Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5.

1
5.2 Introduction Topology
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical
topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations.
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices
on a network. Network topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the
elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a network, especially the physical (real) nodes.
A Local Area Network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a
physical and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN will have one or more links
to one or more other nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes onto
a graph results in a geometrical shape that determines the physical topology of the
network. Likewise, the mapping of the flow of data between the nodes in the network
determines the logical topology of the network. It is important to note that the physical
and logical topologies might be identical in any particular network but they also may be
different.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of
the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes - Network
Topology is, therefore, technically a part of graph theory. Distances between nodes,
physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two
networks and yet their topologies may be identical.
5.2.1 Selection Criteria of Topology: -
 Money: - A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a
network: - you do not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed: - The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth: - with a star topology, adding another concentrator easily does
expanding a network.
 Cable type: - The most common cable is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 2
5.2.2 Types of Topology: -
The arrangement or mapping of the elements of a network gives rise to certain basic
topologies which may then be combined to form more complex topologies (hybrid
topologies). The most common of these basic types of topologies are
 Bus (Linear, Linear Bus).
 Star.
 Ring.
 Tree.
 Mesh.
1. Partially connected mesh (or simply 'mesh').
2. Fully connected mesh (or simply fully connected).
 Hybrid.
Bus Topology: -
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium. This has exactly two endpoints with
terminator at each end. All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is
transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all
nodes in the network virtually simultaneously. Fig. 1 Shows Bus topology network.

Backbone Cable

Terminator Node Terminator

Fig. 1 Bus Topology

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 3
 Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a linear bus topology.
 Bus topology allows only one device to transmit at a time.
 Data frames contain source and destination addresses, where each station
monitors the bus and copies frames addressed to itself.
 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("Thickets") both were popular Ethernet
cabling options many years ago for bus topologies.
Advantages of a Bus Topology: -
1. Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
2. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
3. Failure of one of the station does not affect others.
4. Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry.
5. Easy to implement and extend.
6. Good compromise over the other two topologies as it allows relatively high rate
of data tansmittion.
7. Less expensive than a star topology due to less footage of cabling and no
network hubs.
8. Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology: -
1. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
2. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
3. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
4. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
5. Require a network to detect when two nodes are transmitting at the same time.
6. Does not cope well with heavy traffic rates.
7. Difficult to administer/troubleshoot.
8. Limited cable length and number of stations.
9. Maintenance cost may be higher in the long run.
10. Performance degrades as additional computers are added.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 4
11. With lots of users the system becomes very slow, as all data goes along a central
line.
Star Topology: -
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to a central node with a point-to-point link in a 'hub/Switch' and 'spoke'
fashion, the central node being the 'hub/switch' and the nodes that are attached to the
central node being the 'spokes' (e.g., a collection of point-to-point links from the
peripheral nodes that converge at a central node). All data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network is transmitted to this central node, which is usually Hub/Switch that
then retransmits the data to some or all of the other nodes in the network. Fig.2 Shows
Star Topology.

Concentrator
( HUB )

Node
Fig. 2. Shows Star Topology.
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub or concentrator or switch (See
fig. 2).
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator or switch before
continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator or switch manages and controls all
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration
is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 5
coaxial cable or fiber optic cable. The protocols used with star configurations are usually
Ethernet or Local Talk.
A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may
be an actual hub or a switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub or switch
with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet cables also known as RJ45 cables.
Advantages of a Star Topology: -
1. Easy to install and wire.
2. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
3. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
4. Easy to manage.
5. Easy to locate problems.
6. Easier to expand than a bus or ring topology
7. If a node / cable break it will not affect the whole working.
8. Good performance.
9. Data Packets are sent quickly as they do not have to travel through any
unnecessary nodes
10. It is used for centralized control.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology: -
1. Requires more cable length than a bus topology.
2. If the hub or concentrator or switch fails, nodes attached are disabled.
3. With Increased devices and traffic can make the network slow
4. More expensive than bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

Ring Topology: -
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly
two other nodes, forming a circular pathway for signals: a ring. Fig. 3 Shows Ring
Topology Data travels from node to node, with each node handling every packet.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 6
Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring
networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link. A node failure or cable break
might isolate every node attached to the ring. FDDI networks overcome this vulnerability
by sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring: in the event of a break data
is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable.

Media Access
Unit (MAU)

Fig. 2.3 Ring Topology.

To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring technology. A Token is

passed from one computer to another, which enables each computer to have equal access
to the network.
A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around the network. When
a device needs to transmit, it reserves the token for the next trip around, and then attaches
its data packet to it. The receiving device sends back the packet with an acknowledgment
of receipt, then the sending device puts the token back out on the network. Most token
ring networks have the physical cabling of a star topology and the logical function of a
ring through use of multi access units (MAU).
In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of
each device and passed on to the next device. All devices have a cable home runned back
to the MAU. The MAU makes a logical ring connection between the devices internally.
When each device signs on or off, it sends an electrical signal which trips

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 7
mechanical switches inside the MAU to either connect the device to the ring or drop it
off the ring. The most common type of cabling used for token ring networks is twisted
pair.

Advantages of a Ring Topology are: -

1. Easier to Mange than a Bus Network.
2. Good Communication over long distances.
3. Handles high volume of traffic.
4. Very Reliable.
5. Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
6. Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load can create much
larger network using Token Ring.
7. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
8. Fault isolation is simplified.
9. To add or delete a device requires moving only two connections.
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology are: -
1. One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU (multi access units)
can create problems for the entire network
2. Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
3. Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet
cards and hubs.
4. Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load if one computer has
goes down then network goes down - as it cannot pass the token to other.
5. Costly wiring and connections.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 8

Tree Topology: -
A tree topology combines characteristics of bus and star topologies. It consists
of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable (See fig.
4). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable to
configure a network to meet their needs.
Only the hub devices can connect directly with the tree bus and each Hub functions as
a root of a tree of the network devices.

Fig. 4 Tree Topology.

Advantages of a Tree Topology: -
1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2. Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology: -
1. Overall the type of cabling used limits length of each segment.
2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 9

5-4-3 Rule: -
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-
3 rules. One aspect of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network
cable reach every part of the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator
or repeater that a signal goes through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule
that between any two nodes on the network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments,
connected through 4 repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be
populated (trunk) segments if they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is
one, which has one, or more nodes attached to it. In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rules are adhered
to. The furthest two nodes on the network have 4 segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators
between them.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where
all fiber optic cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If
there is a combination of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule is simply
translated to 7-6-5 rules.

Mesh Topology: -
A type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even
if one of the connections go down. This type of topology is not commonly used for most
computer networks, as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every
computer. However, this type of topology is commonly used for wireless networks. Fig.5
shows a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a mesh topology.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 10

There are two types of mesh topologies:

Full mesh and partial mesh: -
Fully Mesh: -
Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every
other node in a network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible for data to be
simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes. The physical
fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical
networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to
be interconnected.
Partially Mesh: -
Partial mesh topology where some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme
but others are only connected to one or two in the network, is often used in real network
to provide the reliability with less complexity. This makes it possible to take advantage
of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology
without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the
network.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 11
In most practical networks that are based upon the physical partially connected
mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the
shortest path between nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links,
in which case the data takes an alternate path to the destination.
Advantages of mesh topology: -
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared
by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not halt the
entire system.
3. Excellent privacy and security.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
5. High throughput.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology: -

1. Impractical for large number devices.
2. Very expensive.
3. Installation and configuration are difficult
4. The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and
number of I/O ports required.
Hybrid Topology: -
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way
that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star,
ring, etc.). Fig.6 shows hybrid topology. For example, a tree network connected to a tree
network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid
network topology.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 12

Fig. 6 Shows Hybrid topology.

A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network

topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring
Network and star bus network: -
A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a
multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk
(the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 13

5.2.3 Comparison of topologies: -

Parameters Bus Star Ring Tree Mesh Hybrid
Structure There is a There is All There is a The More
single central compute single computer than one
central host and rs and central s and topology
cable all other cable network used to
(backbone) nodes devices (backbone) devices connect
and all connect are and all are compute
computers to it. connect computers interconn rs and
and devices ed in and ected devices.
connect to circle. devices with one
it. connect to another,
it through allowing
hub/switch. for most
transmiss
ions to be
distribute
d, even if
one of
the
connectio
ns goes
down.
Host Depends on Yes. Depends Yes Yes Yes
existence. network on
needs. network
needs.
Connection It has no No. Yes. Yes Yes Yes
between connection
nodes. between the
nodes.
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 14
Host failure Network Networ Network Backbone Network Network
can still k will will fail. fails, can still can still
run. fail. network run. run.
fails.
Node Network Networ Network Backbone Network Network
failure can still k can will fail. fails, can still can still
run. still run. network run. run.
fails.
Cable used Coax, Twisted Twisted Coax, Coax, Coax,
Twisted Pair and Pair. Twisted Twisted Twisted
Pair and fiber. Pair and Pair and Pair and
fiber. fiber. fiber. fiber.

Protocol Ethernet Ethernet Token Ethernet Ethernet Ethernet

used Local Talk Local Ring Local Local
Talk Talk Talk,
Token
Ring

Ease of Difficult. Depend Depends Depends Difficult. Difficult.

troubleshoo s on on on
ting host. backbon backbone.
e.

Ease of Easy. Average Difficult Average Average Average

adding and .

removing
nodes.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 15
No. Of Many. Limited. Limited. Depends Many. Many.
nodes when on
extending backbone.
networks

5.3 Network Control / Connecting Devices: -

Here we understand the components used to build standard local area network (LAN).
In this introduces network directing hardware devices used on more compel network.
These network-directing devices are as follows:
Repeater: -
A repeater is the most basic device on a network. Repeater is device that operates
at the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeater has two parts. The repeater regenerates
any signal received in on one port and out the other port. The basic purpose of a repeater
is to extend the distance of something.
Their primary purpose is simply to regenerate a signal received from input and correct
the signal to its original state for output i.e. repeater takes a weak signal from one
segment, regenerates it and passes it to the next segment as shown in Fig. 7

Fig. 7: Repeater connecting two networks

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 16
Repeaters are used to connect only same type of media, such as 10 Base-2 Thin
Ethernet to 10 Base-2 Thin Ethernet, or Token Ring twisted pair to Token Ring twisted
pair.
Repeaters are used in LANs MAN and WANs. They may be used to provide
more flexibility in design of a network or to extend the distance over which a signal may
travel down a cable.
A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and
regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments.
When talking about, Ethernet topology, you are probably talking about using a
hub as a repeater. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This
can cause a propagation delay, which can affect network communication when there are
several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that
can be used in a row.
Repeaters are available in many types: -
1. Single port repeater.
2. Multiport repeater.
3. Smart repeater.
4. Optical repeater.
Single port repeater operates with two segments. i.e. One segment send signal
to repeater, it boost and pass to the next signal.
Multiport repeater connects one segment to another cable segment. Multiport
repeater has one input port and multiple output port.
Smart repeater is hybrid device and very similar to a bridge in functionality.
Smart repeater does packet filtering.
Repeaters that operate on optical signal are called optical repeaters. Most
repeaters in use today are multi-port repeaters that are called hubs. There is no difference
in how the two devices operate.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 17
Advantages of repeater: -
1. The least expensive way of expanding a network.
2. They can connect different types of media but they do not have ability to
connect different network architectures such as Ethernet and Token Ring.
3. Passes all traffic in both directions.

Disadvantages of repeater: -
1. The main disadvantage of Repeater is that it passes along everything it
detects on the line. If there is noise or distortion the repeater passes it
along with original signal.
2. Not support if network traffic is heavy.
3. Not support to connect different network architectures such as Ethernet
and Token Ring.
4. Repeaters do not have ability to work beyond the physical layer, which
means they do not examine any destination addresses and they do not
filter or translate any data.
5. There is a limit to the number of repeaters that can be used to extend a
LAN’s length and topology. i.e. Ethernet LAN, support maximum five
segments interconnected by four repeaters.
Hubs: -
A hubs or concentrator is a device used to connect all of the computers on a star
or ring network. Hub or concentrator works at physical layer of OSI reference model. A
hub is a multi port repeater. When a signal is received on one port of the hub it is
regenerated out all the other ports. This type of device simply passes on (repeats) all the
information it receives, so that all devices connected to its ports receive that information.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 18
Installing hub is very simple to connecting it to power source and plugging in
cables connected to the network interface adapter in your computers. All networks
(except those using coaxial cable) require a central location to bring media segment
together. These central locations are called hubs or concentrators. Hubs are special
purpose repeaters that overcome the electromechanical limitations of a media signal path.
The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to other media
segments. Fig. 8 shows Hubs. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through
them, and any packet entering any port is broadcast out on every other port (other than
the port of entry). Since every packet is being sent out through every other port, packet
collisions result--which greatly impedes the smooth flow of traffic.

LED RJ 45 PORT

PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 PC8

Fig. 8 8 port hub PC8 sending request to PC2.
Hubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to extend the network.
However, this can result in a lot of unnecessary traffic being sent to all devices on the
network. Hubs pass on traffic to the network regardless of the intended destination; the
PCs to which the packets are sent use the address information in each packet to work out
which packets are meant for them.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 19

Hubs have two important properties: -

(1) Hubs echo all data from each port to all other ports on the hub. Because of this
echoing, no filtering or logic occurs to prevent collisions between packets being
transmitted by any of the connected nodes.
(2) Hubs posses’ automatic partitioning capability. Where the hub can automatically
partition any node having trouble from the other nodes. In effect shutting down
that node. Hub partitioning occurs due to if a cable short is detected, if the hub
port is receiving excessive packets that are flooding the network or if any serious
problem detected for a given port on the hub.

Advanced built-in features of Hubs: -

(1) Built-in management: -
The hub can be centrally managed over the network using SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol) or other network management protocols and software’s.
(2) Auto-sensing of different connection speeds: -
A hub that can automatically detect and run each node at either 10 Mbps (10
Base-T) or 100 Mbps (100 Base-T) are common.
(3) High speed uplink that connects the hub to a backbone: -
A 10 Mbps hub usually operates at 10 times the basic speed i.e. uplink ports run
1 Gbps.
(4) Built-in bridging and routing functions: -
i.e. not require separate devices to perform bridging and routing.
(5) Built-in switching: -
Nodes on hubs can be switched instead of shared.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 20
Types of Hubs: -
There are 3 main types of hubs.
(1) Passive Hubs.
(2) Active Hub.
(3) Intelligent Hubs.
(1) Passive Hub: -
Unlike standalone repeaters. Hub supplies cable connections by passing all the
signals entering the device through any port out through all other ports. Passive hub
operates only at the physical layer, has no intelligence and does not amplify or modify
the signal in any way. Maximum distance covered by a passive hub is about 300 feet.
Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.
(2) Active Hub: -
Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the same
way as a repeater does. Because hubs usually have eight to twelve ports for network
computers to connect to, they are sometimes called multiport repeaters. Active hubs
require electrical power to run.
Active hubs are expensive than passive hubs. Maximum distance covered by an
active hub is about 2000 feet. Active hub requires electrical power to run.
(3) Intelligent Hub: -
Intelligent hubs are units that have integrated management capability. Intelligent
hub regenerates the signal and performs some network management and intelligent path
selection. Intelligent hub monitors the operation of each port.
The network management capability is to provide the network administrator to remotely
control the connection to be isolating particular segments. Intelligent hubs have ability
to offer flexible transmission rates to various devices. This supports standard
transmission rates of 10, 16 and 100 Mbps to desktop system using standard topologies
such as Ethernet, Token Ring or FDDI.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 21
Advantages of hubs: -
(1) No need of configuration.
(2) Active hubs can extend maximum network media distance.
(3) No processing is done at the hub to slow down performance.
Disadvantages: -
(1) Passive hub can greatly limit maximum media distance.
(2) Hub has no intelligence to filter traffic, so all data is sent out to all ports
whether it is needed or not.
(3) Hubs can act as repeaters; networks using them must follow the same rules as
repeaters.

Bridges: -

Fig. 9: Bridge connecting two network segments.

A Bridge is another device used to connect LAN cable segments together.

Bridges operates at the data link layer of OSI model.

A bridge provides packet filtering at the data-link layer, meaning that it only
passes the packets that are destinated for the other side of the network.

A bridge has two or more network interface (own MAC address) connected to
different cable segments and operating promiscuous mode.
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 22
A bridge examines each packet as it enters through one of the ports. It first looks
at the MAC address of the sender and creates a mapping between the port and the
sender’s MAC address. It then looks at the address of the recipient, comparing the MAC
address to the list of all learned MAC address. If the address is in list, the bridge look
up the port number and forwards the packet to the port where it thinks the recipient is
connected. If the recipient’s MAC address is not in the list, the bridge blocks the data
from passing. Bridge can connect different network architectures like Ethernet and
Token Ring. Fig. 9 shows Bridge.

Types of Bridges: -

Three types of bridges are used in network.

(1) Transparent bridge.

(2) Translational bridge.
(3) Source-route bridge.
(1) Transparent bridge: -
Transparent bridge is invisible to the other devices on the network. Transparent
bridges only perform the function of blocking or forwarding data based on MAC address.
MAC addresses may also be referred as hardware or physical address. These addresses
are used to built tables and make decision regarding whether a frame should be forward
and where it should be forwarded.
(2) Translational bridge: -
Translational bridges are useful to connect segments running at different speeds
or using different protocols such as Token Ring and Ethernet networks. Depending on
the direction of travel, a translational bridge can add or remove information and fields
from the frame as needed.
(3) Source-route bridge: -
IBM designed source-route bridges for use on Token Ring networks. The source-
route bridge derives the entire route of the frame embedded within the frame.
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 23
This allows the bridge to make specific decision about how the frame should be
forwarded through the network.
Other than above there are also local bridges, Remote bridge.
Local bridge: -
A local bridge provides packet filtering and repeating services for network
segments of the same type. This is also called MAC-layer bridge. This is the simplest
type of bridge because it has no need for packet translation or buffering. This bridge
simply propagates the incoming packets to the appropriate ports or discards them.
Remote bridge: -
Remote bridge connects network segments at different locations, using WAN
link such as modem or leased line. The difference in speed between Local and Wide area
links, a remote bridge uses internal buffer to store the data received from LAN while it
is waiting for transmission to the remote site.
Advantages of Bridges: -
(1) Bridges are simple and significant.
(2) They prevent unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments.
(3) Bridge can reduce the amount of network traffic on segment.
(4) It also makes it possible to isolate a busy network from not-so-busy one.
(5) They can connect different network architectures like Ethernet and Token Ring.
(6) Bridges have ability to look at the physical destination address of a frame and
send the frame at the specific port.
(7) Bridge can filter the traffic, it increases throughput on a network.
Disadvantages: -
(1) Bridges are slower than repeater and hubs because they examine each frame’s
source and destination addresses.
(2) Bridges have no protection against broadcast storms. i.e. when a computer needs
to send information to all other computers on the networks, it sends a broadcast
frame. Bridges do not have the ability to stop broadcast packets from
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 24
being forwarded. When a bridge receives a frame with a broadcast destination
address, the bridge will simply forward the frame out every one of its ports.
(3) A bridge cannot make decisions about routes through the network.

Switches:-
Switch is a small device that joins multiple computers together of a low-level
network protocol layer. Technically, switch operates at layer two i.e. Data Link Layer of
the OSI Model.
Switches look nearly identical to hubs, but switch generally contains more
intelligence than a hub. Unlike hubs, switches are capable of inspecting the data packets
as they are received, determining the source and destination address of that packet and
forwarding that packet appropriately.
LED PORT

PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 PC8

Fig. 2.10: PC1 sending request to PC8.
By delivering messages only to the connected device that it was intended for,
i.e. signals are transmitted only to the port where they need to go, rather than to all
ports unlike hub.
Switch types: -
There are three basic types of switch,
(1) Cut-through switch.
(2) Store-and-forward.
(3) Fragment Free.
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 25

(1) Cut-through switch: -

A cut-through switch forwards the packet as soon as it is received. No error
checking is performed on the packet, so packet is moved through very quickly. This type
of switch is relatively inexpensive and minimizes the delay incurred during the
processing of packets by the switch.

(2) Store-and-forward: -
In a store-and-forward configuration, the switch waits to receive the entire packet
before beginning to forward it. It performs basic error checking. This type of switch is a
shared-memory switch, which has a common memory buffer that stores the incoming
data from all the ports.
(3) Fragment free switch: -
Fragment-free-switch works by reading only the port of the packet that enables
it to identify fragments of a transmission.

Difference between Hub and Switch: -

Hub Switch
1. Total network bandwidth is limited Total network bandwidth is determined
to the speed of the hub. i.e. a 10 Base by the number of ports on the switch
T hub provides 10 Mb bandwidth i.e. an 8 port 100 Mb switch can
maximum, no matter how many support up to 800Mb/s bandwidth.
ports it has.
2. Supports half duplex Support full duplex communications.
communications limiting the This allows devices to both transmit and
connection speed to that of the port, receive data at the same time, thereby
i.e. 10 Mb port provides a 10 doubling traffic capacity and avoiding
Mb link. packet collisions.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 26
Hub Switch
3. Hub count rules limit the number of Switch allows users to greatly expand
hubs that can be interconnected networks; there are no limits to the
between two computers. number of switches that can be
interconnected between two computers.

4. Hub is less expensive. Slightly higher price.

5. Hub is used in physical layer of Switch is used in Data link layer of
OSI model. OSI model.
6. Hub is less intelligent. Switch is more intelligent.
7. It sends the received packet to all It only send packet to only destination
ports. port.
8. It uses broadcast Technology. It uses point-to-point technology.

Routers:-

Routers works at the Network layer of the OSI model. The router uses network
addresses to determine how to forward a packet. Routers are in increasingly common
sight in any network environment, from a small home office that uses one to connect to
an Internet Service provider (ISP) to a corporate IT environment.

Router makes interconnecting possible. Routers are Network device that route
data around the network. Router first examines the data as it receives, then determine the
destination address for the data.

By using tables of defined routes, the router determines the best way for the data
to route the destination. Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware configured
MAC address to determine the destination of the data, routers use the software-
configured network address to make decisions.
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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 27
Routers connect two or more logical separate networks shown in Fig. 11. The
Internet itself could be described as a network of routers. A router is often a full- fledged
computer system with multiple network cards and its own operating system.

Fig. 11. Router connecting different networks.

Router can connect both similar and dissimilar networks. They are often used
for WAN.

Types of Router: -
There are two types of Routers: -
(1) Static router: -
Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and configure the
routing table and to specify each route.
There are two main disadvantages of this router: -
(1) Manually entering routes is time consuming and susceptible to human error.
(2) If the topology of the network changes, the router must be manually configured.
Static routers are generally used only for small environment.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 28

(2) Dynamic router: -

Dynamic routers do an automatic discovery of routes; which uses external
protocols to gather information about the network. Only the first route has to be manually
configured. After that additional routes are automatically discovered. The router on the
basis of traffic and cost decides the route.
Advantages of Routers: -
(1) Are used to interconnect networks i.e. without router, the Internet could not
exist.
(2) Connecting two or more independent network i.e. An Ethernet network
connected to a Token Ring network.
(3) Used to provide connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links.
(4) Multiport device i.e. Router with multiple slots that can hold different interface
cards or other devices.
(5) Can connect dissimilar LANs and WANs running at different transmission
speed and using a variety of protocols.
(6) Diagnose internal or other connectivity problems and trigger alarms.
(7) Provide high network fault tolerance through redundant components.
Disadvantages: -
(1) Router does not have ability to stop broadcast packets from being forwarded to
other networks.
(2) Routers operate slower than any of the other device because extra decision-
making involved.
Gateways: -
Gateways are application specific interfaces that link all seven layers of the OSI
model when they are dissimilar at any or all levels.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 29
The term Gateway is applied to any device, system or software application that
can perform the function of translating data from one format to another. The key feature
of gateway is that it converts the format of data, not the data itself.
The gateway is combination of networking hardware and software that connects
two dissimilar kinds of network. Gateway functions in many ways. For example,
software gateway can be found everywhere.
Many companies use an e-mail system such as Microsoft Exchange or Novell
Group wise. These systems transmit mail internally in a certain format. When e-mail sent
across the Internet to users using a different e-mail system, the e-mail must be converted
to another format, usually to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). This conversion is
performed by software gateway.
Another example of a gateway is the System Network Architecture (SNA)
Gateway, which converts the data format used on a PC to that used on an IBMs
mainframe or minicomputer.

Fig. 12: Gateway connecting two different networks.

Advantages: -
(1) Gateways allow communication between two dissimilar network protocols.
(2) Typically, gateways are used for one of four purposes as an e-mail gateway, as
an IBM host gateway, as an Internet gateway, or as a LAN gateway
Disadvantages: -
(1) Gateways become bottlenecks because the flow of data is slow and the
conversion from one data format to another takes time.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 30

Table shows OSI reference model layer and supported network-directing device.

Application layer Application gateway

Transport layer Transport gateway
Network layer Router
Data link layer Bridge, Switch
Physical layer Repeater, hub

Modems: -
Modems to be a true network device, it is a device that your network might
require to provide point-to-point connectivity between a workstation and another device.
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer
from one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The
computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying
massages across phone lines.
Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting
end and demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The
process of converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of
another computer network so they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred
to as digitizing.

Fig. 13: Modulation – Demodulation.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 31
When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices
called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a
terminal or a computer.

Fig. 14: Building block of Modem.

The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an
analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the
carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

Types of Modems
• Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: synchronous modem and asynchronous modem.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 32
Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.

Half duplex Modem – The term half duplex means that signal can travel in either
direction, but the transmission will take place in only one direction at a time. These
modems have only one carrier frequency. This type of modem is required to send and
receive signal alternately. This type of arrangement uses more channel bandwidth and
the data communication takes place at a very slow rate.
If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I give an indication of the incoming
carrier to the DTE through a control signal of its digital interface. as long as they camel'
IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the DTE to transmit data.

Full Duplex Modem – These modems can transmit in both directions simultaneously.
They also make use of two carrier frequencies (one for each direction). Each carrier
makes use of half of the bandwidth which is available to it. The process of transmission
and receiving of data by these modems can take place at full speed.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 33
Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
2 wire modem – These modems make use of the same pair of wires for outgoing and
incoming carriers. Due to the use of only one pair of wires which is extended into the
subscriber’s location, this type of leased 2 wire connection is less expensive than the 4
wire connection.
In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for
the incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented.

4 wire modem – In this type of connection, separate wires are used for incoming and
outgaining carrier. Data can be transmitted on half and full duplex mode through these
settings. The same carrier frequency can be used for transmission in both directions as
the physical path is separate for each in this case. Full duplex and half duplex modes of
data transmission are possible on a 4- wire connection.

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Network Topologies and Networking Devices 5. 34
Transmission mode: synchronous modem and asynchronous modem.
Synchronous Modem – Data is transmitted in frames along with synchronization bits
which are used for ensuring the timely transmission and reception of data. These modems
are mainly employed on dedicated leased lines.

Asynchronous Modem – In these types of modems, every byte is positioned between a

stop and a start bit. This lacks the timing signal or clock between modem and DTE. It is
able to manage a continuous flow of data bits provided that a clock signal is used.

Mr.S.Y.Divekar.