MATHEMATICS IN THE

MODERN WORLD
LOGIC
A R J AY T. A LTOVA R
M AT H I N S T R U C TO R
 FORMAL LOGIC
THE SCIENCE OR STUDY OF HOW
TO EVALUATE ARGUMENTS &
REASONING.
 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence
which is either true or false, but not both. A formal proposition is
written using propositional logic notation, p, q, and r are used to
represent statements.

Propositional logic is a mathematical system for

reasoning about propositions and how they relate to one
another.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
 Which of the following are
statements?
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is true
A statement.

2. What day is it? It is a question

Not a statement.
3. Help me, It cannot be categorized as true or false.
please. Not a statement.

4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not

specified.
Not a statement.
Examples of Ambiguous Statements

1. Mathematics is fun.

2. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.

3. It was hot in Manila.

4. Street vendors are poor.
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
Logical connectives are used to combine simple statements
which are referred as compound statements.

✓ A compound statement is a statement composed of two or

more simple statements connected by logical connectives

“or” “not” “if then”

“and” “exclusive-or.” “if and only if”

✓ A statement which is not compound is said to be simple

(also called atomic).
 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction of the statement p and
q is the compound statement “p and q.”

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol p q pq

for “and.” T T T
T F F
Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p F T F
F F F
 q is true; otherwise p  q is
false. Meaning, the conjunction of
two statements is true only if each
statement is true.
EXAMPLE
Determine the truth value of each of the following conjunction.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal. False

False True

2. 2 + 2=4 and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first False

female Philippine President.

3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True

President and 6 – 2 = 4
 DISJUNCTION

The disjunction of the statement p, q is the compound

statement “p or q.” p q pq
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “or.” T T T
T F T
F T T
Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are
F F F
true, then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is
false. Meaning, the disjunction of two
statements is false only if each statement
is false.
EXAMPLE
Determine the truth value of each of the following disjunction.

1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion. True

False True

2. 2 + 3 = 5 or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first femaleTrue

Philippine President.

3. 10 x 2 = 12 or man is not a mammal. False

 NEGATION

The negation of the statement p is denoted by p, p p

where  is the symbol for “not.”
T F
F T
Property 3: If p is true, p is false. Meaning, the
truth value of the negation of a
statement is always the reverse of the
truth value of the original statement.
EXAMPLE

The following are statements for p, find the corresponding p.

1. 3 + 5 = 8. 3 + 5  8.

2. Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a boy.

3. Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here.

 CONDITIONAL

The conditional (or implication) of the statement

p and q is the compound statement “if p then q.” p q p→q
T T T
Symbolically, p → q, where → is the symbol for T F F
“if then.” p is called hypothesis (or antecedent or
F T T
premise) and q is called conclusion (or consequent or
F F T
consequence).

Property 4: The conditional statement p → q is false

only when p is true and q is false; otherwise p → q is
true. Meaning p → q states that a true statement
cannot imply a false statement.
 WHEN P DOES NOT IMPLY Q

✓ p → q means “if p is true, q is true as well.”

✓ Recall: The only way for p → q to be false is if we p q p→q
know that p is true but q is false. T T T
T F F
Rationale: F T T
✓ If p is false, p → q doesn't guarantee anything. F F T
It's true, but it's not meaningful.
✓ If p is true and q is true, then the statement “if p is
true, then q is also true” is itself true.
✓ If p is true and q is false, then the statement “if
p is true, q is also true” is false.
EXAMPLE

Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional

statements.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour. True
False False

2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1. False

True False

3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6  3 = 2. True

False True
 BICONDITIONAL

The biconditional of the statement p and q is the

compound statement “p if and only if q.” p q pq
T T T
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if
T F F
and only if.”
F T F
Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q F F T
is true; if p and q have opposite truth values,
then p  q is false.
EXAMPLE

Determine the truth values of each of the following

biconditional statements.

1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – 3 = 3. True

True True

2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent False

to fish live in moon.

3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7. True

 PREDICATE

A predicate (or open statements) is a statement

whose truth depends on the value of one or more
variables.

Example:
“x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth
depends on the value of x.
 PREDICATE

A predicate can also be denoted by a function-like

notation.

Example:
P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now P(2) is true,
and P(3) is false.
If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false,
depending on the value of x.
 PROPOSITIONAL FUNCTION

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it

becomes a statement only when variable x is given
particular value.

Propositional functions are denoted as P(x),

Q(x),R(x), and so on.
 PREDICATE
Example:
“If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2.”

The given sentence has the logical form P(x) → Q(x) and its
truth value can be determine for a specific value of x.

Example: Existential Quantifiers

There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.

For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd

number.
Universal Quantifiers
 EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

The statement “there exists an x such that P(x),”

is symbolized by x P(x).

The symbol  is called the existential quantifier

The statement “x P(x)”is true if there is at least one

value of x for which P(x) is true.
 UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER

The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized by x

P(x).
The symbol  is called the universal quantifier.
The statement “x P(x)”is true if only if P(x) is true for
every value of x.
 QUANTIFIERS

Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential  There exists
There is some
For some
For which
For at least one
Such that
Satisfying
Universal  For all
For each
For every
For any
Given any
STATEMENTS RELATED TO THE
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

Statements Equivalent
Converse of p→ q q→p
Inverse of p→ q p → q

Contrapositive of p→ q q → p
 STATEMENTS RELATED TO THE
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the

statement:

If I get the Job, I will rent the apartment.

CONVERSE: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

INVERSE: If I do not get the job then I will not rent the
apartment.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If I do not rent the apartment then I
did not get the job.
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning
(also called induction) involves forming general theories from
specific observations.

Observing something happen repeatedly and concluding that it

will happen again in the same way is an example
of inductive reasoning.
Example 1:

Observation:
A low-cost airline flight is delayed

Observe a pattern:
Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed

Develop a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion

Low cost airlines always have delays
Example 2:

Observation:
Dogs A and B have fleas

Observe a pattern:
All observed dogs have fleas

Develop a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion

All observed dogs have fleas
Deductive Reasoning
(also called deduction) involves starting from a set of general
premises and then drawing a specific conclusion that contains
no more information than the premises themselves.

Deductive reasoning is sometimes called deduction (note that

deduction has other meanings in the contexts of mathematics
and accounting).
Example:

1. Start with an existing theory (and create a problem statement)

Low cost airlines always have delays
2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis based on existing theory
If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience delays
3. Collect data to test the hypothesis
Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
4. Analyze and test the data
5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
5. Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis
5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
 COUNTEREXAMPLE

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all

cases.

If you can find one case for which statement is not true, this is
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement.

EXAMPLE:
Verify that the statement is false by finding a counterexample.
END OF PRESENTATION