the solid particles to behave like
a fluid under certain conditions.

Fluidization causes the transformation of the state of solid particles from static
to dynamic.

Fluidized Bed Combustion is the ignition of a solid fuel under the conditions
mentioned above.

Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion (BFBC)

Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC).

Bubbling FBC is used for Fuels with lower heating values such as Rice Husk.

Under such sort, the main factors leading to fluidization are as follows:

Solid Fuel Particle Size

Air Fuel Mixture

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fluidized Bed Combustion takes place when the forced draught fan supplies air
to the Furnace of the Boiler. In the furnace, and is (used for Bubbling
phenomenon) placed on the Bed and is heated before fluidization, the air enters
the bed from the nozzles fitted on the Furnace Bed. And above the nozzles; the
sand opposes the upward motion of the air.

But at sufficient velocities, when the pressure applied by the air becomes equal
to the weight of the sand, fluidization of the sand occurs.

Now the fuel supplied by fuel conveyor is fed to the preheated bubbling sand
and gets combusted away. This phenomenon also ensures complete combustion
of the Fuel.

The heat released during combustion heats up the surrounding boiler

tubes and generates steam. The major advantages of Bubbling Fluidized Bed
Combustion are the enhanced thermal efficiency, easy ash removal.

Another type is the Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion; it is applied to fuels

with higher heating values such as Petcoke.

In this, the unburned fuel is fed again to the furnace with the help of a Forced
Draught fan and ducts, ensuring enhanced combustion and higher heating and
provides excellent fuel flexibility.

Also, the fluidizing velocity of Air in CFBC is comparatively higher than that
of BFBC. One of the major drawbacks is the power consumption.

The motors installed in the Forced Draught Fan consume more power than the
one installed in the same capacity Boiler’s ( wood/coal fired) Forced Draught
Fan, because of elevated levels of draught requirement to create fluidization.

Condensers

In thermal power plants, the purpose of a surface condenser is to condense the

exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain maximum efficiency, and also to
convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water (referred to
as steam condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator or boiler
as boiler feed water.

Steam Condenser of Turbine. Steam condenser is a device in which the

exhaust steam from steam turbine is condensed by means of cooling water.
. Condensation of steam in a closed system, creates an empty place by
reduction of volume of the low pressure steam

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A condenser's function is to allow high pressure and temperature refrigerant
vapor to condense and eject heat. There are three main types: air-cooled,
evaporative, and water-cooled condensers.

The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the
compressor and convert this gas to a liquid. It does it by heat transfer, or
the principle that heat will always move from a warmer to a cooler substance.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Air cooled condenser

An air cooled condenser (ACC) is a direct dry cooling system where steam is
condensed inside air-cooled finned tubes. The cool ambient air flow outside the
finned tubes is what removes heat and defines the functionality of an ACC

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Water cooled condenser

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Evaporative condenser

Surface condenser

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Coal Handling

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Belt conveyor

Screw conveyor

Helical conveyor

Skip hoist

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Ash handling systems

Ash handling refers to the method of collection, conveying, interim storage and
load out of various types of ash residue left over from solid fuel combustion
processes. The most common types of ash resulting from the combustion
of coal, wood and other solid fuels.

Ash handling system are generally divided into three types fly ash handling
system, bottom ash handling system and ash slurry disposal system.

Ash handling refers to the method of collection, conveying, interim storage and
load out of various types of ash residue left over from solid fuel combustion
processes.

The most common types of ash resulting from the combustion of coal, wood and
other solid fuels.

 bottom ash

 bed ash

 fly ash

 ash clinkers

Ash handling systems may employ different forms of pneumatic ash conveying
or mechanical ash conveyors.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A typical ash handling system may employ vacuum pneumatic ash collection
with ash conveying from several ash pick up stations and resulting in delivery to
an ash storage silo for interim holding prior to load out for disposal or reuse.
Pressurized pneumatic ash conveying may also be employed.

Coarse ash material such as bottom ash is most often crushed in clinker grinders
(crushers) prior to being transported in the ash conveyor system.

Very finely sized fly ash often accounts for the major portion of the material
conveyed in an ash handling system. It is collected from baghouse type dust
collectors, electrostatic precipitators and other apparatus in the flue gas
processing stream.

Ash mixers (conditioners) and dry dustless telescopic devices are used to
prepare ash for transfer from the ash storage silo to transport vehicles.

Mechanical Ash handling system:

In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried
out continuously to the bunker.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Hydraulic ash handling system

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Pneumatic ash handling system

In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where a lager
ash particles are crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity
air or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed
through filter to remove dust etc. So that the exhauster handles clean air which
will protect the blades of the exhauster.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Boiler Draught

Boiler draught is defined as the small difference between the pressure of outside
cold atmospheric air and that of gases within a furnace or chimney. The draught is
necessary to force air through the fuel grate to help in proper combustion of fuel
and to remove the products of combustion.
Boiler draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any
point in a flow passage and the ambient (same elevation) atmospheric pressure.
Draught is achieved a small pressure difference which causes the flow of air or gas to
take place. It is measured in millimetre (mm) or water.

The draught is one of the most essential systems of the thermal power plant which
support the required quantity of air for combustion and removes the burnt products
from the system. To move the ait through the fuel bed and to produce a flow of hot
gases through the boiler economiser, preheater and chimney require a difference of
pressure.

This difference of pressure to maintaining the constant flow of air and

discharging the gases through the chimney to the atmosphere is
known as draught. Draught can be achieved by the use of chimney,
fan, steam or air jet or a combination of these.

When the draught is produced with the help of chimney only, it is

known as Natural Draught and when the draught is produced by
any other means except chimney it is known as Artificial Draught.

Purpose of Boiler Draught

 To provide an adequate supply of air for fuel combustion.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  For throw out the exhaust gases of combustion from
the combustion chamber.

 To discharge these gases to the atmosphere through the

chimney.

Measurement of Draught

The amount of draught produce depends upon:

1) The nature and depth of fuel at the furnace.

2) Design of combustion chamber or firebox.

3) The rate of combustion required.

4) Resistance is allowed in the system due to baffles, tubes,

superheaters, economizers, air pre-heaters etc.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Classification of Boiler Draught

Types of Boiler Draught

In general, the draughts may be classified into the following two

types,

 Natural Draught

 Artificial Draught

Natural Draught

Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in the

figure. The chimney is a vertical tubular masonry structure or
reinforced concrete. It is formed for enclosing a column of flue gases
to produce the draught.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of Natural Draught

 It does not require any external power for producing the

draught.

 The capital investment is less. The maintenance cost is low as

there is no mechanical part.

 Chimney keeps the flue gases at a high place in the atmosphere

which prevents the contamination of the atmosphere.

 It has a long life.

Disadvantages of Natural Draught

 The maximum pressure available for producing natural draught

by the chimney is hardly 10 to 20 mm of water under the normal
atmospheric and flue gas temperatures.

 The available draught reduces with increases in outside air

temperature and for generating enough draught, the exhaust
gases have to be discharged at relatively high temperatures
resulting in the loss of overall plant efficiency. Thus maximum
utilization of Heat is not possible.

Artificial or Mechanical Draught

It has been seen that the draught produced by the chimney is affected
by the atmospheric conditions. It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and
tall chimney are required. In most of the modern power plants, the
draught applied must be freedom of atmospheric condition, and It
should have more flexibility (control) to bear the fluctuation loads on
the plant.

Today’s steam power plants requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per

hour would be impossible to run without the aid of draft fans. A
chimney of a reasonable height would be incapable of improving
enough draft to eliminate the huge volume of air and gases ( 400 x
103 m 3 to 800 x 10 3 m 3 per minutes). The further advantages of
fans are to reduce the height of the chimney needed.

The draught required in the actual power plant is sufficiently high

(300 mm of water) and to meet high draught requirements, some
other system must be used, known as artificial draught. The artificial
is produced by a fan and it is known as dan (mechanical) draught.
Mechanical draught is preferred for central power stations.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of Artificial or Mechanical Draught

 It is more economical and its control is easy.

 The desired value of draught can be produced by mechanical

means which cannot produced by means of natural draught.

 It increases the rate of combustion by which low-grade fuel can

also be used.

 It reduces the smoke level and increases the heat transfer co-
efficient no flue gases side thus increases the thermal efficiency
of the boiler.

 In mechanical draught, It saves the energy and the heat of flue

gases can be best utilized by it.

 In this way, it reduces fuel consumption and makes boiler

operation cheaper.

 It reduces the height of chimney which now is only controlled

by the requirement of pollution norms.

Disadvantages of Artificial or Mechanical Draught

 The initial cost of mechanical draught system is high.

 Running cost is also high due to the requirement of electricity

but that is easily compensated by the savings in fuel
consumption.

 Maintenance cost is also at a higher rate.

 Noise level of boiler is also high due to noisy fan/blower etc.

Types of Artificial or Mechanical Draught

The following are the two types of Artificial or Mechanical draught:

 Steam jet draught

 Mechanical or fan draught

1. Steam Jet Draught

It is a very simple and easy method of producing artificial draught

without the need for an electric motor. It may be forced or induced

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

depending on where the steam jet is installed. Steam under pressure
is available in the boiler.

When a small position of steam is passed through a jet or nozzle,

pressure energy converts to kinetic energy and steam comes out with
a high velocity. This high-velocity steam carries, along with it, a large
mass of air or flue gases and makes it flow through the boiler. Thus
steam jet can be used to produce draught and it is a simple and cheap
method.

Actually the steam jet is directed towards a fix direction and carries
all its energy in kinetic form. It creates some vacuum in it’s
surrounding and attracts the air of flue gases either by carrying along
with it. Thus it has the capacity to make the flow of the flue gases
either by carrying or including towards chimney. It depends on the
position of the steam jet.

Types of Steam Jet Draught

The following are the main two types of steam jet draught:

1) Induced steam jet draught.

2) Forced steam jet draught.

1. Induced Steam Jet Draught

The jet of steam is turned into a smoke box or chimney. The kinetic
head of the steam is high but static head is low i.e., it produces a
partial vacuum which brings the air through the grate, ash pit, flues
and then to motor box and chimney.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This type of induced steam jet draught arrangement is used in
locomotive boilers. Here the steam jet is absorbing the exhaust gases
through boiler so it is Induced Steam Jet Draught.

2. Forced Steam Jet Draught

Steam from the boiler after having been throttled to a gauge pressure
of 1.5 to 2 bar is supplied to the jet or nozzle installed in the ash pit.
The steam rising out of nozzles with a great velocity drags air by the
fuel bed, furnace, flue passage and then to the chimney. Here the
steam jet is pushing or forcing the air and flue gases to flow through
boiler hence it is forced steam jet draught.

Advantages of Induced Steam Jet Draught

1) It is quite simple and cheap.

2) The induced steam jet draught has the capability of using low-
grade fuels.

3) It occupies very less space.

4) It is quite simple and cheap.

5) The initial cost is low.

6) Maintenance cost is low.

7) Exhaust steam from the steam engine or turbine can be used

easily in the steam jet draught.

Disadvantages of Steam Jet Draught

1) It can operate only when some steam is generated.

2) Draught produced very low.

2. Mechanical or Fan Draught

The draught, produced by means of a fan or blower, is known as

mechanical draught or fan draught. The fan used is, generally, of
centrifugal type and is driven by an electric motor.

In an induced fan draught a centrifugal fan is placed in the path of

the flue gases before they enter the chimney. It draws the flue gases
from the furnace and forces them up through the chimney. The action
of this type of draught is similar to that of the natural draught.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In case of forced fan draught, the fan is placed before the grate, and
the air is forced into the grate through the closed ash pit.

Types of Mechanical or Fan Draught

The following are the three types of mechanical or fan draught:

1. Induced draught.

2. Forced draught.

3. Balanced draught.

1. Induced draught

In induced draught, the blower is placed near the base of the chimney
instead of near the grate. The air is absorbed in the system by
decreasing the pressure through the system below the
atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from
the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced below
atmosphere and includes the atmospheric air to flow through the
furnace.

This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced

draught system because the pressure and air are forced to flow
through the system.

The arrangement of the system is shown in the figure. A stack or

chimney is also in this system as shown in the figure but its function
is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the
contamination. It is not much significant for producing draught,
therefore, the height of the chimney may not be very much.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Balanced Draught
It is always better to use a combination of forced draught and induced
draught instead of forced or induced draught alone. If the forced
draught is applied alone, the furnace cannot be opened for firing or
inspection because high-pressure air inside the furnace will quickly
try to blow out and there is every possibility of blowing out the fire
completely and furnace stops.

If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace can not be
opened either for firing inspection because the cold air will try to rush
into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is under
atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and dilutes
the combustion.

Comparison between Forced Draught and Induced Draught

Forced Draught Induced Draught

Fan or blower is placed before Fan or blower is placed after the

the grate grate

The pressure inside the flue The pressure inside the flue
gases is slightly more than gases is slightly less than
atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure

Fan requires less power Fan requires more power

The flow of the flue gases The flow of the flue gases
through the boiler is more through the boiler is less
uniform uniform

The danger of fire in case pf No danger of fire in case of

leakage of flue gases. leakage of flue gases.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Boiler Feed Water Treatment

Boiler feed water is an essential part of boiler operations. The feed

water is put into the steam drum from a feed pump. In the steam
drum the feed water is then turned into steam from the heat. After
the steam is used it is then dumped to the main condenser.

Boiler feed water

A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two

principal parts: the furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning
a fuel, and the boiler proper, a device in which the heat changes water
into steam. The steam or hot fluid is then recirculated out of the boiler
for use in various processes in heating applications.

The water circuit of a water boiler can be summarized by the following

:

The boiler receives the feed water, which consists of varying

proportion of recovered condensed water (return water) and fresh
water, which has been purified in varying degrees (make up water).
The make-up water is usually natural water either in its raw state, or
treated by some process before use. Feed-water
composition therefore depends on the quality of the make-up water
and the amount of condensate returned to the boiler. The steam,
which escapes from the boiler, frequently contains liquid droplets and
gases. The water remaining in liquid form at the bottom of the boiler
picks up all the foreign matter from the water that was converted to
steam. The impurities must be blown down by the discharge of some
of the water from the boiler to the drains. The permissible percentage
of blown down at a plant is strictly limited by running costs and initial
outlay. The tendency is to reduce this percentage to a very small
figure.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Proper treatment of boiler feed water is an important part of operating
and maintaining a boiler system. As steam is produced, dissolved
solids become concentrated and form deposits inside the boiler. This
leads to poor heat transfer and reduces the efficiency of the boiler.
Dissolved gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide will react with
the metals in the boiler system and lead to boiler corrosion. In order
to protect the boiler from these contaminants, they should be
controlled or removed, trough external or internal treatment.

Methods of feed water treatment

1. Filtration and ultrafiltration.

2. Ion exchange/softening.
3. Membrane processes such as reverse osmosis and
nanofiltration.
4. Deaeration/degasification.
5. Coagulation/chemical precipitation.

A boiler feed water treatment system might be made up of the

technologies necessary to remove problematic dissolved solids,
suspended solids, and organic material, including any number of
the following:

i. Iron: either soluble or insoluble, iron can deposit on boiler parts

and tubes, damage downstream equipment, and affect the
quality of certain manufacturing processes
ii. Copper: can cause deposits to settle in high-pressure turbines,
decreasing their efficiency and requiring costly cleaning or
equipment change-outs
iii. Silica: if not removed to low levels, especially in high-pressure
boilers, silica can cause extremely hard scaling
iv. Calcium: can cause scaling in several forms depending on the
chemistry of the boiler feed water (e.g. calcium silicate, calcium
phosphate, etc.)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 v. Magnesium: if combined with phosphate, magnesium can stick
to the interior of the boiler and coat tubes, attracting more solids
and contributing to scale
vi. Aluminum: deposits as scale on the boiler interior and can
react with silica to increase the likelihood of scaling
vii. Hardness: also causes deposits and scale on boiler parts and
piping
viii. Dissolved gasses: chemical reactions due to the presence of
dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can cause
severe corrosion on boiler pipes and parts

Makeup water intake

Makeup water, or the water replacing evaporated or leaked water

from the boiler, is first drawn from its source, whether raw water, city
water, city-treated effluent, in-plant wastewater recycle (cooling
tower blowdown recycle), well water, or any other surface water
source.

Coagulation and chemical precipitation

After all the large objects are removed from the original water source,
various chemicals are added to a reaction tank to remove the bulk
suspended solids and other various contaminants. This process starts
off with an assortment of mixing reactors, typically one or two
reactors that add specific chemicals to take out all the finer particles
in the water by combining them into heavier particles that settle out.
The most widely used coagulates are aluminum-based such as alum
and polyaluminum chloride.

Sometimes a slight pH adjustment will help coagulate the particles,

as well.

Filtration and ultrafiltration

The next step is generally running through some type of filtration to

remove any suspended particles such as sediment, turbidity, and
certain types of organic matter. It is often useful to do this early on
in the process, as the removal of suspended solids upstream can help
protect membranes and ion exchange resins from fouling later on in
the pretreatment process. Depending on the type of filtration used,
suspended particles can be removed down to under one micron.

Ion exchange softening

When pretreating boiler feed water, if there’s high hardness

complexed with bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates,
a softening resin can be used. This procedure uses a strong acid

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

cation exchange process, whereby resin is charged with a sodium ion,
and as the hardness comes through, it has a higher affinity for
calcium, magnesium, and iron so it will grab that molecule and
release the sodium molecule into the water.

Dealkalization

After the softening process, some boiler feed water treatment

systems will utilize dealkalization to reduce alkalinity/pH, an impurity
in boiler feed water that can cause foaming, corrosion, and
embrittlement. Sodium chloride dealkalization uses a strong anion
exchange resin to replace bicarbonate, sulfate, and nitrate for
chloride anions. Although it doesn’t remove alkalinity 100%, it does
remove the majority of it with what can be an easy-to-implement and
economical process. Weak acid dealkalization only removes cations
bound to bicarbonate, converting it to carbon dioxide (and therefore
requiring degasification). It is a partial softening process that is also
economical for adjusting the boiler feed water pH.

Reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF)

Reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) are often used down
the line in the boiler feed water treatment system process so most of
the harmful impurities that can foul and clog the RO/NF membranes
have been removed. Similar processes of separation, they both force
pressurized water through semipermeable membranes, trapping
contaminants such as bacteria, salts, organics, silica, and hardness,
while allowing concentrated, purified water through. Not always
required in boiler feed water treatment, these filtration units are used
mostly with high-pressure boilers where concentration of suspended
and dissolved solids needs to be extremely low.

Deaeration or degasification

At this point in the boiler feed water treatment process, any

condensate being returned to the system will mix with the treated
makeup water and enter the deaeration or degasification process. Any
amount of gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can be
extremely corrosive to boiler equipment and piping when they attach
to them, forming oxides and causing rust. Therefore, removing these
gases to acceptable levels (nearly 100%) can be imperative to the
service life and safety of the boiler system. There are several types
of deaeration devices that come in a range of configurations
depending on the manufacturer, but generally, you might use a tray-
or spray-type deaerator for degasification or oxygen scavengers.

Distribution

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

After the boiler feed water has been sufficiently purified according to
the boiler manufacturer’s recommendation and other industry-wide
regulations, the water is fed to the boiler where it is heated and used
to generate steam. Pure steam is used in the facility, steam and
condensate are lost, and condensate return is pumped back into the
process to meet up with the pretreated makeup water to cycle
through pretreatment again.

Binary cycles

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Binary Cycle Power Plant

 Low to moderately heated (below 400°F) geothermal fluid and

a secondary (hence, "binary") fluid with a much lower boiling
point that water pass through a heat exchanger. Binary cycle
power plants are closed-loop systems, and virtually nothing
(except water vapor) is emitted to the atmosphere.
 A binary cycle power plant is a type of geothermal power plant
that allows cooler geothermal reservoirs to be used than is
necessary for dry steam and flash steam plants
 Binary Power Plants. Binary plants, like dry-steam and flash-
steam plants, make use of naturally sourced hot steam
generated by activity from within the Earth's core. All
geothermal plants convert thermal energy to mechanical
energy, then finally to electrical energy.
 The vapor exiting the turbine is then condensed by cold air
radiators or cold water and cycled back through the heat
exchanger. A binary vapor cycle is defined in thermodynamics
as a power cycle that is a combination of two cycles, one in a
high temperature region and the other in a lower temperature
region

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Cogeneration

• Cogeneration—also known as combined heat and power,

distributed generation, or recycled energy—is the simultaneous
production of two or more forms of energy from a single fuel
source. Cogeneration power plants often operate at 50 to 70
percent higher efficiency rates than single-generation facilities
• A conventional power plant makes electricity by a fairly
inefficient process. A fossil fuel such as oil, coal, or natural gas
is burned in a giant furnace to release heat energy. ...
Cogeneration (the alternative name for CHP) simply means that
the electricity and heat are made at the same time.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel because otherwise-
wasted heat from electricity generation is put to some
productive use.This is also called combined heat and power
district heating. Small CHP plants are an example of
decentralized energy.
• Cogeneration is the process of producing electricity from steam
(or other hot gases) and using the waste heat as steam in
chemical processes. In contrast, a stand-alone power-producing
plant typically converts less than 40% of the heat energy of fuel
(coal, natural gas, nuclear, etc.) into electricity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ASSIGNMNET QUESTIONS (Unit I)

1. Explain with a simple sketch working of thermal power plant

with all the four circuits involved in it.
2. Describe the in plant coal handling with a neat diagram.
3. Explain the general layout of ash handling (different systems)
and dust collection systems (classification) and draught
(classification)
4. Make neat sketch and explain the working of

(i)Chain stoker (Travelling grate) (ii) Spreader stoker (iii)

Single and multi retort stoker

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING