MGY-102

Remote Sensing and

Indira Gandhi National Open University Image Interpretation
School of Sciences

Image Interpretation Volume 2

 MGY-102
Remote Sensing and
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
Image Interpretation

Volume

2
IMAGE INTERPRETATION
BLOCK 3
VISUAL INTERPRETATION 7
BLOCK 4
DIGITAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION 109

1
MGY-102: Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation
Programme Design Committee
Prof. Sujatha Verma Dr. D. R. Rajak Dr. O. M. Murali
Formar Director Scientist, Space Application Centre GIS Expert, TCS, Chennai.
School of Sciences Ahmedabad Prof. B. Krishna Mohan
Prof. P. K. Garg Mr. Manish Parmar Centre of Studies in Resources
Civil Engineering Department, IIT Scientist, Space Application Centre Engineering
Roorkee, Roorkee, U.K. Ahmedabad IIT- Bombay, Mumbai
Prof. P. K. Verma Dr. L. K. Sinha, Faculty of Geology Discipline
School of Studies in Earth Science, Former Director, DG & RE, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Vikram University, Ujjain, M.P. Defence R&D Organisation, Prof. Meenal Mishra
Prof. Shamita Kumar Chandigarh
Vice Principal Dr. P. S. Acharya Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Institute of Environment Education Head, NRDMS, NSDI Division, Prof. R. Baskar
and Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth DST, Ministry of Sci. & Tech., Dr. M. Prashanth
University, Pune, Maharashtra New Delhi Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Dr. Debapriya Dutta, Dr. I. M. Bahuguna
Scientist ‘G’ & Associate Head Dr. Omkar Verma
Deputy Director, Faculty of other Discipline
NSDI, Department of Sciences and Space Applications Centre, ISRO, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Technology Ahmedabad Prof. Manish Trivedi
Dr. Shailesh Nayak Ms. Asima Misra Dr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Director, Associate Director, ES & e- Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
National Institute of Advanced Governance Group, Centre for
Studies, Bangalore, Karnataka Development of Advanced
Dr. Sameer Saran Computing, Ministry of Electronics
Head, and Information Technology, Pune
Geoinformatics Department IIRS,
Dehradun, U.K.
Course Design Committee
Prof. Shamita Kumar Dr. Amit Kumar Dr. Neeti
Vice Chancellor Head, Biotechnology Division, Assistant Professor,
Institute of Environment Education CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Department of Natural Resources,
and Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth Bioresource Technology, TERI School of Advance Studies,
University, Pune, Maharashtra Palampur, H.P. New Delhi.
Prof. R. Jaishanker Dr. Dharmendra G. Shah, Faculty of other Discipline
CV Raman Laboratory of Ecological Associate Professor, Department of School of Sciences, IGNOU
Informatics, Digital University of Botany, MS University of Baroda, Prof. Deepika Garg
Kerala (formerly IIITMK), Vadodara, Gujarat Dr. Neha Garg
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Dr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Dr. Sadhana Jain Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
Ms. Asima Misra Scientist-SF, Regional Remote Faculty of other School of Study,
Associate Director, ES & e- Sensing Centre, ISRO, Nagpur, IGNOU
Governance Group, Centre for Maharashtra Dr. Shashidhar, SOEDS
Development of Advanced Dr. Nehal Farooqi, SOEDS
Computing, Ministry of Electronics
and Information Technology, Pune.

Programme Coordinator: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Prof. Meenal Mishra

Block Preparation Team
Course Contributors Content Editor
Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Kakoli Gogoi Dr. Omkar Verma Dr. Anjali Bahuguna
(Unit 9 & 10) (Unit 13) (Units 14, 15, 16 & 17) (Units 9, 10, 11 &12)
School of Sciences, School of Sciences School of Sciences Scientist SG (Ex), Space
IGNOU IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Applications Centre
(ISRO), Ahmedabad

2
Dr. Shamita Kumar Prof. B. K. Mohan Dr. Anupam Anand Prof. B. K. Mohan
(Unit 11) (Unit 14) (Units 14, 15, 16 & 17) (Units 13, 14, 15, 16 & 17)
Institute of Centre of Studies in Senior Evaluation Officer Centre of Studies in
Environment Education Resources Engineering GEF IEO, World Bank Group Resources Engineering
& Research, Bharati Indian Institute of Washington DC Indian Institute of
Vidyapeeth University, Technology Bombay Technology Bombay
Pune Powai, Mumbai Powai, Mumbai
Prof. Benidhar
Deshmukh (Unit 12)
School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. Omkar Verma
Block Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
March, 2023
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2023
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for educational
purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, SOS,
IGNOU.
Printed at:

3
MGY-102: Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation
Block 1 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Unit 1 Principles of Remote Sensing
Unit 2 Interaction of EMR with Earth and Atmosphere
Unit 3 Spectral Properties
Block 2 Sensors and Space Programmes
Unit 4 Types of Platforms and Sensors
Unit 5 Image Resolutions
Unit 6 Indian Space Programmes
Unit 7 Global Space Programmes
Unit 8 Remote Sensing Data Products and Formats
Block 3 Visual Interpretation
Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
Unit 10 Elements of Visual Interpretation and Interpretation Keys
Unit 11 Visual Interpretation - Selected Examples
Unit 12 Ground Truth Data Collection
Block 4 Digital Image Interpretation
Unit 13 Characteristics of Digital Remote Sensing Images
Unit 14 Methods and Techniques in Digital Image Interpretation
Unit 15 Image Pre-processing Methods
Unit 16 Image Classification
Unit 17 Post-classification Methods

4
 VOLUME 2: IMAGE INTERPRETATION
The course MGY-102: Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation consists of four blocks,
which have been packaged in two volumes. The Volume 1 deals with remote sensing and
consists of two blocks namely, introduction to remote sensing and sensors and space
programmes. The Volume 2 covers image interpretation and comprises two blocks namely,
visual interpretation and digital image interpretation.
The first block of this volume, Block 3: visual interpretation, will introduce you about basics of
visual interpretation and their elements and keys, practical aspects of visual image
interpretation with selected examples and ground truthing.
The second block of this volume, Block 4: Digital Image Interpretation, will introduce you
about various aspects of digital image processing and interpretation such as image
correction, enhancement, transformation, classification and accuracy assessment.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
❖ discuss elements and keys of visual image interpretation;
❖ interpret remotely sensed images;
❖ describe significance of ground truth in image interpretation; and
❖ describe techniques employed for correction, enhancement, transformation and
classification of remotely sensed data.
After studying this volume, you will be equipped with the basic knowledge of image
interpretation.
We wish you all success in this endeavour!

5
6
 MGY-102
Remote Sensing and
Indira Gandhi National Open University Image Interpretation
School of Sciences

Block

3
VISUAL INTERPRETATION
UNIT 9
Introduction to Visual Interpretation 13
UNIT 10
Elements of Visual Interpretation and Interpretation Keys 37
UNIT 11
Visual Interpretation - Selected Examples 61
UNIT 12
Ground Truth Data Collection 83

Glossary 105

7
MGY-102: Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation
Programme Design Committee
Prof. Sujatha Verma Dr. D. R. Rajak Prof. B. Krishna Mohan
Formar Director Scientist, Space Application Centre Centre of Studies in Resources
School of Sciences Ahmedabad Engineering
Prof. P.K. Garg Mr. Manish Parmar IIT- Bombay, Mumbai
Civil Engineering Department, IIT Scientist, Space Application Centre Faculty of Geology Discipline
Roorkee, Roorkee, U.K. Ahmedabad School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Verma Dr. L.K. Sinha, Prof. Meenal Mishra
School of Studies in Earth Science, Former Director, DG & RE,
Vikram University, Ujjain, M.P. Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Defence R&D Organisation,
Prof. Shamita Kumar Chandigarh Prof. R. Baskar
Vice Principal Dr. P.S. Acharya Dr. M. Prashanth
Institute of Environment Education Head, NRDMS, NSDI Division, Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
and Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth DST, Ministry of Sci. & Tech.,
Dr. Omkar Verma
University, Pune, Maharashtra New Delhi Faculty of other Discipline
Dr. Debapriya Dutta, Dr. I.M. Bahuguna School of Sciences, IGNOU
Scientist ‘G’ & Associate Head Deputy Director, Prof. Manish Trivedi
NSDI, Department of Sciences and Space Applications Centre, ISRO,
Technology Dr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Ahmedabad
Dr. Shailesh Nayak Ms. Asima Misra Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
Director, Associate Director, ES & e-
National Institute of Advanced Governance Group, Centre for
Studies, Bangalore, Karnataka Development of Advanced
Dr. Sameer Saran Computing, Ministry of Electronics
Head, and Information Technology, Pune
Geoinformatics Department IIRS, Dr. O.M. Murali
Dehradun, U.K. GIS Expert, TCS, Chennai.

Course Design Committee

Prof. Shamita Kumar Dr. Amit Kumar Dr. Neeti
Vice Chancellor Head, Biotechnology Division, Assistant Professor,
Institute of Environment Education CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Department of Natural Resources,
and Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth Bioresource Technology, TERI School of Advance Studies,
University, Pune, Maharashtra Palampur, H.P. New Delhi.
Prof. R. Jaishanker Dr. Dharmendra G. Shah, Faculty of other Discipline
CV Raman Laboratory of Ecological Associate Professor, Department of School of Sciences, IGNOU
Informatics, Digital University of Botany, MS University of Baroda, Prof. Deepika Garg
Kerala (formerly IIITMK), Vadodara, Gujarat Dr. Neha Garg
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Dr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Dr. Sadhana Jain Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
Ms. Asima Misra Scientist-SF, Regional Remote Faculty of other School of Study,
Associate Director, ES & e- Sensing Centre, ISRO, Nagpur, IGNOU
Governance Group, Centre for Maharashtra Dr. Shashidhar, SOEDS
Development of Advanced Dr. Nehal Farooqi, SOEDS
Computing, Ministry of Electronics
and Information Technology, Pune.

Programme Coordinator: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Prof. Meenal Mishra

Block Preparation Team
Course Contributors Content Editor
Prof. Meenal Mishra (Unit 9 & 10) Prof. Benidhar Dr. Anjali Bahuguna (Units 9, 10,11
School of Sciences, IGNOU Deshmukh (Unit 12) &12)
School of Sciences, Scientist SG (Ex), Space Applications
Dr. Shamita Kumar (Unit 11) Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad
Institute of Environment Education & IGNOU
Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth University,
Pune

8
Tranformation and formatting: Dr. Omkar Verma
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. Omkar Verma
Block Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
March, 2023
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2023
Disclaimer: Any materials adapted from web-based resources in this module are being used for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at
www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
SOS, IGNOU.
Printed at:

9
MGY-102: Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation
Block 1 Introduction to Remote Sensing
Unit 1 Principles of Remote Sensing
Unit 2 Interaction of EMR with Earth and Atmosphere
Unit 3 Spectral Properties
Block 2 Sensors and Space Programmes
Unit 4 Types of Platforms and Sensors
Unit 5 Image Resolutions
Unit 6 Indian Space Programmes
Unit 7 Global Space Programmes
Unit 8 Remote Sensing Data Products and Formats
Block 3 Visual Interpretation
Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
Unit 10 Elements of Visual Interpretation and Interpretation Keys
Unit 11 Visual Interpretation - Selected Examples
Unit 12 Ground Truth Data Collection
Block 4 Digital Image Interpretation
Unit 13 Characteristics of Digital Remote Sensing Images
Unit 14 Methods and Techniques in Digital Image Interpretation
Unit 15 Image Pre-processing Methods
Unit 16 Image Classification
Unit 17 Post-classification Methods

10
 BLOCK 3: IMAGE INTERPRETATION
In Block 2, you have studied about platforms, sensor systems, image resolution, and major
national and global space programmes. You have now understood that quality of the
information present within a remotely sensed data chiefly depends upon the characteristics
of the sensor systems. Availability of data is of no use unless we know how to identify and
analyse features present in images. This block introduces the basics of image interpretation
in four units.
Unit 9: Introduction to Visual Interpretation describes theoretical basis of aerial photo-
interpretation and visual image interpretation.
Unit 10: Elements of Visual Interpretation and Interpretation Keys deals with the
elements and keys of image interpretation, preparation of image interpretation keys and
calculation of scale of an image.
Unit 11: Visual Interpretation - Selected Examples builds on the previous unit (i.e. Unit
10). It deals with how to use elements and keys of image interpretation for extracting
information from the images. You will learn how to apply these interpretation techniques on
the images of various localities, which will improve your practical ability to interpret images.
Unit 12: Ground Truth Data Collection encompasses the relevance of ground truth for
image interpretation. It exposes you to planning aspects of ground truth data collection. In
addition, certain conditions which are essential for field data collection are also enlisted.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
• discuss aerial photographs and their elements interpretation and application;
• discuss elements of visual image interpretation;
• interpret remotely sensed images;
• explain the image interpretation keys; and
• describe significance of ground truth in image interpretation.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!

11
12
 UNIT 9

INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL IMAGE

INTERPRETATION
Structure_____________________________________________________
_
9.1 Introduction 9.8 Aerial Photo-Interpretation
Expected Learning Outcomes 9.9 Image Interpretation
9.2 What are Aerial Photographs? Image Interpretation Tasks
9.3 Advantages of Aerial Photographs Prerequisites for Image Interpretation
9.4 Types of Aerial Photographs Elements of Aerial Photo-Interpretation
Based on Position of Camera Axis 9.10 Image Scale and Its Calculation
Based on Scale 9.11 Minimum Mapping Unit
Based on Film Used 9.12 Summary
9.5 Information on Aerial Photographs 9.13 Terminal Questions
9.6 Historical Developments in Aerial 9.14 References
Photography
9.15 Further/Suggested Readings
9.7 Application Potential of Aerial
9.16 Answers
Photography

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, you have studied about remote sensing principles, sensors and platforms. We
have also discussed about the remote sensing data products and formats, space programmes and
image resolution. Let us read the literal meaning of visual, image and interpretation. Visual means
the ability to see and gather information from the surroundings from the effects of visible light
reaching the eye. Image refers to the pictorial representation regardless of wavelengths or remote
sensing device it has been used to detect and record the electromagnetic energy.
Block 3 Visual Interpretation
……………………..………………………………………………………….……………………………………
Image/photographic interpretation is the process of extraction of qualitative and
quantitative information of objects from aerial photographs or satellite images. In
this unit, we shall introduce you to aerial photo-interpretation and visual image
interpretation.

Expected Learning
Outcomes________________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to
❖ discuss aerial photographs, their types and advantages;
❖ describe historical developments in aerial photography;
❖ explain application potential of aerial photography;
❖ learn image interpretation tasks and their prerequisites;
❖ know the elements of aerial photo-interpretation;
❖ discuss image scale and its calculation; and,
❖ define minimum mapping unit.

9.2 WHAT ARE AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS?

The aerial images are acquired from systems relying on the basic components
common to the familiar handheld cameras that we use for photography. In the
history of remote sensing, aerial images were recorded as photographs or
photograph-like images. Photograph-like images are referred to as analog
images because the brightness of a photograph is proportional (i.e., analogous)
to the brightness in a scene. However, in contrast the digital technologies
record image data as arrays of individual values that convey the pattern of
brightness within an image. The digital cameras do not require film and the
complex mechanisms for manipulating the film because the image is captured
by the digital technology. You are familiar with the photographs taken from
hand-held or normal camera where you get a horizontal perspective of the
objects or scene photographed (Fig. 9.1a). However, if we have to place
ourselves somewhere in the air (vertically upwards), we get a very different
perspective (Fig. 9.1b).

14 Prof. Meenal Mishra

 Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
……………………..…………………………………………………………….…………………………………
(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.1: Lotus temple, New Delhi: a) Photograph taken from hand-held camera
showing horizontal perspective (Photo credit: Ihsan Ullah Lone); b) Aerial
photograph showing vertical perspective. (Image credit: Arindam Sarkar;
Source: https://masalamug.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Lotus-Temple-
Body-2-1536x1405.jpg)

Aerial photograph is any photograph taken from the air. They are taken using a
precision or highly-accurate camera vertically from an aircraft. There are
several things you can look for to determine what makes one photograph
different from another of the same area including type of film, scale, and
overlap. Other important concepts used in aerial photography are stereoscopic
coverage, fiducial marks, focal length, roll and frame numbers, flight lines and
index maps. Aerial photography can be defined as the science of taking
photographs from the air by using aircrafts mounted with special cameras for
the study of the Earth’s surface. The aerial image differs from the everyday
photograph in the following aspects:
• overhead perspective
• beyond visible light spectrum
• unfamiliar scales and orientation

9.3 ADVANTAGES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photography has many applications such as cartography, urban and rural
planning, environmental impact studies, resolving civil law cases and real
estate evaluations. The advantages that aerial photographs offer have been
listed below:
• Synoptic viewpoint: Aerial photographs give a bird’s eye view of large
areas enabling us to see surface features in their spatial context.
• Permanent recording: They are virtually permanent records of the existing
conditions on the Earth’s surface at one point in time, and are used as an

Prof. Meenal Mishra 15

Block 3 Visual Interpretation
……………………..………………………………………………………….……………………………………
historical document. They also provide a record of the surface features at
an instance of exposure.
• Three-dimensional perspective: It provides a stereoscopic view of the
Earth’s surface and makes it possible to take measurements horizontally
and vertically. Aerial photographs are normally taken with uniform exposure
interval. This enables in obtaining stereo pair of photographs (Fig. 9.2).
Such a pair of photographs helps us in getting a three-dimensional view of
the surface photographed.
• Spectral and spatial resolution: Aerial photographs are sensitive to
radiation in wavelengths that are outside of spectral sensitivity of the human
eye. They also have better spatial resolution than many ground based
remote sensing methods.
• Film sensitivity: Our eyes observe only in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The sensitivity of the film
ranges from 0.3 to 0.9 µm. The sensitivity of the film used in aerial
photography is relatively more than the sensitivity of the human eyes.
• Availability: They are readily available at a range of scales for much of the
world.
• Economy: They are much cheaper than field surveys and are often
cheaper and more accurate than maps.

Fig. 9.2: Interpreter observing the stereo pair of aerial photographs with the help
of pocket stereoscope.

9.4 TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photographs have been classified based on many criteria such as basis
on the position of the camera axis, angular extent of coverage, scale and type
of film used. Let us discuss them.
9.4.1 Based on Position of Camera Axis
The aerial photographs can be classified according to the orientation of the
camera in relation to the ground at the time of exposure. They are:

16 Prof. Meenal Mishra

 Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
……………………..…………………………………………………………….…………………………………
Vertical photographs: These photographs can be acquired by a camera
aimed directly at the ground surface from above. Two distinct axes are formed
from the centre of camera lens: 1) one towards the ground plane; and 2) the
other towards the photo plane, while taking aerial photographs. The
perpendicular dropped from the camera lens centre to the ground plane is
termed as the vertical axis. Whereas the plumb line drawn from the lens centre
to the photo plane is known as the photographic/optical axis. It is normally
very difficult to achieve perfect parallelism between the two planes because the
aircraft flies over the curved surface of the Earth (Fig. 9.3).

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.3: a) Diagram showing vertical aerial photography (Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/sstlearningpoint/ch-6-introduction-to-aerial-
photographs); and b) Vertical aerial photograph of Sydney area, Australia.
(Source: https://archives. cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/assets/display/878542-
max)

Low oblique photographs: They can be acquired by cameras oriented toward

the side of the aircraft (Fig. 9.4). An aerial photograph taken with a planned
deviation of 15° to 30° in the camera axis from the vertical axis is referred to as
the low oblique photograph. This kind of photograph is often used in the
exploratory surveys.

Prof. Meenal Mishra 17

Block 3 Visual Interpretation
……………………..………………………………………………………….……………………………………

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.4: Diagram showing low-oblique aerial photography (Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/sstlearningpoint/ch-6-introduction-to-aerial-
photographs); and b) Low oblique photograph of Boston in 1860. (Source:
Boston Public Library; https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files /DC10 Fig1.
png)

High oblique photographs: These photographs show the horizon. The high
oblique aerial photographs are obtained when the camera axis is purposely
inclined about 60° from the vertical axis (Fig. 9.5). High oblique photography is
useful in reconnaissance surveys.

18 Prof. Meenal Mishra

 Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
……………………..…………………………………………………………….…………………………………
(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.5: a) Diagram showing high oblique photography (Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/sstlearningpoint/ch-6-introduction-to-aerial-
photographs); and b) High-oblique photograph. (Source: San Francisco
Public Library; https://gistbok.ucgis.org /sites/default/files/DC10_IAQ2.png)

9.4.2 Based on Scale

On the basis of the scale, the aerial photographs are classified into three types.
• Large-scale aerial photographs When the scale is 1:15,000 and larger.
The large-scale photo provides more details of the ground features, but the
coverage of ground area seen on the photo is less.
• Medium-scale photographs: When scale ranges between 1: 15,000 and 1:
30,000.
• Small-scale photographs: When the scale is smaller than 1:30,000. The
small-scale photo gives less detail of the ground features and photo covers
more area as compared to the large-scale photographs.
9.4.3 Based on Film Used
The aerial photographs are classified based on the film used into the following
types:
• Black and white film: It may comprise black-and-white panchromatic (B/W)
and black-and-white infrared (BIR) films. Black-and-white panchromatic film
has good contrast and resolution with a wide exposure range and low
graininess. It primarily consists of a black and white negative material with a
sensitivity range comparable to that of the human eye (Fig. 9.6). Black and
white infrared film is sensitive to the spectral region (0.4 μm to 0.9 μm) with
some exceptions. Sometimes it is referred to as near-infrared film as it
utilises only a narrow portion of the total infrared spectrum (0.7 μm to 0.9
μm).

Prof. Meenal Mishra 19

Block 3 Visual Interpretation
……………………..………………………………………………………….……………………………………

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.6: a) Black and white panchromatic photographs; and b) Black and white
infrared photographs. (Source: https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/
GSP_216/images/black-white.JPG)

• Colour film: These can be natural colour (referred to as conventional or

normal colour) film and colour infrared (CIR) film (Fig. 9.7). The natural
colour film contains three emulsion layers which are sensitive to blue,
green, and red (three primary colours of the visible spectrum). This film
replicates colours as seen by the human eye. Whereas, colour infrared film,
originally referred to as camouflage-detection film, is different from
conventional colour film because of its emulsion layers and near-infrared
radiation (0.5 μm to 0.9 μm) band/layer. This film provides sharp images
and penetrates into the haze at high altitudes as it is used with a yellow filter
to absorb the blue light. Colour infrared film also is referred to as false-
colour film.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.7: a) Natural colour photographs; and b) Colour infrared photographs.
(Source: https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/GSP_216/images/color.JPG)

20 Prof. Meenal Mishra

 Unit 9 Introduction to Visual Interpretation
……………………..…………………………………………………………….…………………………………
• Digital photography: In contrary to an exposure in case of conventional
film, it uses charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) sensor to capture the image. The sensors capture
light and convert it into electronic signals. The image is then digitised and
stored as a computer file ready for digital processing.

9.5 INFORMATION ON AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

There is important information provided or mentioned on the aerial photograph
(Fig. 9.8). This may include:
• Mission name and details
• Roll and frame number
• Time and date

Fig. 9.8: Information on aerial photograph. (Source: https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/

Courses/GSP_216/images/air-photo.jpg)
• Lens serial number and focal length
• Fiducial marks
• Principal point
• Altitude or flying height
Fiducial marks are the index marks, rigidly connected at the central or corner
edges of the camera body but when the film is exposed, these marks appear on
the film negative.
Principal point is the point on the aerial photograph where optical axis
intersects the image plane.

9.6 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN AERIAL

PHOTOGRAPHY
Capturing photographs of the Earth from above in the early twentieth century
required great imagination. Aerial photography was the first method of remote
sensing and is even used today in the era of scanners. In the mid-1800s, aerial
photographs were taken using pigeons, balloons and kites. The cameras could

Prof. Meenal Mishra 21

Block 3 Visual Interpretation
……………………..………………………………………………………….……………………………………
be mounted on balloons and kites though with very restricted movement and
speed.
The first aerial photograph was taken in the late 19 th century of a French village
by Gaspar Felix Tournachon, photographer and balloonist. He patented the
concept of using aerial photographs to compile maps. This proved much more
effective than the time-consuming ground surveys. In 1882, an English
meteorologist, E. D. Archibald, was among the first to take successful
photographs from kites with the attached camera. In France, Arthur Batut took
an aerial photograph from a kite in 1889 (Fig. 9.9).

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.9: Aerial photography: a) usage of air-balloons; and b) Batut’s kite. (Source:
www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Portals/7/Remote%20Sensing%20Lesson%201.pdf)

In 1907, Julius Neubronne patented a breast-mounted camera for pigeons (Fig.

9.10), which was capable to expose automatically at 30-s (s stands for
intervals). This was called as Pigeon photography. Pigeon with german
miniature camera was used during the First World War to spy enemy camps.
The camera weighing about 70 grams took automatic exposures every 30
seconds.

Fig. 9.10: a) Dr Julius Neubronner’s Miniature Pigeon Camera (Source: https://the-

public-domain-review.imgix.net/collections/dr-julius-neubronner-s-miniature-
pigeon-camera/43712882935_12f88dea25_o.jpg?w=575); and b)
Photograph clicked by Pigeon camera. (Source: https://the-public-domain-
review.imgix.net/collections/dr-julius-neubronner-s-miniature-pigeon-camera/
43903178774_6533ca58f2_h.jpg?fit=max&w=2400)

The military potential of aerial photography was realised with its wide usage in
the World War I and II. However, not until World War I their potential for military
applications was seen. Thereafter a systematic process of taking aerial
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photographs became the key to the development of the method. During World
War I, both the allies and Germans regularly took photographs of each other's
lines and resources in order to keep up to date with the enemy movements
(Fig. 9.11). After having experienced the success of this method of observation,
the Britishers once again used aerial photography during World War II.
Visualising the potential of application of aerial photography, the archaeologist
Crawford pioneered its use for studying the English landscape.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.11: a) Reconnaissance aircraft used during World War I, with the pilot
trying to take vertical photographs in 1919 (Source: United States Air
Force, https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files/DC10_Fig2.png); and b)
Mosaic Mapping at U.S. School of aerial Photography in Virginia in
1930. (Source: United States Air Force, https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/
default/files/DC10_Fig3.png

Aerial photography expanded with advances in aeronautics. Post war period

ushered the beginning of landscape studies, natural processes and
archaeological features using aerial photographs. With advancement of
technology, the aerial photographs were taken with the help of precision
cameras mounted on aircraft or helicopter. Cameras were the simplest and
oldest of sensors used for remote sensing. Advanced cameras were developed
by USA and USSR. They were able to plan reconnaissance trips over important
sites from thousands of feet up in the air.
You may note that there are following types of aerial cameras:
• aerial mapping camera
• reconnaissance camera
• strip camera
• panoramic camera
• multi-lens camera
• digital camera
The first non-military aerial photography programs were developed in the
1930's by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. During the Cold War and with the
development of colour photography, the usage of aerial photography for wider
environmental applications developed. This led to exploring infra-red
photography for vegetation mapping and also for tracking and identifying
diseased plants and trees. The purpose of taking landscape photographs in
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different colours of the spectrum unlocked up a wide range of applications
across the broadest possible scope of the environment. Aerial photography has
numerous applications and is used by cartographers, engineers and scientists
to analyse everything from urban expansion to the impacts of climate change.
In India, large-scale aerial photographs of Agra city were obtained in 1920. This
marked the initiation of aerial photography. Subsequently, Air Survey Party of
the Survey of India took up aerial survey of Irrawaddy Delta forests, which was
completed during 1923–24. Further, several similar surveys were carried out
with the advancement in technology. Today, aerial photography in India is
carried out for the entire country under the overall supervision of the Directorate
of Air Survey (Survey of India) New Delhi. The three flying agencies (Indian Air
Force, Air Survey Company, Kolkata and National Remote Sensing Agency,
Hyderabad) have been officially authorised to take aerial photographs in India.
The period of aerial photography was followed by satellite reconnaissance. With
the advent of satellite and space shuttles developed by national and
international space agencies, the military aerial photography surveys became
less important. However, the usage of aerial photography is still continued
today.

9.7 APPLICATION POTENTIAL OF AERIAL

PHOTOGRAPHY
The aerial images are significantly helpful for the geographers, historians,
ecologists, geologists, urban planners, archaeologists and other professionals.
Some of the applications of aerial photography are listed below:
• Environmental studies: Aerial photography has been used extensively in
environmental studies, such as mapping forests and changes in vegetation
over time. They have proved to be asset in environmental impact
assessment, movement and glacier retreat studies.
• Natural processes: Tracking changes in river direction, depth and planning
conservation work of river systems and changes in the landscape after the
impact of natural processes such as landslides. Aerial photographs have
been largely used to study the processes of natural changes, such as
variations in soil and geology over time.
• Civil law: The legal profession has adapted techniques using aerial
photography in the settlement of cases involving property disputes, riparian
rights and transportation rights-of-way.
• Cartography: In the twentieth century aerial photography became an
important component of the map making process/cartography. These
photographs provide an honest depiction of the physical and cultural
landscape of an area.
• Natural resource exploration and management: Aerial photography has
proved to be landmark in natural resource management studies. Aerial
photography has applications for finding mineral and fuel deposits, mapping
areas, tracking geological changes and water management.
• Landuse and Landcover: The studies related to land use and land cover
planning have been successfully carried using aerial photography.
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• Urban planning: Aerial photography has immense application potential in urban studies.
The town developers need to study the impact of expansion and development
of urban centres on the landscape and environmental impact studies.
• Climate change: The climate change has impact on global temperatures.
These changes are reflected in societies and communities and changes in
their local environment are observed. Researchers keep vital records of
changes incurred over seasons and years to keep track in the form of aerial
photographs and evaluate the local effects of climate and risks to local
ecosystems.
• Archaeology: In archaeological studies, aerial photography is ideal for
locating lost monuments and tracking features, especially those that are not
visible at ground level. This is accomplished using crop marks, parch marks,
soil marks and low-profile monuments.

9.8 AERIAL PHOTO-INTERPRETATION

Aerial photo-interpretation is a process of examining and extracting useful
information from aerial photographs. During this process, some features may
be easily identifiable while others may not, depending on interpreter’s
perception and experience. The reliability of information collected from aerial
photographs by the interpreter depends on the quality of aerial photographs,
instruments used for interpretation, working conditions and personal experience
with photo-interpretation techniques. The interpretation differs from person to
person. For example, for the geological interpretation, knowledge of
geomorphology, stratigraphy, structural geology, vegetation and groundwater is
essential. The training in photo-interpretation and working experience of a
person are very important factors, for accurate and reliable results. An excellent
photo-interpreter views the aerial photographs with the help of stereoscope in
order to make meaningful interpretation. We have read in the previous section
that aerial photographs record all visible features on the Earth’s surface from an
overhead perspective. The preliminary knowledge of the area of interest
comprises its geographic location, past and present climate conditions,
vegetation and published literature are always useful for accurate identification
of features.

SAQ I
a) How is the aerial photograph different from an ordinary photograph?
b) What are the advantages of aerial photographs?
c) Name the types of aerial photographs based on the scale.
d) List the application potential of aerial photography.

9.9 IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Interpretation is generally called as image interpretation except for the case
when the interpretation is carried out on aerial photographs. Interpretation of
aerial photographs is known as aerial photo-interpretation. Image
interpretation is very useful in various fields such as geography, geology,
agriculture, forestry, environment, ocean studies, wetlands, conservation of
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natural resources, urban and regional planning, defence and many other
purposes. Interpretation techniques require extensive training and it is labour
intensive. In order to translate images into information, person should be well-
versed with both the subject knowledge and also the image interpretation
basics. For example, interpretation of geological features requires expertise in
geology along with image interpretation skill. Interpretation involves the
processes of detection, identification, description and assessment of significant
of an object and pattern imaged. This technology includes both aerial and
satellite remote sensing.
The interpretation carried out using aerial photograph is known as aerial
photo-interpretation. Whereas interpretation done using satellite imagery is
known as visual interpretation. We will read about the elements and keys of
visual interpretation in detail in the next unit. There are two types of extraction of
information can be done from the images namely: 1) Interpretation of data by visual
analysis; 2) Semi-automatic processing by computer followed by visual analysis
like generation of vector layer from raster image through digitisation.
9.9.1 Image Interpretation Tasks
The image interpretation procedure is a complex task and requires several
tasks to be conducted in a methodical manner (Fig. 9.12) which include:
• Classification
• Enumeration
• Mensuration
• Delineation
Classification is the assignment of object, features, or area to the classes
based on their appearance on the images. Often the distinctions are made
between three levels of confidence and precision namely- detection, recognition
and identification. Detection is the determination of presence or absence of the
feature. Recognition implies a higher level of knowledge about a feature or an
object such that the object can be assigned identity. And, identification means
that the identity of an object or feature can be specified with enough confidence
and detail to place it in a specific class. Often an interpreter may assign quality
of his or her confidence in an interpretation by specifying the identification as
“possible” or “probable.”
Enumeration is the task of listing or counting discrete items visible on an
image. For example, builtup area may be classified as “residential area” or
“commercial area”. The ability to conduct enumeration task depends on an
ability to accurately identify and classify items as we have discussed above. Let
us read another example, housing unit can be classified as detached single
family, multifamily complex, mobile home, and multistory residential and then
reported as numbers present within a defined area. Clearly, the ability to
conduct such an enumeration depends on an ability to accurately identify and
classify items as discussed above.
Mensuration or measurement is an important function in many image
interpretation problems. Two kinds of measurements are important, first, is the
measurement of distance and height, and by extension, volumes and areas as
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well. A second form of measurement is quantitative assessment of image
brightness. Such measurements form the subject of photogrammetry as it
applies only to measurements from photographs. The science of photometry is
devoted to measurement of the intensity of light. Densitometers are used for
estimation of scene brightness by examination of image tone. But if the
measured radiation extends outside the visible spectrum, the term radiometry
is applied.
Delineation deals with the task which the interpreter must delineate, or outline,
regions as observed on remotely sensed images. The interpreter must be able
to separate distinct units that are characterised by specific tones and textures
and to identify edges or boundaries. The image analyst may apply several of
these skills in examining an image. Let us read an example which includes
delineation of separate classes of forest or of land use. Typical problems may
include: 1) selection of appropriate levels of generalization (when boundaries
are intricate, or when many tiny parcels are present), and 2) placement of
boundaries when there is a gradation (rather than a sharp edge) between two
units. The image analyst may simultaneously apply several of these skills in
examining an image.
Recognition, delineation, and mensuration may all be required as the interpreter
examines an image. Hence interpretation is the combined result of identification
of feature through photo recognition elements, field verification and preparation
of final thematic maps. It also requires the process of observation coupled with
imagination and great deal of patience. Military photo interpretation often
depends on accurate recognition and enumeration of specific items of
equipment. Whereas land-use inventory highlight delineation, although other
skills are obviously important. Image analysts therefore need to develop
proficiency in all these skills.

Fig. 9.12: Image interpretation tasks: a) classification; b) enumeration; c)

mensuration; and d) delineation.

9.9.2 Prerequisites for Image Interpretation

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Let us learn issues pertaining to image interpretation such as unfamiliar scale
and resolutions, lack of understanding of physics of remote sensing and
understanding proper spectral character of each object
Now you will learn about the following requirements for image interpretation:
• Remote sensing system and the knowledge of image and sensor
characteristics
• Interpretation technique requires extensive training
• Interpreter should be well-versed with both the subject knowledge and also
the image interpretation.
• Success in visual image interpretation varies with the training and
experience on the pictorial data analysis.
9.9.3 Elements of Aerial Photo-Interpretation
The interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial photographs involves the study
of various basic characters of an object with reference to spectral bands which
is useful in visual analysis. The basic elements are shape, size, pattern, tone,
texture, shadows, location, association and resolution. You will find that
information extraction from aerial photography is based on the basic elements
and characteristics of image features of aerial photographs such as tone, size,
shape, texture, pattern, shadow, site and association. These eight elements are
also utilized for interpretation of satellite imagery (known as visual image
interpretation). We will read about these elements in detail in the next unit.
1. Shape refers to the general outline of objects and regular geometric shapes
(Fig. 9.13). The form of an object in aerial photo helps to identify the object.
Often regular uniform shapes indicate human involvement. While irregular
shapes point to natural objects.

Fig. 9.13: Photograph shows the shape of meandering river surrounded on either
side by many U-shaped oxbow lakes. (Source: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/
sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/photos101/images/E_Bug2
451_Image1.jpg)

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2. Tone or colour is the most basic interpretive element and refers to the
relative brightness or colour of elements on an aerial photograph. The
colour of an object is used to identify the feature, e.g., sand has a bright
tone. While water usually has a dark tone (Fig. 9.14) and tree species can
be determined by the colour of their leaves at particular times of the year.

Fig. 9.14: Photograph showing the contrast between the water in black in the
upper part of the picture and the light-coloured sand in the lower part.
(Source: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/
images/T1674_4_sand.jpg)

3. Size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a

photograph. The scale will help you determine if a water body is a pond or
lake or sea. It is a measure of the object's surface area (e.g., single-lane vs.
multi-lane highways; Fig. 9.15).

Fig. 9.15: Photograph showing a residential street; its size can be compared to
the much larger multi-lane highway shown at the bottom of the picture.

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(Source: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/
images/T1674_3_HighWay.jpg)

4. Texture is the impression of smoothness or roughness of image features

and is caused by the frequency of change of tone in photographs. The
physical characteristics of an object will change the way they appear on a
photo, e.g., calm water has a smooth texture; a forest canopy has a rough
texture (Fig. 9.16).

Fig. 9.16: Photograph showing a portion of the Lake Louise, Alberta, shoreline. In
the bottom right corner of the picture, calm water is characterised by a
smooth appearance. On the left side of the picture, the forest shows a
rough texture similar to a field of rocks. (Source: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca
/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/photos101/images/E_Bug
2451_Fig6.jpg)

5. Pattern or spatial arrangement of the objects in a photo which can be

diagnostic. The spatial arrangement of objects (e.g., row crops vs. pasture)
is also useful to identify an object and its usage (Fig. 9.17).

Fig. 9.17: Photograph showing three kinds of vegetation patterns. A forest

plantation, shown at the top of the picture, can be identified by the
straight row pattern making it look like a dark grey wool carpet. On the

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right side of the picture, a natural forest can be identified by its white
cloudy unstructured pattern. Finally, on the left side of the picture, a
lighter coloured more uniform pattern represents an open field. (Source:
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/T1
674_2_forest.jpg)

6. Shadow helps the interpreters in determining height of objects in aerial

photographs (Fig. 9.18). A shadow provides information about the object's
height, shape and orientation (e.g. tree species).

Fig. 9.18: Photograph showing two different sizes of shadows. On the left side of
the picture, a large building casts a long wide shadow to its right
indicating that it is a high-rise building. At the bottom left corner of the
picture, smaller shadows indicate low-rise buildings. (Source:
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/T1
674_5_building.jpg)
7. Association/Site refers to topographic or geographic location of the objects
of interest in relation with the other objects (Fig. 9.19). Associating the
presence of one object with another, or relating it to its environment, can
help the interpreter to identify the object (e.g. industrial buildings often have
access to railway sidings; nuclear power plants are often located beside
large bodies of water).

Fig. 9.19: Photograph showing Esquimalt Harbour, British Columbia. In the

middle of the picture, the large wharf with ships moored a long side it

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can be identified. The dry dock is identifiable by its gates and is located
just above the wharf, and above the dry dock, on land, a railway line
crosses the picture. (Source: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc
.ca/files/ earthsciences/images/photos101/images/E_Bug2451_Fig7.jpg)

In order to interpret aerial photographs, a number of sophisticated instruments

such as pocket stereoscope, mirror stereoscope, or plotter are used for
measuring area, height and slopes of different parts of the Earth. Stereoscope
is used for viewing the area in 3-D and is important for determining
topographical relief of an area, as well as the height of objects such as trees
and building.
Stereoscopic imagery is the result of overlap (generally 60%), which is the
amount by which one photograph includes an area covered by a neighbouring
photograph. For mapping, inventory and vegetation studies, for example, a
survey is flown in a series of to-and-fro parallel strips with side overlaps
between strips over the entire area. For non-stereoscopic coverage, used in
crop sampling or pollution detection, the photographer may choose a 20%
forward overlap.

SAQ II
a) List the tasks of image interpretation.
b) What is the difference between aerial photo-interpretation and visual
interpretation?
c) Mention the elements of aerial photo-interpretation.
d) What are the prerequisites of image interpretation?

9.10 IMAGE SCALE AND ITS CALCULATION

Scale is a prerequisite at the time of interpretation as it effects interpretation of
image features. The scale of the image is carefully chosen depending upon the
observations to be made. Scale of photographs/image should be such that it
will permit differentiation of objects. For regional scale mapping, we need not
choose data of very high resolution. For example, mapping the forest cover of
national or state level you require data which has coarse to medium spatial
resolution such as the WiFS or LISS III. Similarly, for mapping at local scale you
require high spatial resolution data such as Cartosat PAN, IKONOS, etc.
You should remember that the choice of an appropriate scale for a particular
application depends on several factors such as level of information desired,
method of analysis to be used and spatial resolution of the data. Let us read the
methods to determine scale
Representative Fraction: Scale is the ratio of the distance between two points
on a photo to the actual distance between the same two points on the ground
(i.e., 1 unit on the photo equals "x" units on the ground). If a 1 km stretch of
highway covers 2 cm on an aerial photo, the scale can be calculated as:

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Focal Length and Field of View: The scale of a photograph is determined by

the focal length of the camera and the flying height above the ground (Fig.
9.20).
The focal length is the distance from the middle of the camera lens to the focal
plane. Focal length is precisely measured when cameras are calibrated and is
typically expressed in millimeters (mm). The focal length of a lens determines
the magnification and the angle of the light ray. The longer the focal length, the
greater is the magnification of the image.

Fig. 9.20: Shorter focal lengths have wider field of views, while longer focal
lengths have smaller field of views (FOV). Camera lens with a longer
focal length will produce an image with a smaller footprint compared to
that of a shorter focal length.

Short focal length lenses cover larger areas. The area captured by a camera is
known as the Field of View (FOV), which is typically expressed in degrees.
Field of View is a function of the focal length of the lens and the size
(sometimes called format) of digital sensors (Fig. 9.21).

Fig. 9.21: Determination of scale using focal length.

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9.11 MINIMUM MAPPING UNIT

Maps derived from remotely sensed data are often presented using a minimum
mapping unit (MMU). MMU is defined as the smallest size areal entity on the
ground that can be identified in image and mapped as a unique and discrete
entity. For a given map scale, the size or dimension below the MMU, a long
narrow feature is represented as a line and a small area as a point. For
example, streams and rivers below the MMU will be represented as lines and a
pond as a point.
A key issue when generating a map from remotely sensed data is the selection
of the MMU to be employed, which determines the extent of detail conveyed by
an interpreter in the map. Selection of a MMU allows reducing the visual and
spatial complexity of the information contained in the map, especially when the
information corresponding to the smallest patches is of little or no interest to the
interpreter for the theme for which the map is being generated (Davis and Peet,
1977).

9.12 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what has been discussed in this unit:
• Aerial photograph is any photograph taken from the air using a precision or
highly-accurate camera vertically from an aircraft.
• The advantages that aerial photographs offer are: synoptic viewpoint,
permanent recording, capability to stop action, three-dimensional
perspective, spectral and spatial resolution, film sensitivity, availability and
economy.
• The aerial photographs can be classified based on: 1) position of camera
axis, 2) scale and 3) film used.
• Image interpretation is the process of extraction of information from aerial
photographs and satellite images in the form of a map.
• Image interpretation is carried out either manually or with the help of
computer software and are known as visual and digital interpretation,
respectively.
• The information extraction from aerial data (i.e. photo interpretation) is
based on the characteristics of photograph features such as size, shape,
tone, texture, shadow, pattern, and association.

9.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the advantages of aerial photographs.
2. What is the basis of classification of aerial photographs?
3. Write an essay on historical developments in aerial photography.
4. Describe in detail the application potential of aerial photography.

9.14 REFERENCES

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• Bhatta, B. (2010), Remote sensing and GIS, Oxford University Press.
• Davis, W.A. and Peet, F.G. (1977), A method of smoothing digital thematic
maps. Remote Sensing of Environment, Vol 6 pp 45-49.
• DiBiase, D., DeMers, M., Johnson, A., Kemp, K., Luck, A. T., Plewe, B., and
Wentz, E. (2006), Nature of aerial image data. The Geographic Information
Science & Technology Body of Knowledge. Washington, DC: Association of
American Geographers. (2nd Quarter 2016, first digital)
• https://archives.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/assets/display/878542-max
• https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files/DC10_Fig1.png
• https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files/DC10_Fig2.png
• https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files/DC10_Fig3.png
• https://gistbok.ucgis.org/sites/default/files/DC10_IAQ2.png
• https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/GSP_216/images/air-photo.jpg
• https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/GSP_216/images/black-white.JPG
• https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/GSP_216/images/color.JPG
• https://masalamug.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Lotus-Temple-Body-2-
1536x1405.jpg
• https://the-public-domain-review.imgix.net/collections/dr-julius-neubronner-
s-miniature-pigeon-camera/43712882935_12f88dea25_o.jpg?w=575
• https://the-public-domain-review.imgix.net/collections/dr-julius-neubronner-
s-miniature-pigeon-camera/43903178774_6533ca58f2_h.jpg?fit=max&w
=2400
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/p
hotos101/images/E_Bug2451_Image1.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/
T1674_4_sand.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/
T1674_3_HighWay.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/
photos101/images/E_Bug2451_Fig6.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/
T1674_2_forest.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/
T1674_5_building.jpg
• https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/images/p
hotos101/images/E_Bug2451_Fig7.jpg
• www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Portals/7/Remote%20Sensing%20Lesson%20
1.pdf
The above websites were assessed between 1st and 16th August 2022.

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9.15 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Campbell, J.B., Wynne, R. H. and Thomas, V. A. (2022), Introduction to
Remote Sensing, 6th Edition, The Guilford Press, New York, 634p.
• Drury, S.A. (1990), A Guide to Remote Sensing, Oxford University Press.
• Sabins, F.F. (1987), Remote Sensing- Principles and Interpretation, 2 nd
Edition, W.H. Freeman and Co.

9.16 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) The everyday photograph represents horizontal perspectives whereas aerial
photograph shows vertical perspectives.
b) The advantages of aerial photography are synoptic viewpoint, permanent
recording, and capability to stop action, three dimensional perspectives,
spectral and spatial resolution, availability and cost effectiveness.
c) On the basis of the scale, the aerial photographs are classified into large
scale photographs, medium scale photographs and small-scale
photographs.
d) Environmental studies, natural processes, civil law, cartography, natural
resource exploration and management, land use and landcover, urban
planning, climate change and archaeology.
SAQ II
a) Classification; enumeration; mensuration and delineation.
b) Interpretation is carried out using aerial photograph is known as aerial
photo-interpretation. Whereas interpretation done using satellite imagery is
known as visual interpretation.
c) Shape; tone; size; texture; pattern; shadow; association/site.
d) Remote sensing system; knowledge of image and sensor characteristics;
proficiency based on knowledge of the subject; adequate familiarity of the
geographic region and locality.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to Section 9.3.
2. Please refer to Section 9.4.
3. Please refer to Section 9.6.
4. Please refer to Section 9.7.

36 Prof. Meenal Mishra

 UNIT 10

ELEMENTS OF VISUAL
INTERPRETATION AND
INTERPRETATION KEYS
Structure_____________________________________________________
_
10.1 Introduction 10.4 Image Interpretation Keys
Expected Learning Outcomes 10.5 Image Interpretation Strategies
10.2 Visual and Digital Interpretation 10.6 Reporting Result of Interpretation
10.3 Elements of Visual Interpretation 10.7 Image Interpretation Scale
Tone 10.8 Minimum Mappable Unit
Texture 10.9 Activity
Shape 10.10 Summary
Size 10.11 Terminal Questions
Shadow 10.12 References
Association 10.13 Further/Suggested Readings
Site 10.14 Answers
Pattern

10.1 INTRODUCTION
You will have read the extraction of information from the aerial photographs by using the elements
of aerial photo-interpretation such as tone, size, shape, texture, pattern, shadow, site and
association in the previous unit. In case of satellite image interpretation, the same interpretation
elements are used. The characteristics of objects are studied with reference to a single or multiple
spectral bands because there is generally more than one image(s) acquired in different spectral
regions of electromagnetic spectrum. You have learnt that image interpretation is the art and
Block 3 Visual Interpretation
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science of examining images/photographs for the purpose of identifying objects
and assessing their significance.
Visual interpretation is a process of identifying features seen on the satellite
images by an analyst/interpreter and communication of information obtained
from these images to others for evaluating their significance. Visual
interpretation of satellite image has been successfully applied in many fields
including geology, geography, agriculture, water resources, forestry etc. In this
unit, we will learn about the elements and keys of image interpretation.

Expected Learning
Outcomes________________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
❖ compare merits and demerits of visual and digital interpretation;
❖ describe elements of visual interpretation;
❖ explain the image interpretation keys;
❖ read the strategies of image interpretation;
❖ discuss about reporting the results of image interpretation;
❖ write about image interpretation scale; and
❖ define minimum mapping unit.

10.2 VISUAL AND DIGITAL INTERPRETATION

You have read in the previous unit that interpretation is generally called as
image interpretation except for the case when the interpretation is carried out
on aerial photographs. Interpretation of aerial photograph is known as aerial
photo-interpretation. Based on the mode of the interpretation, interpretation can
be categorised into visual and digital interpretation. Visual interpretation
involves visual perception of the interpreter for the analysis of satellite images.
When the interpretation is carried out with the help of computer software it is
known as digital interpretation.
Visual interpretation is a process of identifying features seen on the images by
an interpreter and communication of information obtained from these images to
others for evaluating their significance. This process is not restricted to making
decisions concerning the appearance of objects in the images but it also
includes determination of their relative locations and extents. Success in visual
image interpretation varies with the training and experience on the pictorial data
analysis. You have read earlier that visual interpretation of satellite images are
applied successfully in many fields including geology, geography, agriculture,
water resources and forestry.
The digital interpretation involves analysis of remote sensing data and
extraction of information with the help of computers. Steps involved in digital
interpretation will be discussed in detail in the Block 4 of MGY-102. However,

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 Unit 10 Elements of Visual Interpretation and Interpretation Keys
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merits and demerits of visual (human) and digital interpretation are compared in
Table 10.1 for completeness.
Table 10.1: Comparison of merits and demerits of visual and digital
interpretation.

Visual interpretation Digital interpretation

• Image analyst’s experience • Time effective-requires much less

and knowledge is available time for interpretation
• Very good for extraction of • Results can be exactly reproduced
Merit
spatial information for any number of times
• Extraction of quantitative
information is possible and easier

• Time consuming • Image analyst’s experience and

• Interpretation results may vary knowledge is not available
with time and person depending • Poor in extracting spatial
Demerit
upon their experience and information
knowledge

10.3 ELEMENTS OF VISUAL INTERPRETATION

In this section, we will discuss the elements of visual interpretation. The
elements such as tone, texture, shape, size, pattern, shadow, site and
association are the same used in aerial photo-interpretation. Image
interpretations employ combination of the following eight elements:
1. tone
2. texture
3. shape
4. size
5. shadow
6. association
7. site
8. pattern

Fig. 10.1: a) Ternary plot showing the primary ordering of image elements that are
fundamental to the image analysis process; and b) diagrammatic
Prof. Meenal Mishra 39
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representation of elements of visual image interpretation. (Source:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2062)

A systematic study and visual interpretation of satellite images usually involves

consideration of two basic elements namely, image elements and terrain
elements. Out of the eight elements listed above, the first seven elements
comprise image elements and the 8th element; pattern is the terrain element
such as drainage, landform, erosion, soil, vegetation and land-use patterns.
These elements are shown in the order of their complexity in Fig. 10.1. The
interpreters use the combination of the eight elements of image interpretation to
describe the characteristics of objects and features as they appear on remotely
sensed images.
10.3.1 Tone
Tone represents the relative brightness or colour of an object in colour image
and the relative shades of gray in black and white image. As studied earlier, the
tonal variation is due to the reflection, transmission or absorption characteristic
of an object. It may vary from one band to another and from one object to
another. It is commonly related to the reflectance of light from terrain features.
For example, water absorbs nearly all incident light and produces black tone. In
case of dry sand, it reflects a high percentage of incident radiation and gives a
very light tone on the image. Tone is considered as a fundamental property of
an image and conveys more information to the interpreter other than image
elements. Without identifying tonal differences, it would be difficult to distinguish
the shapes, patterns and texture of objects. The terms used to describe the
relative tonal values are high, medium and dark.
Tone is one of the most basic elements because it is difficult to discern other
elements without tonal differences. As you have learnt tone (or hue) refers to
the relative brightness or colour of objects on an image. Figure 10.2 shows how
relative tones in an image could be used to distinguish between photographs of
different forests.

Fig. 10.2: Texture shown by rain forest, alpine forest and scruby forest. (Source:
www.earth.google.com)

The tone usually termed as light, medium gray, dark gray and dark for black
and white images. You can see various shades of tone in the black and white
image of Doon valley in Fig. 10.3a. Thus, tonal shades exhibited by the objects
(rivers, valley, settlement, hills) along with other elements of help in their
identification. For colour in an image, the tone refers to colour, which can be
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described as dark green, light blue, or pale pink (Fig. 10.3b), etc. As Fig. 10.3b
is a coloured image, the tone can be described in terms of colours visible to the
naked eye. The vegetation is seen in dark green colour, metalled roads show
gray colour and building tops are seen in pale pink colour

(a)

(b)
Fig. 10.3: Satellite imagery: a) Black and white image of the Doon valley and its
surroundings (Source: Rao, 2002); and b) coloured image of IGNOU
campus at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi (source: www.earth.google.com)

Tone in an image can also be influenced by:

• intensity and angle of illumination
• processing of film

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Block 3 Visual Interpretation
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In an image, tone may appear darker near the edges due to the position of an
area within a frame of photography. The tone can be influenced by factors other
than the absolute brightness of the Earth’s surface. In general, smooth surface
tends to have high reflectance than rougher surface with less reflectance. Tone
is influenced by the following factors:
• light reflectivity of the object
• angle of reflected light
• geographic latitude
• type of photography and film sensitivity
• light transmission of filters
• photographic processing
Strong tonal contrasts on satellite imageries are always desirable for better
image interpretation. Similarly, in thermal imagery, objects at higher
temperature are recorded in lighter tone compared to objects at lower
temperature, which appear of medium to darker tone.
10.3.2 Texture
Texture refers to the roughness or smoothness of an image of a region. It is
described as the frequency of tonal changes in an image. Texture is produced
by an aggregate of unit features, which may be too small to be clearly
distinguished individually on the image. Thus, it is a product of their individual
shape, size, pattern, shadow and tone and is dependent on the scale. If the
scale on the image is reduced, the texture of a given object progressively
becomes fine. Texture in an image is also a result of the pattern of highlighted
and shadowed areas created when an irregular surface is illuminated from an
angle. For example, forest shows a rough texture and grassland shows a
smooth texture.

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Fig. 10.4: Different textures shown by sand (top row) and water (bottom row).
(Source: www.earth.google.com)

Texture can be expressed as coarse, moderate, medium, fine, very fine,

smooth, rough, rippled and mottled. It is rather easier to distinguish various
textural classes visually than in the digital oriented techniques. It may be noted
that grass and water generally appear smooth in texture while trees or a forest
canopy may show a rough texture. You can look at textures exhibited by
different objects in Fig. 10.4. You can see in the given figure that river sand,
dune sand or beach exhibit different tone and texture. The human interpreter is
very good at distinguishing subtle differences in image texture. Therefore,
texture proves to be a valuable aid to interpretation.
Let us discuss another example. Fig.10.5 is the satellite imagery of the River
Ganga at Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Here you can notice the subtle changes in
texture as you move across from left to right. Thickly populated settlements
marked by rough texture are seen on the left side followed by the River Ganga
exhibiting a smooth texture and finally, sand bar showing mottled texture. On
the right you can observe agricultural fields showing moderate texture.

Fig. 10.5: Satellite imagery of area around the River Ganga at Varanasi. You can
notice the changes in texture as you move across. (Source:
www.earth.google.com)

10.3.3 Shape
Shape relates to the general form, configuration or outline of an individual
object. Shape is one of the most important single factors for recognising objects
from images (Fig. 10.6a-e). Regular geometric shapes are usually indicators of
human presence and use. Similarly, irregular shapes are usually indicators of
natural objects as shown in Fig. 10.6f and 10.7b. Some objects can be
identified almost solely on the basis of their shapes. For example, a railway line
is readily distinguished from a highway or an unmetalled road because its
shape consists of long straight tangents and gentle curves as opposed to the

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shape of highway as shown in Fig. 10.6b. You should remember that shape of
an object viewed from above may be quite different from its profile view. For
planar objects, it is easier to calculate the areal dimensions on imagery e.g.,
river as shown in Fig. 10.6f. Features in nature often have such distinctive
shapes that shape alone might be sufficient to provide clear identification e.g.,
beach, ponds, lakes and rivers occur in specific shapes unlike others found in
nature.

Fig. 10.6: Variation in shapes in the images provides clue for different objects: a)
Automobiles moving on road; b) railway track; c) baseball court; d) trailer
parking; e) swimming pool; and f) meandering river. (Source:
www.earth.google.com)

(a) (b)

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Fig. 10.7: a) Chilka lake- is a natural feature showing an irregular shape; and b)
Pentagon building- a man-made feature showing a regular shape.
(Source: www.earth.google.com)

The natural objects often have distinctive shapes that alone might be sufficient
to provide clear identification. For example, rivers, lakes, and ponds occur in
specific shapes unlike others found in nature. You can see in figure 10.7a an
example of shape of a natural feature-lake having irregular boundaries. It is
Chilka Lake in Odisha, India. While describing shape we often use the
adjectives like linear, curvilinear, circular, radial, square, rectangular, triangular,
hexagonal, star, elongated, elliptical and amorphous. The Pentagon building
near Washington, DC (Fig. 10.7b), is a classic example of a regular man-made
geometric shape.
10.3.4 Size
Size of an object can be important tool for its identification. Objects can be
misinterpreted if their sizes are not evaluated in a proper manner. Size of
objects in an image is a function of scale hence, the size of objects must be
considered in the context of the scale of an image. Although, the third
dimension, which comprises height of the objects is not readily measurable on
satellite images but valuable information can be derived from the shadows of
the objects.
Size of an object can be important tool, in two ways. First, the size of an object
is relative in relation to other objects on the image (Fig. 10.8a). Here you can
infer relative sizes of the lakes in the Himalayan region. This is probably the
most direct and important function of size, as it provides the interpreter with an
intuitive notion of the scale and resolution of an image even though no
measurements or calculations may have been made. This role is achieved by
recognition of familiar objects like dwellings, highways and rivers. Second,
absolute measurement can be equally valuable as interpretation aids. You
should remember that size of an object in an image depends on the scale and
resolution of the image. You can confirm the measurements of the size of an
object based on other factors, especially if its dimensions are so distinctive that
they form definitive criteria for specific items or classes of items. Apart from
these, the absolute measurements allow derivation of quantitative information,
including lengths, volumes, or even rates of movement. While interpreting size
we can easily make qualitative descriptions like small, medium and large.
Although the third-dimension or height of the objects is not readily measurable
on satellite images, however valuable information can be derived from the
shadows of the objects (Fig. 10.8b). It shows the satellite imagery of the area
around imperial tower in Mumbai. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 denote the relative
heights of the objects and the shadows casted by them. Images with
stereoscopic coverages such as those from SPOT and CARTOSAT- 1 & 2
provide third dimension. However, for planar objects, it is easier to calculate the
aerial dimensions on imagery for example alluvial fan (Fig. 10.9) or flood plain.

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 10.8: Relative sizes: a) Lakes in the Himalayan region; b) Satellite imagery of
the area around imperial tower in Mumbai. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 denote
the relative heights of the objects and their shadows. (Source:
www.earth.google.com)

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Fig. 10.9: Alluvial fan formed by a tributary as well as in the main channel (from
right to left) in the Nubra Valley, Ladakh. (Photo credit: Dr. Rakesh
Chandra)

10.3.5 Shadow
Shadow provides important clue in the interpretation of objects in two ways:
• outline or shape of a shadow provides a profile view of objects, which aids
in image interpretation,
• objects within shadow reflect little light and are difficult to discern on image,
which hinders interpretation.
Taller features cast larger shadows than shorter features as observed in Fig.
10.10. A building or vehicle, illuminated at an angle, casts a shadow that may
reveal characteristics of its size or shape that would not have been obvious
from the overhead view. Military image interpreters are often primarily
interested in identification of individual items of equipment. Shadow is
significant in distinguishing subtle differences that might not be otherwise
visible. Shadows can also provide information on the height of an object either
qualitatively or quantitatively. The shadows cast by various tree species or
cultural features (bridges, towers, poles) definitely aid in their identification (Fig.
10.10). The shadows result from subtle variations in terrain elevations
especially in the case of low sun angle images. This can aid in assessing
natural topographic variations. As a general rule, the shape of the terrain is
more easily interpreted when shadows fall toward the observer. We can
describe them as using adjectives like tall, intermediate, and short, deep,
intermediate and shallow.

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 10.10: Taller objects cast larger shadow than smaller objects such as
buildings and trees; a) Qutub Minar (source: earth.google.com); and b)
Aerial view of Cleopatra’s needle. (Source: http://knightlab.org/rscc/
readings/Smithsonian_EII.pdf)

10.3.6 Association
Association is occurrence of features in relation to its surroundings. Sometimes
a single feature by itself may not be distinctive enough to permit its
identification. It specifies the occurrence of certain features in association of a
particular feature.
Many features can be easily identified by examining the associated features.
For example, a primary school and a high school may be similar flat roofed
building structures but it may be possible to identify the high school by its
association with an adjacent football field. Let us discuss another example.
Floodplain is associated with several features such as meanders, ox-bow lake
and abandoned channels (Fig. 10.11).

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Fig. 10.11: Meandering river flowing across the flood plain of a river with
numerous ox-bow lakes in Begusarai and Khagaria districts, Bihar
(Source: Google Earth)

Let us discuss two examples of association. If you see sea water, ships
connected to mainland with jetties, warehouses, huge tanks and connecting
roads in an image, then it would be the imagery of a port. Fig. 10.12a shows
imagery of the Kandla port. In case of airport, you will expect airstrip, aircraft
taking off, hangar, office establishments, feeder road to airstrips and parking
area outside the airport (Fig. 10.12b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.12: Satellite imagery showing association at: a) Kandla port; and b)
Airport. (Source: Google Earth)

7.3.7 Site
Site refers to the topographic position, for example, sewage treatment facilities
are positioned at low topographic sites near stream or rivers to collect waste
flowing through the system from higher locations. The relationship of the
surrounding features provides clues to their identity. You can also consider the
example of certain tree species located in areas of specific altitudes. Similarly,
identification of landforms can help in deciphering the underlying geology. The
orchards may be positioned often on hillsides, to avoid cold air drainage to low-
lying areas, characteristic topographic sites.

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7.3.8 Pattern
Pattern develops in an image due to spatial arrangement of objects. Hence,
pattern can be defined as the spatial arrangement of objects in an image. A
particular pattern may have its genetic relation with several factors of its origin.
For example, urban and rural settlement areas can be easily identified based
on the patterns created by the rows of houses or buildings. Similarly, drainage
pattern has orderly association with the underlying lithology, structure, soil
texture and hydrological characteristics of the ground and hence, provide clues
about them.
The repetition of certain general relationships or patterns is the characteristic of
certain natural and man-made objects. This aids the interpreter to recognise
them. Pattern on an image usually follows a functional relationship between the
individual features that compose them. Like, the buildings in an industrial plant
may have a distinctive pattern due to their organisation to permit economical
flow of materials through the plant, from receiving raw material to shipping of
the finished product. The distinctive spacing of trees in an orchard is due to
careful planting of trees at intervals. This prevents competition between
individual trees and permits convenient movement of equipment through the
orchard (Fig. 10.13a). Fig. 10.13b shows the satellite imagery of the Connaught
place in New Delhi where you can see systematic repetition of buildings and
roads.

(a) (b)

Fig. 10.13: Satellite images: a) Planting of banana plant at regular intervals in an

orchard (Source: Google Earth); b) Image of the Connaught place, New
Delhi showing the spatial arrangement of buildings and roads. (Source:
Google Earth)

Drainage Pattern: The drainage patterns and texture seen on images are good
indicators of landform and bedrock type and also suggest soil characteristics
and drainage condition. Fig. 10.14 shows you the dendritic pattern of a
drainage system. When the river channel follows the slope of the terrain the
dendritic pattern develops. It is the most common form of drainage pattern and
looks like the branching pattern of a tree when joined by tributaries.

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Fig. 10.14: Satellite imagery showing dendritic drainage pattern. (Source: Google
Earth)

The basic drainage patterns and their significance in image interpretation are
summarised in table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Basic drainage pattern and their geological significance.

Drainage Geological Significance

Dendritic Developed in regions of rock homogeneity, shows lack of
structural control. Example - shales and granitic gneisses.
Rectangular Shows structural control, develops along joints/faulty
intersecting at right angles. Example - sandstone.
Trellis Shows structural control; develops in areas having parallel
fractures/faults. Tilted interbedded sedimentary rocks having
differences in rock resistance. Folded sedimentary sequence.
Parallel Develops due to pronounced regional slope or in areas
having elongated geomorphic features, such as homoclinal
ridges of quartzite.
Radial Associated with domes, doubly plunging folds, volcanoes,etc.
Deranged Indicates limestones in humid climate.

Landform Pattern: May be regional, for example, long ridges corresponding to

resistant rocks with long valleys due to non-resistant rocks develop into ridge
and valley patterns.
Soil Pattern: Soils also have a distinct pattern.Generally, fine textured, poorly
drained soils are dark in colour due to higher water content whereas coarse
textured soils, which are well drained are light in colour.
Vegetation Pattern: Vegetation correlated to certain formations could help in
determining the lithology in an area.
Landuse Planning: The changes brought about in landuse planning and
pattern with time can be carefully monitored (Fig. 10.15). In this figure, you can
see agricultural field converted to human settlements. Images of different years
mentioned in Fig. 10.15 give you information about the land use planning in the

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area. You can observe the effects of urbanisation in this figure and evaluate the
agricultural fields that have been converted to human settlements.

Fig. 10.15: Monitoring land cover change over time. Here you can see agricultural
field as observed in the image of year 1975 has been converted to human
settlements in 2000. (Source: http://changematters.esri.com/compare)

The image interpretation elements discussed above and the typical adjectives
and terms associated with them are summarised in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Typical adjectives associated with interpretation elements.
(Source: Bhatta, 2021)

Element Common adjectives (quantitative and qualitative)

Location x, y coordinates: longitude and latitude or meters, easting and

northing in a map grid

Size Length, width, perimeters, area: small, medium (intermediate) and

large

Shape An object’s geometric characteristics: linear, curvilinear, circular,

elliptical, radial, square, rectangular, triangular, hexagonal,
pentagonal, amorphous, etc

Shadow A silhouette caused by solar illumination from the side

Tone/ colour Gray tone: light (bright), intermediate (gray), dark (black)
colour = intensity, hue, saturation

Texture Characteristics placement and arrangement of repetition of tone or

colour; smooth, intermediate (medium), rough (coarse), mottled,
stippled

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Pattern The spatial arrangement of objects on the ground; systematic,

unsystematic or random, linear, curvilinear, rectangular, circular,
elliptical, parallel, centripetal, serrated, striated, braided

Height/depth/ Z-elevation (height), depth (bathymetry), volume, slope, aspect

volume/aspect

Site/situation/ Site: elevation, slope, aspect, exposure, adjacency to water,

association transportation, utilities
Situation: objects are placed in a particular order or orientation
relative to one another association: related phenomena are usually
present

SAQ I
a) List the merits and demerits of visual interpretation.
b) What are various elements of visual image interpretation?
c) List the factors influencing tone.
d) What is texture?

10.4 IMAGE INTERPRETATION KEYS

Image interpretations keys are valuable aid used for summarising complex
information represented as images and have been widely used for image
interpretation (Coiner, 1971). Such keys serve the following purposes:
• means of training experienced personnel in the interpretation of complex or
unfamiliar topics
• reference aid for experienced interpreters to organise information
An image interpretation key is simply a reference material designed to permit
rapid and accurate identification of objects or features represented on aerial
images. A key usually consists of two parts:
• a collection of annotated or captioned image or stereograms
• a graphic or word description, possibly including sketches or diagrams.
These materials are organised in a systematic manner that permits retrieval of
desired images, for example, data season or subject.

Key mainly refers to organising the important characteristics of a topic in an

orderly manner. The criteria for identification of an object with interpretation
elements are called an interpretation key. The image interpretation depends
on the interpretation keys. These keys were established by an experienced
interpreter from prior knowledge and the study of the current images. Image
interpretation keys are graphic and/or textual. They help to identify thematic
classes from image feature characteristics. Sometimes it is necessary at the
beginning of a project, to design a key to be employed in a specific study.
Basically, interpretation keys can be one of two generic types:

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• selective keys
• elimination keys
Selective keys contain numerous example images with supporting text. The
interpreter selects the example that most nearly resembles the feature or
condition found on the image under study.

Elimination keys are composed of word descriptions ranging through various

levels of broad to specific characteristic discrimination. Interpretation proceeds
step by step from general to specific and leads to elimination of all features or
conditions except the one being identified. Elimination key often takes the form
of dichotomous key. In dichotomous keys, interpreter makes a series of
choices between two alternatives and progressively eliminates all but one
possible answer. The analyst progresses down through this hierarchy, making
choices at branching description paths. Finally, by the process of elimination
objects are identified. For your understanding, the sample interpretation keys
for identifying forest features on Landsat images are given in Table 10.4..
Table 10.4: Tone/colour based interpretation key for land cover mapping
with LANDSAT MSS images in the case of single band and
false colour images. (Source: http://sar.kangwon.ac.kr/etc/rs_
note/rsnote/cp7/t7-5-2.gif)

Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 457(BGR) 457(RGB)

Snow PW PW PW PW PW PW
Cloud W W - - W W
Haze W W W W W W
Forest DGR BL W W R G
Grass GR DG W W P BY
Bare Land GR W W W W W
Wet Land GR W GR DGR LB RP
Urban GR W GR DGR LB RP
Water DGR BL BL BL B BP
Shadow BL BL BL BL BL BL
PW: Pure White W: White DGR: Dark Gray GR: Gray
RP: Reddish Purple B: Blue R: Red G: Green BY: Brandish Yellow
LB: Light Blue P: Pink BL: Black BP: Blueish Purple

10.5 IMAGE INTERPRETATION STRATEGIES

Interpretation strategy is the sequence of elementary computational activities
that the interpreter performs on the image to reach the sought interpretation.
They are mentioned below:

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• Field Observations: It involves identification in the field by observation,
photography, GPS, etc. This is required by the interpreter as a routine
check on accuracy or to get familiarised with the specific region
• Direct Recognition: It includes direct recognition intuitiveness. This
includes interpreter’s experience, skill and judgment. This process is
essentially a qualitative and subjective analysis.
• Inference: It is based on knowledge and possible surrogates. Visible
distribution acts as surrogate or proxy for the mapped distribution. It
requires complete knowledge of link between proxy and mapped
distribution.
• Interpretive Overlays: It utilises additional data in the form of overlays to
reveal the relationships.It is necessary to search for complex associations of
several related factors that together define the distribution or pattern of
interest often in resource-oriented interpretations. For example, often soil
patterns may be obvious by characteristic relationships between distinct
patterns of vegetation, slope, and drainage. The interpretive overlays
approach to image interpretation is a way of deriving information from
complex interrelationships between separate distributions recorded on
remotely sensed images. This method is applied by means of a series of
individual overlays for each image to be examined. The first overlay may
show the major classes of vegetation, possibly consisting of dense forest,
open forest, grassland, and wetlands. A second overlay maps may show
slope classes, including perhaps level, gently sloping, and steep slopes.
Another overlay may show the drainage pattern, or might show land use
and geology. Thus, for each image, the interpreter may have as many as
five or six overlays, each depicting a separate pattern. The interpreter by
superimposing these overlays can derive information presented.
• Photomorphic Regions: They are the areas of relatively uniform tone and
texture.

10.6 REPORTING RESULT OF INTERPRETATION

Apart from interpreting images, the other task of an interpreter is to report the
results of the interpretation. The character of a report will vary depending on the
topic, purpose and audience. We have suggested a few general features that
might be important in most circumstances. The report may broadly include the
following six sections:
• Objectives of interpretation should be specified clearly so that there is no
misunderstanding of the scope or detail of the project. For example, five
categories such as Forest, Urban Land, Agricultural Land, Open Water and
Barren Land can be used for classifying a land use.
• Equipment and Materials includes the detailed description of equipment
and material used.
• Regional Setting includes landscape, topography, climate, economy and
social aspects.

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• Procedure section provides step-by-step description of the interpretation
process.
• Results provide quantitative and qualitative assessments, for example in
terms of area in case of land use and land cover.
• Conclusions summarise the whole report.

10.7 IMAGE INTERPRETATION SCALE

An image interpretation scale is always considered at the time of interpretation
as it effects the interpretation of features. What may be a clear joint pattern on
large scale photograph may well appear as a texture on small scale. In small
scale image, a large area is included. For example, a single 9x9 inches
photograph on a scale of 1:60,000 covers about 80 square miles (about 207 sq.
km). The same image on a scale of 1:30,000 will cover about 20 square miles
(52 sq. km.) and on 1:15,000 scale will cover only 4 to 5 square miles (12 sq.
km) area.
Selection of the Scale: The scale of the image is carefully chosen depending
upon the observation to be made. The suitability of different scale of images for
regional, local and small-scale features for natural, cultural and pedological
interests are given in the Table 10.6. The scale of photographs should be
smallest that will permit differentiation of objects.
Table 10.6: Different scale of images for regional, local and small-scale
features.

Features Scale
1: 5, 000 to 1: 15,000 to smaller than
1: 15,000 1: 30,000 1: 30,000
Natural Features
Regional Poor Good Excellent
Local Excellent Good to fair Poor
Small Excellent Poor Very poor
Cultural Features
Regional Excellent Good Fair
Local Excellent Fair to good Poor
Small Excellent Poor Very poor

10.8 MINIMUM MAPPABLE UNIT

Land-cover (LC) maps derived from the remotely sensed data are often
presented using a minimum mapping unit (MMU). MMU is defined as the
smallest size areal entity to be mapped as a discrete entity (Knight and Ross,
2003). The analyst must take into account the potential applications for the
classification, resolution of any data and type and resolution of the reference
data to be used to assess the accuracy of the classification. This concept is
therefore scale dependent and not related to classification. A key issue when
generating a land cover map from remotely sensed data is the selection of the

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MMU to be employed, which determines the extent of detail contained in the
map. Selection of the MMU determines the extent of detail conveyed by an
interpretation (Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000). It allows reducing the visual and
spatial complexity of the information contained in the map, especially when the
information corresponding to the smallest patches is of little or no interest for
the purposes for which the map is developed (Davis and Peet, 1977).

SAQ II
a) Mention various strategies required for visual image interpretation.
b) Mention the basic drainage pattern and their geological significance.
c) What is MMU?

10.9 ACTIVITY
You can visit different parts of your city or village. You observe various features
such as park, schools, offices, railway station and shopping malls. Make a
record of the features observed on a particular route. Open Google Earth and
bring the image to a suitable scale. Now try to identify the same features on the
same route.

10.10 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what you have read in this unit:
• Visual interpretation is a process of identifying features seen on images and
communication of information obtained from these images to others for
evaluating their significance.
• The basic elements of visual image interpretation are similar to those used
in aerial photo interpretation. Elements of visual interpretation are tone,
texture, association, shape, size, shadow, site and pattern.
• The terrain element pattern- includes drainage patterns, drainage density,
topography/landform and erosion status.
• The criteria for identification of an object with interpretation elements are
called an interpretation key.
• Interpretation keys can be selective and elimination keys.
• Interpretation strategies include field observations, direct recognition,
inference, interpretive overlays and photomorphic regions.
• The scale of the image is carefully chosen depending upon the observation
to be made. The suitability of different scale of images for regional, local
and small-scale features for natural, cultural and pedological interests.

10.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss in brief the elements of visual image interpretation?
2. What do you understand by image interpretation keys?
3. Discuss image interpretation strategies.
4. What is image interpretation scale?
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10.12 REFERENCES
• Bhatta, B. (2021). Global Navigation Satellite Systems New Technologies
and Applications. 2nd Edition, ISBN 9780367474089, 386 pages.
• Coiner, J. C. and Morain, S. A. (1972). SLAR Image Interpretation Keys for
Geographic analysis. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/42880429.pdf
• Davis, W.A. and Peet, F.G. (1977). A method of smoothing digital thematic
maps. Remote Sensing of Environment, 6: 45–49.
• Knight, J.F. and Lunetta, R.S. (2003). An experimental assessment of
minimum mapping unit size. IEEE Transactions on Geosciences and
Remote Sensing, 41: 2132.
• Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. (2000). Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, 4th Edition, John Wiley and Sons.
• Navalgund, R.R., Jayaraman, V. and Roy, P.S. (2007). Remote sensing
applications: An overview, Current Science, 93: 1747–1766.
• NRSC (2014). Land Use / Land Cover database on 1:50,000 scale, Natural
Resources Census Project, LUCMD, LRUMG, RSAA, National Remote Sen
sing Centre, ISRO, Hyderabad.
• Rao, D.P. (2002). Remote sensing application in geomorphology. Tropical
Ecology, 43: 49–59.
• http://changematters.esri.com/compare
• http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2062
• http://knightlab.org/rscc/readings/Smithsonian_EII.pdf
• http://sar.kangwon.ac.kr/etc/rs_note/rsnote/cp7/t7-5-2.gif
• https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/2dresources/thematic/LULC503/lulc.pdf
• www.earth.google.com
Data from above mentioned websites was retrieved between 15 th-20th August,
2022.

10.13 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

• Campbell, J.B. (1996). Introduction to Remote Sensing, 2 nd Edition, Taylor
and Francis.
• Drury, S.A. (1990). A Guide to Remote Sensing, Oxford University Press.
• Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. (2000). Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, 4th Edition, John Wiley and Sons.
• Sabins, F.F. (1987). Remote Sensing - Principles and Interpretation, 2 nd
Edition, W.H. Freeman and Co.

10.14 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) Please see Table 10.1.
b) Tone, texture, shape, size, shadow, association, site and pattern.

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c) Light reflectivity of the object; angle of reflected light; the geographic
latitude; type of photography and film sensitivity; light transmission of filters
and photographic processing.
d) Texture in an image is the apparent roughness or smoothness of an image
of a region. It refers to the frequency of tonal changes in an image.
SAQ II
a) Interpretation strategies include field observations, direct recognition,
inference, interpretive overlays and photomorphic regions.
b) Your answer should summarise Table 10.2.
c) MMU is defined as the smallest size areal entity to be mapped as a discrete
entity.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to Section 10.3.
2. Please refer to Section 10.5.
3. Please refer to Section 10.6.
4. Please refer to Section 10.8.

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 UNIT 11

VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION:

SELECTED EXAMPLES
Structure_________________________________________________________
_
11.1 Introduction 11.3 Classification System
12.2 Interpreting Images Steps in Producing a Land Use/Land Cover Map

Exercise 1 Example of a Land Use/Land Cover

Exercise 2 Classification System

Exercise 3 Indian Scenario

Exercise 4 Ancillary Data in Image Interpretation

Exercise 5 Role of Field Observations in Image Interpretation

Exercise 6 Quality of Image Interpretation

Exercise 7 11.4 Summary

Exercise 8 11.5 Terminal Questions
Exercise 9 11.6 References
Exercise 10 11.7 Further/Suggested Readings
Answers to Exercises 11.8 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, you have learnt about basics of aerial photo interpretation, elements of visual
image interpretation, interpretation keys and other related concepts. The observation of the
differences between objects involves comparing different objects based on the image interpretation
elements such as tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow and association. The nature of each
Block 3 Visual Interpretation
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of these interpretation elements has been described in the previous unit. In this
unit, we will try to interpret few selected images based on the principles of
visual image interpretation.

Expected Learning
Outcomes________________________________
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
❖ identify and differentiate features present in remote sensing images;
❖ explain the process of visual image interpretation; and
❖ develop skills in visual interpretation of remote sensing images

11.2 INTERPRETING IMAGES

The most intuitive way to extract information from satellite images is by visual
image interpretation. It is based on our ability to relate patterns and colours in
an image to real world features. Human vision goes a step beyond perception
of colour as it deals with the ability of the person to draw conclusions from
visual observations. In analysing a picture, we are somewhere between the
following two situations: direct and spontaneous recognition or using several
clues to draw conclusions by a reasoning process (i.e. logical inference).
Spontaneous recognition refers to your ability to identify objects or
phenomena in first glance. For example, in case of the rectangular shape of an
object, you will use your professional experience. You can do this by concluding
that a rectangular shape is a swimming pool because of its location in a garden
near to a resort or big hotel. A simple visual interpretation of remotely sensed
imagery can often reveal considerable detail on the nature and distribution of
habitats in an area of interest. You are now aware that characteristics of the
image are defined using a set of terms viz., tone, shape, size texture, pattern,
site and association, called as elements of visual image interpretation. The
simultaneous and often implicit use of all these elements is the strength of
visual image interpretation.
In practice, objects and the features on Earth’s surface are described more as
classes than as materials. For instance, consider the material ‘concrete’. It is
used in roadways, parking lots, swimming pools, buildings and other structural
units, which might be treated as a separate class. Similarly, we can subdivide
‘vegetation’ in a variety of ways such as trees, crops, grasslands, lake bloom
algae, etc. Finer subdivisions are permissible, by classifying trees as deciduous
or evergreen, or deciduous trees into oak, poplar, etc.
Two additional properties help us in distinguishing these various classes,
namely; shape (geometric patterns) and use or context (sometimes including
geographical locations). Thus, we may assign a feature composed of concrete
to the classes ‘streets’ and ‘parking lots’, depending on whether its shape is
long and narrow or more square or rectangular. Features with similar spectral
signatures for vegetation could be assigned to the classes ‘forest’ or ‘crops’

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depending on whether the area in the images has irregular or straight (often
rectangular, as is the case for most farms) boundaries.
To visually interpret digital data such as satellite images, individual spectral
bands must be displayed simultaneously in the form of a colour composite. For
example, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (Resourcesat) 1, 2 and 3 broadly
represent the blue, green and red parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. When
these bands are fed through the corresponding blue, green and red ‘colour
guns’ of a computer monitor, the resulting image strongly resembles what our
eyes would see from the sensor’s vantage point. We, thus, have an intuitive
understanding of the colours presented and can usually make a meaningful
interpretation of the scene (e.g., dark blue mostly represents deep water).
Before starting with the exercises let us quickly understand the two terms ‘true
colour’ and ‘false colour’ images which would be often used here. Fig. 11.1
shows two pictures of the same location. Picture on the left is a ‘true colour’
image (Fig. 11.1a). This means that the picture shows objects in the same
colours that your eyes would normally see. Picture on the right is a ‘false colour’
image (Fig. 11.1b), this means that the colours have been assigned to three
different image bands which have been acquired in the wavelengths that your
eyes might not normally see.

Fig. 11.1: Two satellite images of an area: a) True colour composite; and b) false
colour composite.

Let us now move on to interpreting some of the satellite images using the
concepts of visual image interpretation we have learnt. It is important to note
that you should carefully observe the images given and try to answer the
questions.
11.2.1 Exercise 1

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Fig. 11.2 is a natural colour scene showing a region in the Jharkhand state of
India. The data used to produce this scene were acquired by the LISS IV
sensor with 5.8 m spatial resolution onboard IRS Resourcesat.

Fig. 11.2: Satellite image of an area of the Jharkhand state. (source:

http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

Observe the image carefully and try to answer the following questions (use
colour, shape, tone, texture and association to differentiate the features):
• What are the various features you can decipher from the image?
• Can you identify the coal mines? What elements did you use to interpret
them?
11.2.2 Exercise 2
You can see the given below Fig. 11.3 is a true-colour image of the Thar
Desert, Rajasthan, acquired by the LISS IV sensor onboard IRS Resourcesat.

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Fig. 11.3: True colour image of the Thar Desert, Rajasthan acquired by the
Resourcesat. (Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

Observe the image carefully and answer the following questions:

• What landform does the image represent? Why?
• What are the other features that you can identify in the image?
Hint: While interpreting the image use the elements of visual interpretation (i.e.
shape, size, shadow and association, etc.).
11.2.3 Exercise 3
Fig 11.4 shows an IRS Resourcesat-1 LISS IV image of Delhi in three bands of
the reflected visible and infrared wavelength regions of electromagnetic
spectrum.

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Fig 11.4: IRS Resourcesat-1 image of a region of Delhi. (Source:

http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

• Try to identify the famous building structures and other world famous man-
made constructions in this image.
• What are the other features you can identify?
11.2.4 Exercise 4
You can see IRS Resourcesat-1 LISS IV image of Chandigarh is shown in Fig.
11.5.
• Even though the image has various shades and pattern of green, identify
the various vegetation types in this image.
• Identify other features in this image which may have a role to play in
establishing different vegetation types.

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Fig. 11.5: IRS Resourcesat-1 image of Chandigarh. (Source:

http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

11.2.5 Exercise 5
In Fig. 11.6, you can see a true colour image of IRS Resourcesat-1 AWiFS
covering a portion of Arabian Sea, south of Gujarat coast in three bands of the
reflected visible and infrared wavelength region.

Fig. 11.6: True colour image of a portion of Arabian Sea, south of Gujarat IRS
Resourcesat-1 AWiFS. (Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

• Can you identify different colours (brownish, greenish, dark blue and light
blue) of water?
• Try guessing what these colours denote?
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11.2.6 Exercise 6
You can see that given below is a true colour IRS Resourcesat-1 AWiFS image
(Fig. 11.7) of the Himalayan Mountain Range that runs a curving path from west
to east. In this image, the range separates southeastern China from India, and
runs through (from left to right) northwestern India, Nepal, a small bit of
northeastern India, and Bhutan.

Fig. 11.7: True colour Resourcesat-1 image of the Himalayan Mountain Range
(Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

• What are the various landforms that you can identify in this image? Justify
your answer using the elements of visual interpretation that you have learnt.
11.2.7 Exercise 7
Fig. 11.8 shows the three images of Gaumukh glacier and its adjoining areas.

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Fig. 11.8: Satellite images of Gaumukh glacier: a) Gaumukh glacier and

surroundings; b) southern part of the glacier; and c) northern part of the
glacier. (Source: http://google.com/earth)

• What are the prominent features that you can identify in these images?
• What do the dark regions represent?
11.2.8 Exercise 8
Given below are the images from IRS Resourcesat-1 LISS III. You can see that
Fig. 11.9a is a false colour image of Flat Island and Fig. 11.9b is a true colour
image of Boat Island. Both the islands are in the Andaman Group of Islands
and are surrounded by coral reefs.

Fig. 11.9: Resourcesat-1 false colour composite (a) Flat Island; (b) True colour
image of Boat Island, Andaman, India. (Source:
http://www.google.com/earth)

• What features can you identify in this image?

• What visual elements have you used for your interpretation?
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11.2.9 Exercise 9
Given below are the IRS-1D LISS III images of the islands in Kori creek located
in the northwestern of Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat (Fig. 11.10).

Fig. 11.10: IRS-1D LISS III images of islands in Kori creek, northwestern of Gulf of
Kachchh, Gujarat obtained in: a) October, 1998; b) February, 1999; c)
February, 2001; and d) March, 2007. (Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

• What features can you identify from the image?

• What differences can you see in the images? What do you attribute these
differences to?
11.2.10 Exercise 10
Fig. 11.11a is the true colour image of the Bhitarkanika delta in Orissa from IRS
Resourcesat-1 AWiFS. Fig. 11.11b is a false colour composite generated using
IRS-1D LISS III camera of the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Both images show
estuaries and coastal habitats. Observe the images and try to answer the
following questions:

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Fig. 11.11: IRS Resourcesat-1 images: a) True colour image of Bhitarkanika delta,
Orissa; and b) False colour composite of the Gulf of Khambhat,
Gujarat. (Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)

• What are the features that you can identify in these images?
• Can you differentiate the mangroves in both these images?
11.2.11 Answers to Exercises
Answer to Exercise 1
This image is of a region in the Jharkhand state of India. Jharkhand is known
for its rich store of minerals; therefore, mining forms an integral part of the
economy of Jharkhand. The districts of Bokaro, Ranchi, Jamshedpur, etc. are
known for their rich mineral reserves. According to an estimate, Jharkhand
possesses about 93% of medium coking coal, 30% of blendable coal and
almost 100% of prime cooking coal. The open cast coal mines are clearly seen
in the image.
The open cast coal mines are in greyish white tone and irregular shape (Fig.
11.2). The surrounding vegetation in green hues represents thick forests of
Jharkhand. The various blue-grey clusters linked together by dark thin lines are
towns and villages connected by roads. There are two major and three
relatively minor water bodies which are showing dark blue tone.
Answer to Exercise 2
The Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert in the northwestern part of the
Indian subcontinent is spread over in area more than 200,000 sq. km. It is
characterised by its massive rolling sand dunes, excessive heat (touching
~50ºC in May and June and sand temperatures rising to ~70ºC) dust storms
and dust-raising winds often blowing with velocities of ~140-150 km/hr. It is a
desolate region where sand is piled up into huge wind-blown dunes. The soils
of the Desert are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The low-lying
loams have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate, silica and gypsum.
The image is of a part of Thar Desert in Rajasthan (Fig. 11.3). Settlements with
regular shaped and rough texture are clearly seen in the image. In between the
settlements lies the sandy desert which you would observe in light tone,

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irregular shape and smooth texture. The wind-blown sand dunes are clearly
seen.
Answer to Exercise 3
The famous India Gate is seen in the centre of the image. It is situated in the
heart of New Delhi and is a prominent landmark in Delhi. In the extreme north-
west corner of the image, there is Connaught Place (officially known as Rajiv
Chowk) clearly seen in a circular shape (Fig. 11.4). It is one of the largest
financial, commercial and business centers in Delhi. It is often abbreviated as
CP and houses the headquarters of several Indian firms. Its surroundings
occupy a place of pride amongst the heritage structures of the city, i.e. India
Gate.
The ring road and Mathura road NH 2 is also seen traversing from the
southeast to the northwest in the image. Below the India Gate a clear pattern of
green criss-cross lines indicate the popular Lodi Garden. There are fallow lands
on the right hand side of the river Yamuna.
Answer to Exercise 4
The image is of a part of Chandigarh, a union territory of India. There are three
distinct land cover types (forest on plain land, mountainous forest, and a man-
made vegetation cover) can be identified from the image texture. The semi-
rectangular patch (Fig. 11.5) at the southwest corner is the Golf course (man-
made vegetation cover). Grassland in between tree lines is clearly seen. The
central portion of the image has a lake and Lake Reserved Forest (LRF) is to
the north of the lake. The LRF has dense trees. The northern region to the LRF
has residential area with planned tree cover. This area is probably inhabited
and covered by shrubs or trees. The northeast corner of the image has
vegetation cover on the foothills of the Siwalik range of the Himalayas (Nepali
Reserved Forest). The different land cover types can primarily be differentiated
based on texture and pattern.
Answer to Exercise 5
Gulf of Khambhat is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India.
The waters of the Gulf of Khambhat and Arabian Sea below are startlingly
different. Where the Arabian Sea, seen have dark blue and blue colours and
clear deep water (Fig. 11.6) The Gulf waters are laden with sediments giving it
a brown and brownish green tones. The Narmada and Tapti rivers empty into
the Gulf, carrying sediments that give the brown color to the Gulf, is clearly
visible in the image. The Gulf, which is actually quite shallow, is known for its
extreme tides, vary greatly in height and run into it with amazing speed. At low
tide, the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the town of
Khambhat.
Answer to Exercise 6
In the top half of the image (Fig. 11.7), a number of blue coloured irregular
shaped water bodies i.e. lakes, glow like jewels scattered throughout
southeastern China’s Plateau of Tibet. Many of the lakes show tinges of blue-
green that likely indicate microscopic plant life. In the bottom half of the image,
a number of major rivers flow (carefully note their shape, colour) to the
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southeast, eventually join the Ganges and empty into the Bay of Bengal (not
shown in the image). The Himalaya Mountains are covered with snow. And in
northern India, a gray haze of air pollution (texture, colour) hangs over some of
the most densely populated cities in the world.
Answer to Exercise 7
The Gangotri Glacier is located in Uttarkashi District, Uttarkhand state, India.
This glacier is the source of the Ganges and is one of the largest in
the Himalayas with an estimated volume of over 27 km3. It is about 30 km long
and 2 to 4 km wide. Around the glacier are the peaks of the Gangotri Group
(top image). The two images below are of the Gaumukh glacier. Fig. 11.8a is
the right image which shows the northern part of the glacier and Fig. 11.8b is
the left image is of the southern end. Glaciated zone, rubble, moraine, etc. are
seen in the image. The dark regions are the shadows of the mighty Himalayas.
Snow (in bright white colour) is clearly seen covering the mountains.
Answer to Exercise 8
The coral reef of the Flat Island of the northern Andaman group has suffered
extensive damage due to the tsunami and earthquake of 26 December, 2004.
The coral reefs at the edges have got uplifted and thus remain exposed. This
has resulted in the growth of algae showing pink tone (Fig. 11.9). A white edge
is seen on the seaward side in the western part of the reef. This is the region
where waves break and expend their energy along the fore reef and reef crest,
and resulting bubbles show up as a white outline. The inner blue hues
represent reef flat and shallow pools. Island has a sandy beach (linear and
white) making up the coast.
Boat island reefs (located in the southwest Andaman region) have relatively
remained unaffected by tsunami. The breaker zone, reef crest, reef flat and the
pristine clear water on the reef is clearly visible. The inner reef flat portion has
sandy bottom. You can see a linear sandy beach surrounding the island.
Answer to Exercise 9
These images show a part of the Kori Creek in the Kachchh region, Gujarat,
western India. Kori Creek is a part of Indus delta system, which has been
formed in humid climatic conditions. The present arid climatic conditions in the
Indus delta have led to increase in salinity level.
The Kori Creek houses islands made up of clayey mud and dense mangrove
cover. The image taken in 1998 shows that the islands are covered with dense
mangrove cover (bright red). The sparsely spaced mangroves are present
inland (brownish red) and salt affected mudflat further inland where tidal water
does not reach daily (Fig. 11.10). On the southern edge of the islands are
crescent shaped linear beaches. You can observe changes in mangrove cover
as well as its habitat. A cyclone occurred in June 1999 that mostly impacted the
Kori creek and the deltaic region going upto Pakistan. This impact is believed to
have caused massive sand migration from the Indus River down to the delta.
The deposition of sand (seen in white tone occupying most of the island) can be
easily seen in subsequent images (February 1999, 2001 and March 2007). The

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sand deposits were reported to have impacted the mangrove cover heavily
leading to their mass destruction as observed here.
Answer to Exercise 10
Bhitarkanika is a unique habitat of mangrove forests located in Kendrapara
district, Orissa. In 1975, Bhitarkanika was declared a Sanctuary under the
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and comprises Bhitarkanika, Kalibhanjadian and
Gahirmatha mangrove area. It is fed by the Dhamra, Maipura and Bhitarkanika
rivers. Gahirmatha mangrove area is comprised Sunirupi Reserved Forest,
Habilikuti Protected Forest and Gahirmatha Protected Forest. It is the second
largest mangrove ecosystem after Sundarbans and is home to diverse flora and
fauna intricately linked with each other. In the image, dark green tone with
network of creeks along the coast is the mangrove habitat (Fig. 11.11a).
Mangroves can be identified from the adjoining terrestrial vegetation by factors
like
• their evergreen nature
• moist habitat
• network of creeks
• in the intertidal zone
• in the brackish water zone (i.e. fed by sea as well as river)
The second image (Fig. 11.11b) is of the Gulf of Khambhat. The uppermost
estuary is the Mahi estuary. Narmada estuary is seen in the lower right. Small
bright red patches in the intertidal zone in the central left, upper left, central
right and lower right are the mangroves. These mangroves occupy small areas
and some are recent habitats. Regular shapes of dark blue and light blue along
the coast but on landward side are the salt pans. As the estuary is shallow, silt
laden water are clearly seen. In this first image (Fig. 11.11a) mangroves are
identified of the basis of dark green tone while in other image (Fig. 11.11b) by
their bright red colour.

SAQ I
Spend a) Study Fig. 8.2 and identify following features: (a) coal mines, (b) forest and
5 mins (c) water bodies.
b) Examine Fig. 11.7 and answer the following question. What do white and
blue colours represent in the image?

11.3 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Let us recall definition of the terms like land cover and land use prior to studying
the classification system, since both are often used in the context of image
interpretation.
Land cover refers to the type of features present on the surface of the land. It
refers to a physical property or resources e.g., water, snow, grassland,
deciduous forest, sand, sugarcane crop, etc. The term Land use relates to the
human activity or economic function for a specific area e.g., urban use,
industrial use, recreation area or protected area.
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Our ultimate aim of interpretation is to produce a land use/land cover map. It is
of prime importance in overcoming problems such as unplanned development,
deteriorating environmental quality, loss of agricultural lands, destruction of
wetlands and loss of fish and wildlife habitat. Land use data are required in the
understanding environmental processes and problems. Land use changes
through time can also be interpreted from land cover change maps. These
maps are an important tool in the planning process. Today in India, the variety
of land use and land cover data requirement has increased extensively. Such
data is increasingly used in tax assessments, natural resource inventories,
water-resource inventory, flood control, water-supply planning and waste-water
treatment. This data is also required for assessment of environmental impact
resulting from development and management of energy and natural resources.
This data is also helpful to make national summaries of land use patterns and
changes for national policy formulation.
Land cover mapping in general, requires an abstraction of many aspects. The
simplest way to do this is by introducing classes or categories. It is important
that each class on the map be clearly defined and distinct from other classes.
11.3.1 Steps in Producing a Land Cover/Land Use Map
Before beginning to prepare a land use/land cover map, it is essential to identify
the purpose for which the map is required and its user. This is followed by
delineating the study area and identifying the classification system to be used.
A classification scheme defines the legend that will be used for the final map.
For example, will the map show forest and non-forest or will it have several or
even dozens of different categories? Should the final map categories represent
land cover or something else such as land use, habitat, or conservation
importance? The way in which the map will be used will dictate the content of
the classification scheme. There are a large number of classification schemes
used for land use and land cover maps throughout the world. Some of the more
common schemes are given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Common land use/land cover classification schemes.

Scheme URL

Anderson and others, 1976 http://landcover,usgs.gov/pdf/anderson.pdf

National Land Cover Data http://landcover.usgs.gov/classes.asp

FAO Land Cover Classification www.africover.org/LCCS.htm

System

Indian (NRSA) Land Cover http://applications.nrsc.gov.in/pub.asp

Classification System

You should remember that no matter what classification scheme is selected

each class must be well defined and documented. For example, if a class is
called ‘forest’ one needs to specify what constitutes a forest. How dense do the
trees have to be? How much area should the canopy occupy? Without this sort
of information it is not possible for the user of the final map to know what the
different classes represented.
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When choosing an appropriate classification scheme you should decide
whether its compatibility with existing schemes is necessary or desirable. Some
advantages of using an existing system is that the classes are already defined
and the map you produce can be easily compared with other maps using the
same system. A balance must be struck between the classes that are desired
and the classes that can be accurately and economically delimited, based on
the map’s purpose. In general, greater detail requires greater cost and time. A
rule of thumb is to select the minimum number of classes that are practical.
When you decide upon a classification system it is important that you document
the details for each class and apply these class definitions in an objective
manner.
When selecting classes, a hierarchical or non-hierarchical approach can be
used. In a hierarchical approach, classes are nested such that major classes
are broken into sub-classes and these sub-classes can further be divided if
required. The advantage of such a system is that it can be easily generalised
and it is easy to adapt to various scales. Hierarchical systems are often used
when there is a need to maintain conformity with a national level classification
system. A non-hierarchical approach however is designed for a specific
purpose with a specific scale in mind. The advantage of a non-hierarchical
system is that it can be modified to suit a specific application because it is not
restricted by the constraints imposed by a hierarchical system. In other words, it
can be easier to customise for specific project goals since it can include a mix
of detailed and generalised land cover classes.
When defining classes you must decide how to classify mixed features such as
transition and mosaic classes. One approach is to define explicitly these
classes as mixed or transition and the other is to ignore the fact that classes are
mixed and define classes. While deciding the approach to be used you must
take into account the nature of the features being mapped and important mixed
classes.
11.3.2 Example of a Land Use/Land Cover Classification
System
There is no single ideal classification on land use/land cover. Anderson (1971)
developed some criteria for classification systems. It has been designed to
serve as a standard classification available for adoption by bodies involved in
routine collection of land use and land cover data.
Anderson (1971) specified that a land use and land cover classification system
based on remote sensor data should meet the following criteria:
• minimum level of interpretation accuracy in the identification of land use and
land cover categories from remote sensor data should be at least 85%
• accuracy of interpretation for the several categories should be nearly equal
• repeatable or repetitive results should be obtainable from one interpreter to
another and from one time of sensing to another
• classification system should be applicable over extensive areas
• categorisation should permit vegetation and other types of land cover to be
used as surrogates for activity
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• classification system should be suitable for use with remote sensing data
obtained during different times of the year
• effective use of subcategories that can be obtained from ground surveys or
from the use of larger scale or enhanced remote sensor data should be
possible
• aggregation of categories must be possible
• comparison with future land use data should be possible
• multiple uses of land should be mapped when possible
U.S. Geological Survey has identified four levels of land use/land cover
classification system for the use with remote sensor data and the type of
remotely sensed data typically used to provide the information (Table 11.2).
Table 11.2: Four levels of land use/land cover classification system of the
U.S. Geological Survey and corresponding typical data
requirement.

Classification
Typical data characteristics
level

Satellite imagery such as NOAA AVHRR (1.1 x 1.1 km), MODIS (250
I x 250 m; 500 x 500 m), Landsat MSS (79 x 79 m), Landsat TM (30 x
30 m) and SPOT XS (20 x 20 m)

Satellite imagery such as SPOT HRV multispectral (10 x 10 m) and

II IRS-1C panchromatic (5 x 5 m). High-altitude aerial photography
acquired at scales less than 1:80,000

Satellite imagery with 1 x 1m to 2.5 x 2.5 m nominal spatial resolution.

III Medium-altitude aerial photography at scales from 1:20,000 to 1:
80,000

Satellite imagery with ≤ 1 x 1 m nominal spatial resolution (e.g.,

IV QuickBird, IKONOS). Low-altitude aerial photography at scales from
1:4,000 to 1:20,000

Information at levels I and II would generally be of interest to users who desire

to generate data on a nationwide, interstate, or statewide basis. More detailed
land use and land cover data such as those categorised at levels III and IV
usually will be used more frequently by those who need and generate local
information at the intrastate, district or municipal level.
Table 11.3 gives the level I and level II classes of classification system
developed by Anderson (1971).
Table 11.3: Level I and level II classes of classification system given by
Anderson (1971).

Classification level

Level I Level II

1 Urban or built-up 11 Residential

land 12 Commercial and services
13 Industrial

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14 Transportation, Communications, and utilities
15 Industrial and commercial complexes
16 Mixed urban or built-up
16 Other urban or built-up land

2 Agricultural land 21 Cropland and pasture

22 Orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries and
ornamental horticultural areas
23 Confined feeding operations
24 Other agricultural land

3 Rangeland 31 Herbaceous rangeland

32 Shrub-brushland rangeland
33 Mixed rangeland

4 Forest land 41 Deciduous forest land

42 Evergreen forest land
43 Mixed forest land

5 Water 51 Streams and canals

52 Lakes
53 Reservoirs
54 Bays and estuaries

6 Wetland 61 Forest wetland

62 Non-forest wetland

7 Barren land 71 Dry salt flats

72 Beaches
73 Sandy areas other than beaches
74 Bare exposed rock
75 Strip mines, quarries and gravel pits
76 Transitional areas
77 Mixed barren land

8 Tundra 81 Shrub and brush tundra

82 Herbaceous tundra
83 Bare ground tundra
84 Wet tundra
85 Mixed tundra

91 Perennial snowfields
92 Glaciers

This system satisfied three major attributes of the classification system:

• it gave names to categories by using accepted terminology
• it allowed inductive generalisations to be made and it met the principal
objective of providing a land use and land cover classification system for
use in land use planning and management activities

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• it was amenable to further refinement on the basis of more extended and
varied use
Since then there have been several other classification systems developed
across the globe. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss these various
systems. The key ones, however, have been mentioned in Fig. 11.12.

Fig. 11.12: FAO Agro-ecological zones (AEZ) database; example of data held
showing predominant land cover in each grid cell mapped onto the
globe. (Source: Smith et al., 2008)

11.3.3 Indian Scenario

Based on the need for current nationwide land use/land cover (LULC) maps by
several agencies across the country, a LULC classification system with 24
categories upto Level II suitable for mapping on a 1:250,000 scale was
developed by the National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, by taking into
consideration the existing land use classification adopted by National Atlas and
Thematic Mapping Organisation, Kolkata; Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur and the details obtainable from satellite imagery. After discussions with
nearly 40 user departments/institutions in the country, a 22 fold classification
system was finalised and adopted for nationwide LULC analysis (Roy and
Giriraj, 2008). You can find forest cover map of India 2007 on the site
http://www.fsi.nic.in/sfr_2009/chapter2.pdf on page no. 15 as an example of a
land cover map.
11.3.4 Ancillary Data in Image Interpretation
In addition to satellite or aerial imagery, other data can be used to increase the
accuracy of the classification. Some possible ancillary data are digital elevation
models (DEMs) and their derived datasets (slope and aspect), climate data
such as rainfall and temperature, and vector overlays such as roads, rivers, and
populated places. If there is an attribute that effects the distribution of land
cover that exists in a mapped form it should be incorporated into the
classification process. For example, DEMs often supplement satellite data
when mapping land cover since vegetation classes are often limited to specific
elevations or aspects. Incorporating these ancillary data into the classification
process is not always easy.
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11.3.5 Role of Field Observations in Image Interpretation
All image based mapping processes require field observations. Field
observations can be used:
• to gather local knowledge beforehand to guide the interpretation. When
dealing with a new area, some of the features observed on the images will
not be understood and field observations will help in interpreting these
features

• to validate the interpretation made

• to gather data about areas or features that cannot be studied from the
image data

Data collected in the field must be georeferenced so that the point of data
collection can be located on the imagery. GPS receivers are commonly used to
record location information. The type of information collected can range from
detailed notes describing a site to a photograph of the site. Some of the
detailed information that can be recorded includes: type of vegetation, crown
closure slope, aspect, soil type, and other bio-physical characteristics that are
important to identify the land cover type. If photographs are taken it is a good
idea to record the camera direction and make notes about the area to
supplement the content in the photograph. For example, information about
species composition, tree height, and possibly land use could be added.
11.3.6 Quality of Image Interpretation
The quality of the result of an image interpretation depends on a number of
factors such as the interpreter, image data used and the guidelines provided.

Professional experience determines the skills of a photo-interpreter. A sound

professional background is required, for instance, a geological interpretation
can only be made by a geologist since s/he is able to relate image features to
geological phenomena. Ground truthing is required to help the interpretation.
Image data applied also limit the phenomena that can be studied, both in
thematic and geometric sense. One cannot, for example, generate a reliable
database on the tertiary road system using multispectral satellite data.
Likewise, black and white aerial photos contain limited information about
agricultural crops.

Finally, quality of the interpretation guidelines largely influences interpretation.

Consider, for example, a project in which a group of persons carry out a
mapping project. Ambiguous guidelines will prevent a consistent mapping in
which individual results form a seamless database of consistent quality.
Large projects and monitoring programmes and quality of interpretation
guideline play an important role in ensuring the replicability of the work.
Replicability or repeatability refers to the degree of correspondence obtained by
different persons for the same area or by the same person for the same area at
different time.

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SAQ II
a) Identify land cover features from the following:
residential, industrial, transportation, communications, forest, rangeland and
wetland.

11.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied about:
• Visual image interpretation is one of the methods to extract information from
remote sensing image data.
• Interpretation keys or guidelines are required to instruct the image-
interpreter. In such guidelines, the (seven) interpretation elements can be
used to describe in order to recognise certain objects. Guidelines also
provide a classification scheme, defining the thematic classes of interest
and their (hierarchical) relationships.
• In all the interpretation and mapping processes, the use of ground
observations is essential in acquiring knowledge of local situation; in
gathering data for areas that cannot be mapped from the images and to
check the result of the interpretation.
• Quality of the visual image interpretation results depends on the experience
and skills of the interpreter, the appropriateness of the image data applied
and the quality of the guidelines being used.

11.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the role of visual image interpretation in the study of an area?
2. Give definitions of land cover and land use. Give an example of each of
them.

11.6 REFERENCES
• Anderson, J. R. (1971), Land use classification schemes used in selected
recent geographic applications of remote sensing. Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol 37, no 4, pp. 379-387.
• Roy, P.S. and Giriraj, A. (2008), Land use and land cover analysis in Indian
context. Journal of Applied Sciences, vol 8, no 8, pp.1346-1353.
• Smith, P. and others (2008), Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture.
Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, London,
vol 363, pp. 789-813.
• http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in, Bhuvan Beta – Indian Earth Observation
Visualisation
• http://www.google.com/earth
Information from above mentioned websites was retrieved on February 2012.

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11.7 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., and Witmer, R. E. (1976), A
land use and land cover classification system for use with remote sensor
data, U.S. Geol. Survey Professional Paper, Vol 964, pp 1-28.
• Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R.W. and Chipman, J. W. (2004), Remote Sensing
and Image Interpretation, Indian Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New Delhi.

11.8 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) In Fig. 11.2, coal mines show greyish white tone and irregular shapes,
forest cover is recognised by green hues and water bodies by dark blue
tone.
b) In Fig 11.7, white patches of the image show area covered by snow and ice
and blue colour represents the presence of large number of water bodies.
SAQ II
1. Forest, rangeland and wetland are the land cover features.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 8.2.
2. Refer to section 8.3.

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 UNIT 12

GROUND TRUTH DATA COLLECTION

Structure_____________________________________________________
_
12.1 Introduction What to Carry While Going for Data
Collection?
Expected Learning Outcomes
Estimating Cost of Data Collection
12.2 Ground Truth Data
Do’s and Don’ts
Definition
12.4 What to Do Once the Data is Collected?
Need and Purpose of Data Collection
12.5 Activity
12.3 Planning and Collection of Ground Truth
Data 12.6 Summary

What to Collect? 12.7 Terminal Questions

When to Collect? 12.8 References

Where to Collect? 12.9 Further/Suggested Readings

How to Reach to the Ground Truth Sites and 12.10 Answers

Locate Yourself on the Ground?

How to Collect?

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous three units, you have studied the concepts of visual image interpretation and
importance of image interpretation elements and also how to interpret images. You can interpret an
image if you are familiar with the area it represents. Now, imagine a situation when you are not
familiar with the study area then in that case how would you interpret the image of that area? If you
have somehow interpreted the image, how would you ensure that the information derived from that
image is correct and it truly represents the features as they are on the ground? To relate the image
and image derived information with the real features on ground you need to collect some data on
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ground or in situ. Ground data collection helps in building the linkage between the image a
ground reality.

In this unit, you will study about ground truth (field) data, its importance and
planning and different methods of data collection.

Expected Learning
Outcomes________________________________
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
❖ define ground truthing;

❖ discuss importance of ground truth data collection;

❖ explain the methods of sampling;

❖ describe how, when and where to collect ground truth data;

❖ list out the things you need to carry while going for ground truth data
collection; and

❖ point out the things to be remembered during field campaigns.

12.2 GROUND TRUTH DATA

In this section, we would first define ground truth and then discuss about the
need and purpose of collecting ground truth data.

12.2.1 Definition
Ground truth is a term used in a range of remote sensing techniques. It
generally refers to the data collected ‘on site’, on surface of the Earth regarding
characteristics of the Earth surface features. Ground truth data are
complementary to the remote sensing data as it helps to link the image data to
the ground reality.

You should be aware that though the term ‘ground truth’ contains the word
‘truth’, the ground truth data is not always true as it may have errors in it due to
factors such as:

• errors introduced during data collection

• data processing

• deriving inferences from them

The process of ground truth data collection involves collection of information

about the area of study from field survey, analysis of aerial photographs or high
spatial resolution data, personal experience. Ground truth is usually done on
field/site, performing surface observations and measurements of various

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properties of the ground features that are being studied on the remote sensing
images. It also involves taking geographic coordinates of the sampling locations
and comparing them with the coordinates of the image features to understand
and analyse the location errors and its affect on your study and analysis
outputs.

More specifically, ground truthing refers to a process in which a feature on a

remote sensing image is compared to the ground reality in order to verify the
image features. In cases, where there are maps as output of remote sensing
data interpretation and analysis, it allows to help in determining accuracy of the
maps generated by the remote sensing data analysts or image analysis
software. This minimises errors in the computer assisted thematic information
extraction procedures.

The process of collection of ground truth data is known as ground truthing.

Some people also use the terms field work or field survey or ground survey
or surface data collection or reference data collection. Although, the term
‘ground truth’ is more widely used, it is not an appropriate term because data
collection may not be only from ground but also from air, water or ice. Then, in
those cases observations made from air should be called as air truth and
similarly if the observations are made from sea it should be called as sea truth.
Hence, some investigators suggest that the term ground truth may be
abandoned in favour of the term in situ data. Some people prefer to use the
term surface truth. Another suggested term is reference data, which appears to
be more appropriate, however, throughout this unit, the terms ‘ground truth’ or
‘ground truth data’ are used as these are more commonly used terms in
geoinformatics related literature.

12.2.2 Need and Purpose of Data Collection

Collection of ground truth data is an essential part in geoinformatics. Let us now
see what the actual need of the ground truthing is. We would also briefly
discuss about a situation where you may not need to collect any ground truth
data for your study.

As you know different surface features such as water, soil, vegetation, etc. have
their characteristic spectral signatures. Hence, in an ideal remote sensing
world, nature of the Earth surface features should be completely specified by
the spectral signatures. However, in the real world, the complexity of Earth
surface features, effects of atmosphere and indistinctness of spectral
signatures act as limiting factors to remote sensing without ground truth data.
Ground truth data collection is complementary to the synoptic overview
provided by satellites as it helps to link the image data to the context of Earth
surface features existing on the ground. So, ground truth is important for image
interpretation.

Irrespective of the method of interpretation, generally, the ground truth data is

divided into two parts. Ground truth data belonging to the first part is used as a
guide (training sites) for image interpretation and ground truth data belonging to
the second part is used for validating information (accuracy assessment sites)
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derived from image data. When the identity and location of image features of
interest are known through a combination of ground truth data, available maps,
and personal experience, those areas are known as training sites. The
spectral characteristics or signatures of these areas are used to train remote
sensing data processing software for classifying rest of the image using a
decision rule. There are several decision rules about which you would be
studying in detail in Unit13 of MGY-002. Ground truth sites belonging to the
second part are used by analyst to validate maps.

Let us now summaries here the purpose of ground truth data collection. It is
carried out typically for the following purposes:

• to calibrate a remote sensor

• to help in remote sensing data correction

• to provide reliable data to identify each feature of interest present in image

to aid and guide the process of image interpretation/analysis

• to locate representative areas of each image feature in order to generate

their spectral signatures so as to model the spectral behaviour of specific
Earth surface features and

• to assess the accuracy of thematic maps generated and information derived

from images and validate them.

SAQ I
a) List out the purpose of ground truth data collection.

12.3 PLANNING AND COLLECTION OF GROUND

TRUTH DATA
In the previous section, we have discussed that the practice of remote sensing
depends largely upon the use of accurate ground observations. However,
collection of ground data remains one of the least systematised aspects of the
field. The errors may result in inaccurate interpretation of remote sensing data.
Hence, it is critical to carefully plan for ground truthing and collect ground truth
data that best represents the ground reality. You shall study here the process of
ground truth data collection and methods of data collection, which would guide
you to properly plan for ground truth data collection for your study.

The primary objectives of any remote sensing based study include one or more
of the followings:

• to produce a map of surface features of a specific theme

• to validate or evaluate the final product such as maps
• to model spectral response of a surface material and its biophysical
characteristics

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• to develop or test image data processing techniques and

• to calibrate remote sensing sensors with the recorded spectral response of

surface features.

Outcome of ground truthing may vary depending upon the project objectives.
The outcomes may be simply an aerial photograph or high resolution remote
sensing data annotated with current ground cover types or a set of ground truth
data sheets containing information on measurements and observations for each
sample site.

While planning for ground truth data collection due considerations should be
given to the following points:

• project objectives

• nature of features being studied

• data collected should represent all features present in the study area

• data should represent environmental conditions

e
• selection of appropriate sampling strategy and
e
• costs and time of data collection.

12.3.1 What to Collect?

What kind of data should you collect from the ground would depend upon the
project objectives. You should begin by examining project objectives and then
decide upon what kind of data you should collect to fulfill those objectives and
accordingly set objectives of ground measurement. Based on the nature of
observations made and recorded ground truth data can be grouped under
qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative information includes name of the
class, its location, etc. whereas quantitative information require some
measurement to be made on the ground.

Ground truth data includes minimum three elements i.e. attribute, location and
time. Attribute information are the observations which describe ground
conditions at a given ground truthing site. Locational information is helpful in
linking the ground observations to match with corresponding points in images
and observations related to time and date. Data should also have records about
identity(/ies) of the person(s) who were involved in the collection process,
calibration information for instruments, weather conditions and other
components as required in specific projects.

Ground truth data may come from a variety of sources such as field surveys or
measurements, interpretation of very high resolution images or aerial
photographs and library records/reports. It can be categorised into following two
types:

• thematic data and

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• spectral data

Thematic data provides information about distribution of features related to a

specific theme such as water bodies, land use/cover features, crops, landforms,
rock types. Spectral data is not generally available in existing records/reports
and are to be collected from field using some instruments such as radiometer,
goniometer.

According to Campbell (1996), ground truth data can also be grouped under the
following four types:
James B. Campbell (i) Nominal Data
is a Professor in
Geography at
Virginia Tech in • consists of qualitative designations applied to regions delineated on
Blacksburg, USA, imagery that convey basic differences from adjacent regions such as forest,
where he teaches crop land, urban land, river, lake.
remote sensing and
geomorphology. He • nominal labels originate from several alternative sources such as from the
has worked in the
fields of forestry,
classification system is easy to collect at points/small areas and
geology, agronomy
and environmental • timing of field observation should match those of images because physical
sciences. characteristics of some of the classes may vary with time.

(ii) Biophysical Data

• consists of measurements of physical characteristics collected, which

describes the type, size, form and spacing of plants forming vegetative
cover or texture and mineralogy of soil surface

• when associated with nominal data, they document the meaning of nominal
data

• typical data might include leaf area index, biomass, soil texture, soil
moisture, net primary productivity and so on and

• typically apply to points, so must be linked to areas by averaging values

from several observations within an area.

(iii) Field Radiometry

• it is radiometric data collected with the help of hand held sensors, which
permits analyst to relate brightness as recorded by aerial or space based
sensors

• hand held device can be mounted on some platforms to simulate viewing

perspective of airborne or satellite sensors and measurements are
coordinated with time of acquisition of aircraft or satellite data

• hand held device is attached to a notebook computer to record the spectra

• brightness can be recorded as radiance or reflectance and

• it is generally used for sensor calibration purpose.

(iv) Locational Information

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• consists of information regarding locations/position (longitude and latitude),
which is generally collected using GPS

• data can be in point, line or polygon form

• permits attributes gathered in the field to match with imagery of the same
region

• locations of distinctive landmarks, visible both in field and on image, permit

the analyst to match the information and

• accuracy of location is important.

12.3.2 When to Collect?

Ideally, ground truth data should be collected at the time of image acquisition.

Ground truthing should be carried out at previously determined locations for the
features of interest along with other features present in the image so as to truly
represent ground reality at the time of image acquisition. Permanent features
can be observed anytime before or after the time of image acquisition.
However, due care should be given to the fact that ground truthing should be
done before characteristics of the features of interest change. This is more
important in the cases where features of interest are highly dynamic such as
crops and vegetation in the season of their growth, soil moisture, tidal
conditions, etc.

Another question of timing of ground data collection is concerned with whether

to collect ground data before or after the interpretation. If you do not have any
idea about characteristics of ground features you should first collect ground
data and then carry out interpretation task. However, if you have some idea
about spectral characteristics of features of interest then you may like to first
identify and map major classes on the image based on spectral variations in the
image and then carry out ground data collection.

12.3.3 Where to Collect?

Ideally, ground truth data should be collected in the entire study area. However,
this is possible only if the study area is small, accessible and also there are
sufficient resources (time, budget, personnel, etc.) available. However, when
the area of study is very large due to practical reasons such as inaccessibility of
the study area, time and budget constraints, it is not feasible to conduct ground
truthing in the entire study area. Hence, ground truthing is generally carried out
in some selected sites, which are representative of the entire study area.

For convenience, we will discuss this under the following headings:

• number of observations to be made

• considerations while planning sampling patterns and

• types of sampling patterns.

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Number of Observations to be Made

Before you decide where to collect data, you should first decide on the number
of observations to be made. It is fundamental and complex task. You should
keep in mind the following points while determining the number of observations:

• areal extent of the study area

• number of features present in image and their variations

• number of observations required for each category

• number of observations required to have confidence and accuracy of map

products

Considerations While Planning Sampling Patterns

Sampling pattern determines how observations would be arranged on ground. It

governs amount of time that would be required for collecting data and also
accuracy of the output. While planning the sampling strategy, following factors
Sample is a part or should be considered:
piece that is drawn
from and analysed • objectives of the study
to estimate the
characteristics of
the whole. • accessibility of the study area

• nature and characteristics of the features being studied

• time constraint

• number of observations to be made and

• availability of other resources.

Types of Sampling Patterns

Commonly used sampling patterns are the following:

• Simple Random Sampling Pattern: In this pattern, observation sites are

randomly chosen (Fig. 12.1a). Randomness ensures that all parts of the
study area would have an equal chance of being sampled without any
human bias. Observation sites are selected by dividing the study area into a
grid having a number for each row and column. Then any two values are
chosen from a random number table, which forms a coordinate pair for
defining the location of observation. The coordinate pairs are then plotted
on the image which shows the locations where sampling is to be carried out.

• Stratified Random Sampling Pattern: This sampling pattern is same as

purely random sampling pattern except the fact that observation sites are
distributed (i.e. stratified) across all the categories (i.e. strata). Stratification
allows distribution of observation sites to categories in proportion to their
size significance as shown in Fig. 12.1b.

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• Systematic Sampling Pattern: In this strategy, sample points are

distributed at equal intervals according to a specific strategy (Fig. 12.1c)
introducing systematic pattern. This pattern is useful in cases where it is
necessary to represent all the regions within the study area.

• Systematic Stratified Unaligned (non-aligned) Pattern: This sampling

pattern combines features of both stratified and systematic sampling
strategies while preserving an element of randomness. In this strategy, the
study area is divided into uniform cells by means of a grid (Fig. 12.1d).

Fig. 12.1: Different types of sampling patterns employed in ground truth data
collection in remote sensing based studies.

• Clustered Sampling Pattern: In areas where accessibility is a concern or

when there are other practical constraints such as budget limitations to
employ other sampling methods, observations are clustered at nearby
places. Such sampling pattern is known as clustered sampling pattern. In
this pattern, some sites are chosen within the study area and these become
the centres to determine locations of additional observation sites located
nearby (Fig. 12.1e). These additional observation sites are called as
satellite points. Locations of the centre points can be chosen randomly or in
some specific areas. The tendency of similarity in measurements at one
observation site to other sites is described by the term spatial
autocorrelation.

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It is really difficult to say which method is best for ground truth data collection.
Some studies find that random sampling pattern performed best for agriculture,
stratified random sampling best for rangeland whereas systematic and
systematic stratified unaligned pattern performed well for forests. It can be
suggested that any one sampling strategy cannot be used for all types of
landscape. Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages
as given in Table 12.1.

Table 12. 1: Comparison of the five types of sampling patterns.

Sampling Advantages Disadvantages

method

• Probably the most • Sample points may not be uniformly

powerful strategy distributed in the entire study area and
may be clustered at one place
• Minimum human bias
• Points may not be distributed
proportionately across all the categories
Random
sampling • Categories having small areal extent
may be undersampled or may not be
represented at all

• Points may fall at or near the boundaries

of categories, which should be avoided
to use for accuracy assessment purpose

Stratified • All the categories are

random represented as per their
sampling size significance

• Useful when it is • Such a regular orientation of sample

necessary to ensure that sites may introduce bias due to some
all regions within the linearity of patterns in the landscape
study area are
• Selection of the starting point
Systematic represented
predetermines locations of all
sampling
subsequent observations

• Data derived using this strategy does

not meet assumptions of the underlying
statistics used in image analysis

• Assures even distribution • If grid size is small relative to ground

Systematic of sample points in the features and large number of cells are
stratified study area present, element of randomness may be
unaligned lost
sampling • All categories are
represented

• Useful in hard to access • There is no thumb rule regarding the

Clustered terrains distance of sample site from its node
sampling • Allows the analyst to • There may be problem of spatial
make most of accessible autocorrelation leading to false accuracy

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sites of maps

• Data collection time may

be reduced if lower
number of centre points
(nodes) are chosen,
however, many sample
sites may be visited at
each nodal location

SAQ II
a) Name the various types of sampling patterns.

12.3.4 How to Reach to the Ground Truth Sites and

Locate Yourself on the Ground?
The next step is to reach to the sampling sites for ground truthing after you
have determined where to collect data. While planning how to reach ground
truth sites, you should keep in mind the time difference between the date and
time of ground truthing campaign and when available maps were generated.
Then you should look for reliable locational information such as permanent
landmarks before making observations which will help you to identify exact
locations of your ground truth sites and also able to correctly find those
locations on remote sensing data. However, you may find that most of the times
it is difficult to exactly locate those sites on remote sensing data because of
either scale difference or unreliable locational information. GPS receiver
enables you to navigate with confidence to a particular location on the ground,
which is derived from a map or a georeferenced image.

12.3.5 How to Collect?

Once you have located the sampling sites, it is time to make observations. It is
critical to know how to collect data because usefulness and accuracy of your
observations depends on how you collect data. You may find scores of
literature regarding how to collect data but you would find that no single method
can be universally applied for all types of studies. Finding appropriate method
for your project objectives is crucial so that you can accordingly make
observations and take measurements.

You should select a method for measurements which (in your opinion) is not
only appropriate for that kind of study but also acceptable to subject matter
experts and professionals in the area. Whichever method you choose for
making measurements, you should ensure that

• method provides appropriate representative data

• data is in a form which could be understood and interpreted by other team

members

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• method is defensible among the peers and

• data collected and final outcome should be meaningful to end user.

The process of data collection is generally carried out in the following two broad
steps:

• selecting appropriate approach and making measurements and

• noting observations and recording measurements.

Let us now discuss more about the two steps one by one.

Selecting Appropriate Approach and Making Measurements

After locating yourself on ground truth site, you should now make observations
selecting an appropriate method. You have studied in subsection 9.3.2 that type
of data collected can be categorised into qualitative and quantitative data.
Acquiring qualitative data is comparatively easier as you just need to observe
and identify features on ground and relate it with the remote sensing data.
Collection of quantitative data is comparatively difficult and more time
consuming. For collecting quantitative data particularly for ecological
applications, quadrats are extensively used. Quadrats are plots of a fixed size
in which number and composition of features, their size and shape are
measured. The plots are usually square or circular in shape. In quadrat
sampling, size of the quadrats is a critical consideration. You should determine
size of the quadrats based on the size of the objects being measured.

The quadrats are designed for estimating density of objects, i.e. number of
objects per unit area and their composition. Using quadrats enables to carry out
more intensive measurements only over smaller spatial extents and quadrats
can also be made permanent so that you can revisit the location. However,
fixed quadrats approach has some limitations.

In some cases, different type of sampling strategy is followed such as line

transact, belt transact, etc. which are considered as more practical, efficient and
relatively inexpensive for many biological populations. In line transact approach,
a line is marked on the ground along a tape or rope and observations about
different features crossing line are recorded at either even interval or at
irregular interval as in Figs. 9.2a and 9.2b. In belt transact method,
observations are recorded for a narrow strip of land as shown in Fig. 9.2c.

(a) (b) (c)

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Fig. 12.2: Different types of transact employed for sampling and recording
observation: a) shows an evenly distributed line intercept transact; b) an
unevenly distributed line intercept transact; and c) a belt transact.

From Fig. 12.3, you can make out that it is comparatively easy to make
measurements on land than coastal areas or underwater. On land, one has to
locate and reach predetermined positions on ground and make measurements
whereas in the coastal area one has to reach predetermined locations based on
tidal conditions. For making underwater measurements one has to reach the
sampling sites by a boat or ship and then make measurements either from
water surface or at the sea floor.

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
Fig. 12.3: Noting observation and recording measurements: a) on land; b) in
shallow intertidal region; c) in coastal waters; and d) a typical underwater
survey wherein an observer moves along a transact and records
information.

Noting Observations and Recording Measurements

Observations made in the field must be recorded in a manner that others can
interpret them without difficulty especially, if the image analyst is not the same
person who took observations. It is important to note that all the information
recorded is to the point and in clear language and nothing should be left for
data analyst’s imagination. Apart from information about the features of interest,
environmental parameters that could affect features of interest should also be
recorded. Another important point is to measure the spectral response of
features under different environmental conditions. Further, you should also
ensure that data recorded are suitable for future references too.
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Recording of the above mentioned information at multiple locations requires a

systematic approach. And for the purpose, it is useful to prepare a form for the
purpose. These forms are known as ground truth data collection sheet or field
forms. Ground truth data sheets or field forms may vary for projects having
different objectives. However, this is a great aid to field personals to maintain
uniformity and consistency for multiple observations. When you design and
prepare a ground truth data sheet for your project, you should remember that it
covers all the items which are required to be collected on ground to meet
project objectives.

You will get an idea on how to prepare a field form (ground truth data sheet) for
your own project objectives from the three samples of field forms given in Figs.
12.4 to 12.6.

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Fig. 12.4: Performa for ground truth data collection for mapping land use/land
cover features.

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Fig. 12.5: Performa for ground truth data collection for biodiversity or forest
related studies.

What to Do if You Do Not Have Sufficient Number of Observations?

What should you do if your observations are either incomplete or you are not
able to go to the field. In such case, you may need to take help of other
resources available. For this purpose, available thematic maps, topographic
maps, aerial photographs and even online resources can be used for collecting
information about the features of interest, though, these maps can never
replace the need for ground truthing. However, in the absence of sufficient
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ground truthing data, internet resources such as ISRO’s Bhuvan or Google

Earth could prove as a good source of information for validating your outputs
particularly when your project involves use of medium scale remote sensing
data. There are some other websites which can be used to extract information
that can be used as a field validation data. Some of them are given below:

• http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan
• www.wikimapia.org
• http://maps.google.com

• www.mapslive.com
• http://glovis.usgs.gov

• www.itouchmap.com

• www.terraserver.com/view.asp?tid2.

Fig. 12.6: Performa for ground truth data collection for recording field radiometer
related observations.
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SAQ III
a) List the broad steps of data collection process.

12.3.6 What to Carry While Going for Data Collection

It is difficult to give here an exhaustive list of all things to carry while going to
ground because they would vary depending upon project objectives. However,
an indicative list of requirement is given below:

1. Baseline maps

2. Georeferenced images

3. Interpreted outputs/maps

4. Map cases

5. Letter of permission/approval to visit the study area

6. Stickers and flags for labelling samples

7. Ground truth data sheets and forms

8. Field spectrometer with required accessories

9. GPS and camera with extra batteries/charger

10. Other instruments for measuring distance, elevation, as required

11. Measurement tape, compass and scale

12. Sample bags and/or bottles

13. Field notebooks, pens, pencils, markers, sharpeners and erasers

Further, you may need to carry hand lenses, secchi disk, soil testing kit,
Munsell colour charts, camping items, underwater housing/casings items, etc.
depending upon project objectives.

12.3.7 Estimating Cost of Data Collection

Collection of ground truth data is an expensive task. Costs associated with all
components related to ground truthing is vital and you should estimate them in
advance to ensure that appropriate budget is available. Costs associated with
ground truthing components can be categorised into fixed cost and variable
cost.

You can define fixed costs as costs which are independent of the types of
images used, duration of survey, sampling strategy, number and distribution of
sampling sites. It includes costs of the following:
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• Generation/purchase of base map

• field equipments and instruments

• computing equipments and storage devices

• image processing software

• printing device and related consumables

You can define variable costs as costs which would vary with the types of
images used, duration of ground truthing, sampling strategy, number and
distribution of sampling sites. It includes costs of the following:

• hiring cost of manpower and transport

• areal extent and accessibility of the study area

• sampling method employed

• level of data required

12.3.8 Do’s and Don’ts

Field work is not an easy job and you may face problems during data collection.
In order to avoid such problems you must consider certain do’s and don’ts
along with safety concerns listed below:

• do not alter the notes already written on your field notebooks once you are
out of the field. Carry with you all the approvals to visit the study area

• if permission for access to certain locations cannot be obtained, other

locations analogous to those locations need to be considered

• behave politely with local people you meet during your field work sessions.
You may not be allowed to enter into a specific area if these people find
your behaviour suspicious

• carry your identity proof with you and first aid box

• make note of weather predictions so that you would be prepared for what to
expect

• never work alone particularly in an unknown terrain. Always work in groups

• wear appropriate clothing as per the weather conditions. Clothes should be

preferably of yellow, orange or red colours. These colours could be easily
seen from a distance so that you could be traced and located if you get into
any trouble

• for field work in desert, coastal, and in high rainfall areas you need to be
prepared accordingly such as with extra water, glucose tablets, snacks,
antibiotics, anti venoms, and precaution for mosquitoes, humidity and so on

• follow the instructions of your instructor or team leader

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The points mentioned above give you an idea about the problems one may face
during ground truthing.

12.4 WHAT TO DO ONCE THE DATA IS

COLLECTED?
After ground truth data has been collected you plot the locations of sampling
sites recorded by GPS on remote sensing images of the study area using
software. You should note that there could be shifts in the locations of ground
truth sites and the image either due to inaccuracies in the GPS derived
coordinates or due to error in georeferencing of the image being used. The shift
may vary from one GPS model to others depending upon its accuracy. After
plotting the locations, the simplest task is to use ground truth information for
those pixels to label them in classes. If ground data consists of spectral data
then you can make a comparison of spectral signatures collected from ground
and signatures derived from remote sensing data. The spectral signature can
be used as an input for developing models.

Another important task is accuracy assessment using ground truth data.

Though you would be studying about accuracy assessment in Unit13 of MGY-
002, it would be appropriate to know here how ground truth data is used for
accuracy assessment. If ground truthing is carried out only once during the
entire duration of the project then ground truth data collected is divided into two
parts, one part is used as an aid for image interpretation and second part is
used to assess accuracy of maps generated. However, if ground truthing is
carried out at least twice during the entire duration of the project then the entire
ground truth data collected for the first time is used as an aid for image
interpretation and then another ground truthing is carried out to assess the
accuracy of maps generated.

12.5 ACTIVITY
You have read about ground truthing, types of data and also how to collect
ground truth data.

First, you can visit a website offering freely downloadable remote sensing
images of your area. You can also use images from Google Earth, wikimapia or
other such websites. Now choose an area of image, which you want to take up
for ground truthing and then take a print out of that small part of the image. Now
you can try to identify key features from the image and trace the boundaries of
those features on a tracing sheet. Label names of all features you have
identified and traced (mapped) and also put coordinates of map. After
interpreting, you visit area the image belongs to and also carry with you the
image, traced sheet (map), a notebook and a pen/pencil. First of all, you need
to locate yourself on ground with the help of coordinates marked in the map and
then compare features you have mapped and relate it with feature as seen on
the ground. Write information such as ground truth site number, locational
information, what you observe on the ground, and what that feature mapped
has been labelled as in your notebook. Make such observations at 5-6 locations
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and note all relevant information. After completing task, compare map and
related image features with information collected on ground. You can modify
labels and boundaries of features on maps based on ground truth data.

12.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what you have studied in this unit:

• Ground truth data refers to the data collected on surface of the Earth. It is
complementary to the remote sensing data. It helps to link image data to
ground reality.

• Ground truth data includes (i) attributes or measurements describing ground

conditions (ii) observations must be linked to locations and (iii) observations
must also be described to time and date.

• Ground truth data can be grouped as nominal, biophysical, field radiometric

and locational information data.

• Ground truth data collection should be planned based on project objectives,

nature of features being studied and their geographic distribution and
available budget.

• Timing of ground truth data collection depends upon nature of features

being studied, environmental conditions and the stage of interpretation.

• Choosing a sampling pattern depends upon objectives and accessibility of

the area, nature and characteristics of the features being studied, etc.

12.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is ground truth data? List out its essential elements.

2. What is sampling pattern? How would you decide to choose a particular

sampling pattern?

3. How would you locate yourself on the ground?

4. What are the things one should carry while going for data collection?

5. How would you estimate cost of ground truth data collection?

12.8 REFERENCES
• Campbell, J. B. (1996), Introduction to Remote Sensing, The Guilford Press,
New York.

12.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Campbell, J. B. (1996), Introduction to Remote Sensing, The Guilford Press,
New York.
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• McCoy, R.M. (2005), Field Methods in Remote Sensing, The Guilford Press,
New York.

12.10 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) There are two main purposes of ground truth data collection, firstly, it is
used as guide for image interpretation and secondly, it is used to validate
information derived from image data.

SAQ II
a) Types of sampling patterns are simple random, stratified random,
systematic, systematic stratified unaligned and clustered sampling patterns.

SAQ III
a) Broad steps of data collection process are (i) selecting appropriate
approach and making measurements and (ii) noting observations and
recording measurements.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 12.2.

2. Refer to subsection 12.3.3.

3. Refer to subsection 12.3.4.

4. Refer to subsection 12.3.6.

5. Refer to subsection 12.3.7.

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 GLOSSARY
Ancillary data : It include any type of data/information (spatial and non-spatial)
that may be of value in the image classification process (i.e.
pre, post and during classification). It comprises any type of
information likes slope, height, aspect, geology, soils,
hydrology, transportation networks, political boundaries,
vegetation maps and so on.
Bhuvan : It is the Indian Google Earth launched by ISRO in its own
version. Bhuvan is based on the images taken by IRS
satellites and it can be downloadable from Indian Earth
observation visualisation.
Bit : It is the lowest level of electronic value in a digital image. It
defines a pixel’s colour value in combination with other bits.
Each bit can have one of two values either 1 or 0.
Brightness : It is the amount of light received by the eye regardless of
colour. The brightness of a colour identifies how light or dark
the colour is. Any colour whose brightness is zero is black,
regardless of its hue or saturation.
Colour : It is a colour image prepared by combining individual band
composite images in which each band (up to a maximum of 3) is
assigned one of the three additive primary colours such as
blue, green and red.
Contrast : Improving the contrast of images by digital processing. The
stretching original range of digital values is expanded to utilise the full
contrast range of the recording film or display device.
Colour space : The parts of the spectrum used to describe an image. Colour
spaces vary in their scope according to the range of colours
involved.
False colour : These are artificially generated colour images in which blue,
composites green and red colours are assigned to the wavelength regions
to which they do not belong.
GPS (Global : It is a satellite based location system that gives accurate
Positioning position (latitude, longitude and height) and navigational
System) information. At present there are 24 GPS satellites.
Gray scale : A calibrated sequence of gray tones ranging from black to
white.
Ground truthing : The process of collection of ground truth data that helps to link
the image data to the ground reality in order to verify the
image features.

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Image reading : It is an elemental form of image interpretation and
corresponds to simple identification of objects using such
image interpretation elements as shape, size, etc.
Image : Represents the extraction of physical quantities such as
measurement length, location, height, density, temperature and so on by
using reference data or calibration data deductively or
inductively.
Image analysis : Understanding of the relationship between interpreted
information and the actual status or phenomenon, and to
evaluate the situation.
Interpretation : Criteria for identification of an object with elements of
key interpretation.
Land cover : Physical material present on the surface e.g., forest.

Landforms : Natural features of a land surface e.g., mountains, plateaus,

plains, etc.
Landsat : Comprises a series of unmanned Earth-observing satellites
jointly managed by NASA and U.S. Geological Survey
(formerly called Earth Resources Technology Satellite –
ERTS).
Land use : Description of the way that humans are utilising any particular
piece of land for one or many purposes, e.g., for agriculture,
industry, or residence.
Light : EMR within 400-700 nm in wavelength that is detectable by
the human eye.
Location : A specific position in the physical space.

NIR (Near : A subdivision in the infrared band somewhere between the

infrared) 800 nm and 2,500 nm wavelengths.
Noise : Random or repetitive events that obscure or interfere with the
desired information.
Picture element : It is the smallest element in a digital image. In a digitised
image this is the area on the ground represented by each
digital value. Because the analogue signal from the detector of
a scanner may be sampled at any desired interval, the picture
element may be smaller than the ground resolution cell of the
detector. It is commonly abbreviated as pixel.
Scale : Ratio of the distance on an image to the equivalent distance
on the ground.
Thematic map : The extracted information that will be finally represented in a
map form.

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True colour : It looks like a natural color composite image in which spectral
composite bands are combined in such a way that the appearance of the
displayed image resembles a visible color photograph.
Stereoscopy : Science of viewing a pair of stereoscopic photographs or
images by looking at the left image with the left eye and the
right image with the right eye.
Aerial camera : A precision camera specifically designed for use in aircrafts.

Aerial : Photograph taken from an airborne platform using a precision

photograph camera.
Densitometry : Science of making accurate measurement of film density.

Densitometer : An instrument that measure image density by directing a light

of known brightness through a small portion of the image, then
measuring its brightness as altered by the film.
Height finder : An instrument designed for use with a stereoscope. It permits
estimation of topographic elevation or of the heights of
features from stereoaerial photographs.

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