Unit Notes Based on PDF: ARQ and Error Detection/Correction (DCC - CT2)

Subject: Data Communication and Computer Network (DCC)

1. Introduction to Errors in Data Communication

In any communication system, data can be corrupted due to various reasons such as noise,
interference, attenuation, or distortion. Errors are categorized into:

• Single-bit errors – Only one bit of data is corrupted.

• Burst errors – Two or more bits in the data unit are corrupted.

To ensure data integrity, error detection and correction mechanisms are essential.

2. Error Detection Techniques

These methods identify whether an error has occurred in transmitted data.

a. Parity Bit

• Adds a parity bit (extra bit) to ensure the number of 1s is even (even parity) or odd (odd
parity).

• Example: Data = 1010001 (4 ones, even), even parity bit = 0. Final = 10100010.

• Detects single-bit errors but fails in even-bit errors.

b. Checksum

• Divides data into equal segments (usually 16 bits), sums them, and sends the sum
(checksum).

• Receiver sums data segments and compares the result with the checksum.

• Example:

o Data segments: 1001, 1010 → Sum = 1001 + 1010 = 10011

o Checksum = 01100 (1's complement of sum)

• Used in: IP, TCP, UDP headers.

c. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

• Uses polynomial division (modulo-2 arithmetic).

• Sender appends remainder (CRC bits) to data.

• Receiver re-divides to check if remainder is zero.

• Example:
 o Data: 11010011101100

o Generator Polynomial: 1011

o CRC = Remainder after division

• Very effective for burst errors.

d. Hamming Code

• Can detect and correct single-bit errors.

• Adds multiple parity bits at positions that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8...)

• Error position is calculated using parity bit checks.

• Example for 4-bit data (D3 D2 D1 D0):

o Parity bits at positions 1, 2, 4 → P1, P2, P4

o Transmitted data: P1 P2 D3 P4 D2 D1 D0

3. Error Correction Techniques

a. Forward Error Correction (FEC)

• Redundant data is added so that the receiver can detect and correct errors without
retransmission.

• Efficient for real-time or satellite communication.

• Example: Hamming code in RAM chips.

b. Retransmission-based Correction (ARQ)

• Sender waits for acknowledgment (ACK). If not received in time (timeout), data is
retransmitted.

• Provides reliable transmission over unreliable links.

4. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Protocols

a. Stop-and-Wait ARQ

• Sender transmits one frame and waits for acknowledgment.

• After timeout or NACK, it resends the frame.

• Disadvantage: Wastes time during waiting period.

• Example: Sender sends Frame 0 → waits → receives ACK0 → sends Frame 1

b. Go-Back-N ARQ

• Sender can transmit multiple frames (window size = N).

• If error occurs in Frame 3, all frames from 3 onwards are retransmitted.

• Efficient for reliable channels.

c. Selective Repeat ARQ

• Only the erroneous frames are retransmitted.

• Receiver buffers and stores correctly received frames.

• More complex but efficient in poor connections.

5. Comparison Table: Error Detection Techniques

Technique Detects Errors Corrects Errors Complexity Usage

Parity Bit Yes (1-bit) No Low Simple systems

Checksum Yes (limited) No Medium IP, UDP

CRC Yes (burst) No High Ethernet, modems, USB

Hamming Code Yes Yes (1-bit) Medium RAM, wireless comm. systems

6. Real-Life Applications

• CRC: Networking (Ethernet), USB, storage media.

• Hamming Code: Error correction in RAM.

• Stop-and-Wait ARQ: Used in simpler protocols like TFTP.

• Selective Repeat ARQ: Applied in TCP and high-speed modems.

7. Detailed Answers to 10 Most Important Questions

1. Explain various error detection techniques in detail. Error detection techniques help in
identifying if the transmitted data has been altered during transmission.

• Parity Bit: Adds a parity bit to maintain even or odd parity. Can detect single-bit errors
but fails in detecting two or more simultaneous bit errors.

• Checksum: The sender calculates a checksum by summing segments of data and

• CRC: Treats data as a polynomial and divides it using another polynomial (generator).
The remainder (CRC bits) is appended and used for checking integrity.

• Hamming Code: Adds redundant bits (parity) at positions that are powers of 2. These
help in identifying and correcting a single-bit error based on bit parity.

2. Describe Stop-and-Wait ARQ with diagram and flow.

• If the ACK is received, the next frame is sent.

• If a NACK or no ACK is received within timeout, the same frame is retransmitted.

• It is simple but inefficient due to idle wait time after every frame.

3. Differentiate between Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ.

• Go-Back-N ARQ: Retransmits all frames from the erroneous one. Simpler
implementation but less efficient.

• Selective Repeat ARQ: Retransmits only the erroneous frames. More complex but
improves bandwidth usage.

• Comparison Table:

Feature Go-Back-N Selective Repeat

Retransmission From error onward Only corrupted frames

Receiver Buffer Not needed Required to store frames

Bandwidth Efficiency Lower Higher

4. Explain Hamming Code technique for error correction. Hamming Code adds parity bits at
specific positions. At the receiver, it recalculates parity bits and compares them to find the
position of the error (if any). Once the position is known, the bit is flipped to correct the error. It
is a single-bit error correction technique and is widely used in memory chips.

5. What is CRC and how is it used in error detection? Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) uses
polynomial division to generate a fixed-length checksum for a block of data. It detects burst
errors effectively. At the receiver, the same division is performed and if the remainder is zero,
data is accepted; otherwise, an error is flagged.

6. Define and explain Forward Error Correction (FEC). Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a
technique in which redundant bits are added to the data by the sender. The receiver uses these
bits to detect and correct errors without needing retransmission. It is used in real-time and one-
way communication systems like satellite links and streaming services.

7. Write a short note on checksum method for error detection. Checksum is a simple error
detection scheme where data is broken into equal segments and summed. The result is then
complemented and transmitted. The receiver performs the same operation and verifies the
checksum. If it doesn’t match, an error is detected.

8. What is the importance of error detection in networks? Error detection ensures the
integrity and reliability of data during transmission. It helps prevent data corruption, which can
cause miscommunication, software crashes, and data loss. It is essential in modern networking
protocols like TCP/IP, file transfers, and cloud storage.

9. Give advantages and disadvantages of each ARQ method.

• Stop-and-Wait: Easy to implement but low efficiency.

• Selective Repeat: Most efficient but needs buffer and complex logic.

10. Write a detailed note on ARQ with all types. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) protocols
ensure reliable communication through acknowledgments and retransmissions.

• Stop-and-Wait: One frame at a time. Waits for ACK before next.

• Go-Back-N: Sends multiple frames. If an error occurs, all frames from the erroneous
one are resent.

• Selective Repeat: Sends multiple frames and only retransmits frames with errors.
Requires receiver buffer and sequencing. These protocols play a vital role in maintaining
data reliability in noisy channels.