NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous
computers interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are
said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will
see later. They are usually connected together to make larger networks,
with the Internet being the most well-known example of a network of
networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a
computer network and a distributed system. The key distinction is
that in a distributed system, a collection of independent computers
appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single
model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of
software on top of the operating system, called middleware, is
responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example of
a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the
Internet and presents a model in which everything looks like a
document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource
sharing). sharing physical resources such as printers, and
tape backup systems, is sharing information
 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much
network
usage.
 communication medium among employees.email
(electronic mail), which employees generally use for a great
deal of daily communication.
 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer
network
instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP
 telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a
graphical computer screen
 doing business electronically, especially with customers and
suppliers. This
new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it
has grown rapidly in recent years.
2 Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment.(game playing,)

3 Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Smart phones,
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 m-commerce
 NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with
it many unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a
host of other applications allow people to share their views with like-
minded individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical
topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about,
like politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be
deeply offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be politically
correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-
resolution color photographs and video clips are easily shared over
computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but
others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on
particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply
unacceptable and that such content must be censored. Different
countries have different and conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the
debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also
make it easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic.
This sets up conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus
employer rights. Many people read and write email at work. Many
employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee
messages, including messages sent from a home computer outside
working hours. Not all employees agree with this, especially the
latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the
process of providing service to your mobile device the network
operators learn where you are at different times of day. This allows
them to track your movements. They may know which nightclub you
frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering

attack often used to steal user data, including login credentials and
credit card numbers. It occurs when an attacker, masquerading as a
trusted entity, dupes a victim into opening an email, instant
message, or text message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed
denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and
allows the attacker to access the device and its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is
the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For
example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some
of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
A data communications system has five components
I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be
communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video. 2 Sender. The sender is the device that
sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so
on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the
physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation
Text
Numbers
Images
Audio
Video

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex as shown in Figure.
Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as
on a one- way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not
at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens
band) radios are both half- duplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
(Figure c). One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send
more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase
the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links.
A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint. Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links,
are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you
are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control
and the television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take
turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid
out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every
other node in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially

connected mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a
connection to each of the other computers in that network. The
number of connections in this network can be calculated using the
following formula (n is the number of computers in the network):
n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in
the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a
network. In the event that one of the primary computers or
connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices
can transmit data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or
transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission
between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies,
making it a less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time
consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the
high costs and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network

setups. In this configuration, every node connects to a central
network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network
device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients.
Depending on the type of network card used in each computer of the
star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to
connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of
the central computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-
speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a
switch or router as the central network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number
of nodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network
goes down and all computers are disconnected from the network
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each

computer and network device are connected to a single cable or
backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or
peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star
topology. Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network
goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device

connections create a circular data path. In a ring network, packets of
data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one
direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to
move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual
connection in the ring is broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs)
or wide area networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity
between each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting
performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through
each workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a
star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the
network is more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can
have a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it
covers and its physical architecture. The three primary network
categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs in their
characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)
Group of interconnected computers within a small area.
(room, building, campus)
Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers,
applications and other devices.
Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for
connections. Due to short distances, errors and
noise are minimum.
Data transfer rate is 10 to
100 mbps. Example: A
computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Design to extend over a large
area.
Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that
resources can be shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by organization or
individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and
MAN's.
Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses satellites and
microwave relays.
Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the
location. Best example is the internet.

Other types
WLAN (Wireless LAN)
A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication.
Provides short range connectivity with high speed data transmission.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network)
Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables. E.g.:
Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that

can carry information from a source to a destination.

Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a

medium from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors

(normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as a ground reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal
foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and
more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which
is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a
shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the
circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,
and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-

Concelman (BNe), connector.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital
telephone networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is
moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A

glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass
or plastic.
Propagation Modes

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source

move through the core in different paths. How these beams move
within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown in
Figure.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains

constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through
this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of
the core and the cladding. The term step index refers to the suddenness
of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it
passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber,
decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word
index here refers to the index of refraction.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly
focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all
close to the horizontal.
Fiber Construction

The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST)

connector, MT-RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a
connector
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks
because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective..
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and
coaxial cable,thus creating a hybrid network.
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast
Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over
metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).
1 Higher bandwidth.
2 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is
significantly greaterthan that of other guided media. A signal can run
for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5
km for coaxial or twisted- pair cable.
3 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise
cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
4 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to
corrosive materials than copper.
5 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to
tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that
can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical
fiber. 1Installation and maintenance
2 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is
unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are
needed.
3 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than
those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high,
often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
Radio
Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several

ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight
propagation, as shown in Figure

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are omni
directional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves
that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omni directional
property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one
antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may
send signals using the same frequency or band.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
transmission, we can have several types of antennas. Figure shows an
omnidirectional antenna.
Applications
The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful
for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM
and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has
an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn

Applications:
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs

Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; a short- range
communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with
the use of the remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for
long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that
can interfere with the communication.
Applications:
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in
a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection

 Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how
different networking technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
 Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a
network
 Top to bottom
–All People Seem To Need Data
Processing Bottom to top
–Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Physical Layer
 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to
the next
 Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission
over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber
optic standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be
used to transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
 Device example: Hub
 Used to transmit data
Data Link Layer
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to
computer
 Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot
move frames across routers
 Encapsulation = frame
 Requires MAC address or physical address
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP)
 Device example: Switch
TCP
&UDP
 Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access
Control (MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
▪ –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error
control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
▪ –Determines which computer has access to the network media at
any given time
▪ –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called
frame
synchronization
Network Layer
 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the
network to the other, called end-to-end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router
 –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related
software to move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer
 Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into
segments that can be sent to lower-level layers for data transmission
 Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level
protocols
and applications can use
 Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can
be reassembled in correct order at destination
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure
destination received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send
segments without assurance of delivery
 Uses port addressing
Session Layer
 Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between
devices
 Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment,
termination, and restart or recovery procedures
TCP
&UDP
 Presentation Layer
 Concerned with how data is presented to the network
 Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption

Application Layer
 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or
operating system to communicate on the network
 Examples
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to
read e-mails and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-
mails

TCP
&UDP
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

TCP
&UDP
 An exchange using the OSI model

TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol)
–A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work
together to allow networked computers to communicate

TCP
&UDP
 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Application Layer
 Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing
specific network applications
 Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data
delivery
 Typical protocols:
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol
▪ For file transfer
o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
▪ For remote login on any other computer on the network
o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
▪ For mail transfer
o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
▪ For Web browsing
 Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers
Application Presentation Session
Transport Layer

TCP
&UDP
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
o Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
o TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists –
also called virtual circuit
 UDP provides the functions:
o Dividing a chunk of data into segments
o Reassembly segments into the original chunk
o Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
 Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
 Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
 Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session
between the respective computers
Internet Layer
 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across network
boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
Host-to-network layer
The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP
reference model. It combines the link layer and the physical layer
of the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred between
adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same
LAN.
THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has
affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. Count the ways you've used the Internet recently.
Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate,
paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a
local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or maybe you
researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted
with a fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The
Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

A Brief History

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such

as computers and printers. An internet (note the lowercase letter
i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.
The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a
collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected
networks. Private individuals as well as various organizations such as
government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations, and
libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet. Millions of
people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only
came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research
organizations were standalone devices. Computers from different
manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in
finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they
funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network
of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (not
necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a
specialized computer, called an inteiface message processor (IMP).
The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to one another. Each IMP had
to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own
attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the
University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of
California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute
(SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to
form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP)
provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of
the core ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the
Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined
the protocols to achieve end- to-end delivery of packets. This paper
on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking
Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be
responsible for higher-level functions such as segmentation,
reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking protocol
became known as TCPIIP.
The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today
is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and
local-area networks joined by connecting devices and switching
stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the
Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being
added, existing networks are adding addresses, and networks of
defunct companies are being removed. Today most end users who
want Internet connection use the services of Internet service providers
(lSPs). There are international service providers, national service
providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The
Internet today is run by private companies, not the government.
Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.
International Internet Service Providers:
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service
providers that connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks
created and maintained by specialized companies. There are many
national ISPs operating in North America; some of the most well
known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and
internet Mel. To provide connectivity between the end users, these
backbone networks are connected by complex switching stations
(normally run by a third party) called network access points (NAPs).
Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by
private switching stations called peering points. These normally
operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller
ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs. They are at the
third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate. Local Internet
Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the
end users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or
directly to national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local
ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that just
provides Internet services, a corporation with a network that
supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit organization,
such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of
these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national service
provider.