FIRST EDITION

Lecture
[Early Release]
Notes

Introduction to
Introduction to

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Information Systems
Computer Science

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Prof.Prof.
Manal Abdel-Kader
Manal Abdel-Fattah
A. Abdel-Fattah Youssif
Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence - Helwan University
Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence
2023
Helwan University
 Introduction to

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Information Systems

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1St Edition [Early Release]
By: Prof. Manal Abdel-Kader Abdel-Fattah

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Information Systems Department,
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Faculty of Computer and Artificial Intelligence
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Helwan University
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‫ ﺟﮭﺎز ﻧﺷر وﺗوزﯾﻊ اﻟﻛﺗﺎب اﻟﺟﺎﻣﻌﻲ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺣﻠوان‬:‫اﻟﻧﺎﺷر‬

‫ﺣﻘوق اﻟﻧﺷر اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﻣﺣﻔوظﺔ ﻟﻠﺟﮭﺎز‬
‫ﺣﻘوق اﻟﺗﺄﻟﯾف ﻣﺣﻔوظﺔ ﻟﻠﻣؤﻟف‬

September 2023
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Table of Contents
Page No.
1 Introduction to Information Systems 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Why Should We Study Information Systems? 3

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1.2.1 Exploring Career Opportunities in 5
Information Technology
1.3 Essential Concepts 6

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1.3.1 Data, Information, and Knowledge 7
1.3.2 The Value of Information 8
1.3.3 Characteristics of Quality Information 9

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1.3.4 The importance of Information systems in 10
business.
1.4 The Components of Information Systems 13
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1.4.1 Information System Resources 18
1.4.2 Information System Activities 23
2 Computer Hardware 26
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2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Hardware Components 28
2.3 Processing and Memory Devices: Power, 30
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Speed, and Capacity

2.3.1 Characteristics and Functions of Processing 30
2.3.2 Characteristics and Functions of Memory 31
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2.3.3 Multiprocessing 32
2.4 Moore’s Law 34
2.5 Secondary Storage, Input and Output Devices 37
2.5.1 Secondary Storage Devices 38
2.5.2 Input Devices 43
2.5.3 Output Devices 48
3 Computer Software 51
3.1 Application Software: End-User Applications 52
3.2 System Software: Computer System 70
Management
3.3.1 Operating Systems 71
3.3.2 Programming Languages 76
3.3.3 Web Languages and Services 81
3.3.4 Programming Software 85
4 Data Management 87
4.1 Introduction 88

Table of Contents
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4.2 Overview of Data Management 90

4.2.1 The Hierarchy of Data 90
4.2.2 Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys 92
4.3 Data Modeling 95
4.4 The Relational Database Model 97
4.5 Big Data 102
4.5.1 Defining Big Data 103

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4.5.2 Characteristics of Big Data 105
4.5.3 Big Data sources 107
4.6 Database Management Systems 109

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4.6.1 Creating and Modifying the Database 112
4.6.2 Storing and Retrieving Data 115
4.6.3 Manipulating Data and Generating Reports 116

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4.6.4 Popular Database Management Systems 120
4.7 Database Applications 121
4.7.1 Linking the Company Database to the 122
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Internet
4.7.2 Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and Data 123
Mining
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4.7.2.1 Data Warehouses 123

4.7.2.2 Data Marts 125
4.7.2.3 Data Mining 126
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4.7.3 Business Intelligence 128

4.7.4 Distributed Databases 129
4.7.5 Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) 131
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4.7.6 Object-Relational Database Management 132

Systems
4.7.7 Visual, Audio, and Other Database Systems 134
5 Developing Business Solutions 136
5.1 Developing Business Systems 137
5.1.1 Systems Approach 137
5.1.2 System Thinking 138
5.2 Systems Development Life Cycle 140
5.2.1 Investigation Phase 142
5.2.2 Systems Analysis Phase 147
5.2.3 Systems Design Phase 149
5.2.4 End-User Development 153
References 156

Table of Contents
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Chapter 1

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Introduction to

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Information Systems
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Chapter 1 – Introduction to Information Systems

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Chapter 1 – Introduction to Information Systems

1.1 Introduction
The question regarding the necessity of studying information systems and
information technology has evolved into a moot point. The use of information

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systems has become as vital to daily business operations as accounting, finance,
operations management, marketing, and human resource management. In fact,

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information systems and technologies are now essential components for the
success of businesses and organizations, some even argue that they are
fundamental prerequisites.

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Consequently, they form an essential area of study within the realm of business
administration and management, which is why most business majors
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incorporate a course in information systems. Given your probable career

aspirations as a manager, entrepreneur, or business professional, having a
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fundamental grasp of information systems is as crucial as understanding any

other functional aspect of business.
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Information technologies, including Internet-based information systems, are

assuming pivotal and expanding roles in the business landscape. Information
technology has the capacity to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of
various business processes, managerial decision-making, and collaborative
efforts among workgroups. This enhancement fortifies the competitive stance
of businesses in swiftly evolving markets, irrespective of whether the
information technology supports product development teams, customer support
procedures, e-commerce transactions, or any other facet of business operations.
In essence, information technologies and systems are unequivocally
indispensable ingredients for achieving business success in today's dynamic
global environment.

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In order to grasp the functioning of information systems and their role, it is

imperative that we establish a clear understanding of the concept of a system.
At its core, a system constitutes a collection of interconnected components,
delineated by distinct boundaries, collaborating towards the attainment of shared
objectives. Employing this definition, it becomes evident that virtually every

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conceivable entity can be considered a system, and a single system can either
comprise other systems or exist within a larger system. We will delve further

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into this notion in the upcoming section. For the time being, this definition
serves as a sturdy foundation for comprehending the central theme of this

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textbook: information systems.
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1.2 Why Should We Study Information Systems?
You belong to the most interconnected generation in history. Growing up in the
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digital age, you are constantly connected and have an unparalleled familiarity
with information technologies. The MIT Technology Review even coined the
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term "Homo conexus" to describe your generation. Information technologies

have become an integral part of your daily life, to the extent that someone from
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just two decades ago would find your routines almost unrecognizable.

In essence, you practice continuous computing, constantly surrounded by a

dynamic information network. This network forms through seamless
cooperation between the digital devices you carry (such as laptops, media
players, and smartphones), the wired and wireless networks you access as you
move about, and web-based tools for discovering information and
communicating and collaborating with others. This network empowers you to
retrieve information on virtually anything from anywhere at any time and share
your own ideas with the web, using mobile devices as your conduit.

Consider everything you do online, often through your smartphone: registering

for classes, taking courses beyond your university, accessing class materials,

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Information Systems

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researching papers, conducting banking transactions, managing bills, shopping

for products, selling items, job hunting, making travel reservations, creating and
updating your blog, producing and sharing podcasts and videocasts, designing
your Facebook page, producing and uploading videos on YouTube, capturing,
editing, and printing digital photographs, creating personalized music CDs and

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DVDs, curating your personal electronic newspaper using RSS feeds, texting
and tweeting to stay connected with friends and family throughout the day, and

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engaging in numerous other activities.

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Now, why should you invest time in learning about information systems and
information technologies? After all, you can efficiently use computers and
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electronic devices for various tasks, have been exploring the web for years, and
feel confident in your ability to handle any IT application your organization's
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MIS department deploys.

The answer lies in becoming an informed user—someone who possesses

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knowledge about information systems and information technology. There are

several compelling reasons for you to become an informed user:
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1. Informed users typically derive more value from the technologies they
employ. Understanding what lies behind the applications you use
enhances your experience.
2. You can contribute to improving the quality of your organization's IT
applications with your insights.
3. Even as a recent graduate, you can have a say in recommending and
possibly selecting the IT applications your organization adopts.
4. Staying informed makes you aware of new information technologies and
rapid advancements in existing ones. This knowledge allows you to
anticipate the impacts of these technologies on your organization and
provide recommendations on their adoption and utilization.

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5. You gain insights into how IT can enhance your organization's

performance, teamwork, and your own productivity.
6. If you aspire to be an entrepreneur, being an informed user equips you
with the skills to leverage IT when starting your own business.

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Furthermore, the management of the IS function within an organization is no
longer solely the responsibility of the IS department. Users now play pivotal

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roles at every stage of this process. The overarching objective of this text is to
furnish you with the essential knowledge required to immediately contribute to

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managing the IS function within your organization. In short, the aim is to
transform you into an exceptionally informed user!
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1.2.1 Exploring Career Opportunities in Information Technology
The field of information technology (IT) presents a wide array of career
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prospects due to its integral role in the modern business landscape. There is a
substantial demand for conventional IT professionals, including programmers,
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business analysts, systems analysts, and designers. Moreover, lucrative

employment opportunities abound in emerging domains like the Internet,
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electronic commerce (e-commerce), mobile commerce (m-commerce), network

security, telecommunications, and multimedia design.

The realm of information systems encompasses individuals within diverse

organizations who are involved in the creation and management of information
systems, as well as those who utilize these systems. At the helm of this domain
stands The CIO is responsible for overseeing the information systems function
and closely collaborating with the CEO and CFO in modern organizations., and
other senior executives, actively contributing to strategic planning. In the digital
age, the IS function has gained increasing strategic significance within
organizations. Consequently, while most CIOs traditionally rose through the IS
department, a growing number now ascend through the ranks in various business

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units, such as marketing and finance. This means that, regardless of your
academic background, you possess the potential to become the CIO of your
organization someday. This serves as yet another incentive to become a well-
informed user of information systems!". Table 1.1 provides a list of IT jobs,
along with a description of each one.

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Table 1.1: Information Technology Jobs

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1.3 Essential Concepts

To excel as a manager in any business domain, it's crucial to grasp the
significance of information as one of an organization's most invaluable assets.
It's important to distinguish information from data, as well as understand how

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knowledge differs from both data and information. Let's delve into these
concepts:

1.3.1 Data, Information, and Knowledge

Data constitutes the fundamental raw facts, such as an employee's identification

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number, the total weekly hours worked, an inventory part's serial number, or the
number of units manufactured on a production line. Table 1.2 illustrates various

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types of data that can encompass these facts. On the other hand, information
represents an assemblage of data that has been systematically organized and

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processed, thereby imbuing it with added value beyond the individual data
points. For instance, a sales manager might require a summary of individual
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sales data to determine the total monthly sales. Offering information to
customers can also boost a company's revenues and profits. For example, the
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social shopping website Kaboodle facilitates electronic interaction between

shoppers and sellers, enabling them to exchange information and offer
recommendations while shopping online. This open exchange of information
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drives sales and ensures that shoppers discover better deals.

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Table 1.2: Types of data

To further elucidate the distinction between data and information, envision data
as the separate items on a grocery list—items like crackers, bread, soup, cereal,
coffee, dishwashing soap, and so forth. However, this grocery list becomes
significantly more valuable when its items are systematically arranged by the
aisle in which they are found in the store, such as bread and cereal in aisle 1,
crackers and soup in aisle 2, and so on. Similarly, data and information share

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this characteristic. By establishing rules and relationships, data can be organized

to become valuable, useful information.

The worth of the information generated hinges on the relationships delineated

among the existing data. For instance, you can add specific identifiers to the

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items on the grocery list to ensure that the shopper selects the correct item—
whole wheat bread and Kathi cereal in aisle 1, saltine crackers and chicken

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noodle soup in aisle 2, and so forth. This process enhances the utility of the
grocery list.

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The conversion of data into information constitutes a process, a sequence of
logically connected tasks designed to achieve a predefined outcome. To produce
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meaningful information by establishing relationships among data, one needs
knowledge. Knowledge refers to deep awareness and comprehension of a
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particular set of information and the ways in which that information can be
utilized to support a specific task or make informed decisions. In essence,
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information can be seen as data rendered more valuable through the application
of knowledge. For example, many brands and varieties of most items on a
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typical grocery list exist. To shop effectively, the grocery shopper must possess
an understanding of the preferences and requirements of those being shopped
for, enabling them to select one can of Campbell's (not the store brand!) low-
sodium chicken noodle soup for the diabetic family member, along with two
cans of Campbell's regular chicken noodle soup for everyone else. In certain
instances, individuals mentally or manually organize and process data, while in
others, they rely on computer systems.

1.3.2 The Value of Information

"The significance of information is directly tied to its ability to assist decision-
makers in accomplishing their organization's objectives. Valuable information
enhances people's efficiency and effectiveness in performing tasks. Many

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businesses assume that their reports are founded on accurate, high-quality

information; however, this assumption is not always valid. For instance,
Experian, a global information services firm specializing in credit services,
marketing services, decision analytics, and consumer services, estimates that,
on average, 22 percent of an organization's customer contact data is incorrect.

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This can lead to companies squandering over $100 for each inaccurate customer
contact record due to marketing materials being sent to incorrect addresses and

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the inability to effectively track leads. To illustrate, an organization with
100,000 customers and a 22 percent error rate can anticipate a loss of $2.2

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million.
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1.3.3 Characteristics of Quality Information
The quality of a decision is fundamentally dependent on the quality of the
information utilized to arrive at that decision. Any organization that emphasizes
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the deployment of advanced information systems and sophisticated data analysis

without ensuring information quality is bound to make numerous erroneous
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decisions. Table 1.3 enumerates the factors that determine information quality.
The significance of each of these attributes varies according to the context and
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the type of decision being made. For example, in the case of market intelligence
data, a degree of inaccuracy and incompleteness may be acceptable, but
timeliness is paramount. Market intelligence data might provide a heads-up that
a competitor is planning a significant price reduction. While the exact details
and timing of the price reduction may be less critical, being forewarned early
enough to strategize a response is crucial. Conversely, precision and
completeness are indispensable for data employed in financial accounting and
asset management, such as cash, inventory, and equipment.

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Table 1.3: Characteristics of quality information

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1.3.4 The importance of Information systems in business.

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An information system (IS) refers to the structured combination of individuals,

hardware, software, communication networks, data resources, and established
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policies and procedures used within an organization to store, retrieve, transform,

and distribute information. In today's world, people rely on modern information
systems for communication, using various physical devices (hardware),
information processing instructions and procedures (software), communication
pathways (networks), and stored data (data resources). Despite the common
association of information systems with computers, their use has been a vital
part of human society since ancient times. Even now, we frequently utilize
information systems that have no relation to computers. For example, consider
the following instances of information systems:
¥ Doctors utilize cloud computing and other web-based platforms to
enhance patient care and decrease expenses as shown in Figure 1.1.

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Information Systems

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Figure 1.1: Doctors use information systems to enhance patient care

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In libraries, card catalogs are structured to organize data about books,
making it easy for readers to find a specific book by searching for its title,
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author, subject, or other criteria.
Your backpack, daily planner, notebooks, and file folders work together
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as an information system to help you organize the information you receive

from handouts, lectures, presentations, and discussions. They also assist
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in processing this information to generate positive outcomes, such as

completing homework assignments and achieving good exam results.
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¥ The Information Systems department, managed by the CIO, includes

personnel responsible for running, programming, and maintaining
computer-based information systems, as depicted in figure 1.2

Figure 1.2: CIO uses information systems to manage his job

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¥ Similarly, the cash register at your preferred fast-food establishment is an

integral component of a comprehensive information system. It tracks
various aspects, including products sold, sales timestamps, inventory
levels, and cash drawer contents. Furthermore, it contributes to the
analysis of product sales across different locations worldwide.

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¥ Before computer-based accounting systems, businesses used paper-based
accounting ledgers as an information system. This system was used for

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centuries to record daily transactions and keep track of balances in
different business and customer accounts.

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Figure 1.3 provides a valuable conceptual framework that structures the
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information presented in this text and delineates the areas of knowledge required
for a comprehensive understanding of information systems. It underscores the
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importance of focusing your efforts on the following five domains of

information systems knowledge:
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Figure 1.3: A framework that outlines the major areas of information systems knowledge
needed by business professionals

¥ The Foundation Concepts cover essential behavior, technical, business,

and managerial principles relating to the components and functions of

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information systems. These may include fundamental information system

principles based on general systems theory, as well as competitive
strategy concepts used to develop business applications of information
technology to gain a competitive edge.
¥ Information technology encompasses hardware, software, networks,

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data management, and internet-based technologies. It involves key
concepts, advancements, and management considerations.

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¥ Business applications focus on the primary use of information systems
in business operations, management, and competitive positioning.

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¥ Development processes involve planning, creating, and implementing
information systems to capitalize on business opportunities.
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¥ This domain deals with the challenges of managing information
technology effectively and ethically at various levels within an
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organization, including end-users, the organization itself, and global

business operations.
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1.4 The Components of Information Systems

We have already used the term 'system' well over a hundred times, and we'll
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continue to employ it extensively in the future. Therefore, it's prudent for us to

direct our attention towards precisely defining what constitutes a system. As we
outlined in the opening of this chapter, a system can be described as a collection
of interconnected components, possessing a clearly delineated boundary,
working in harmony to attain shared objectives by receiving inputs and
producing outputs through an orderly transformation process. Systems,
fundamentally, serve three core functions:
¥ Input: This function entails the capture and organization of elements
entering the system for processing. These elements encompass raw
materials, energy, data, and human effort, all of which must be gathered
and arranged for subsequent processing.

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¥ Processing: The processing function involves the transformation

processes that convert inputs into outputs. These processes can take the
form of manufacturing procedures, the physiological act of human
respiration, or mathematical computations.
¥ Output: The output function ensures that finished products, human

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services, and management information reach their intended recipients.

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Let’s take a look at a manufacturing system as an example. It takes raw materials
and turns them into finished goods. An information system, on the other hand,

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works differently. It takes in data as input and transforms it into useful
information as output. Meanwhile, a business organization represents a system
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wherein human and economic resources undergo transformation through
various business processes, resulting in the production of goods and services.
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The system concept gains enhanced utility when it incorporates two additional
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components: feedback and control. A system that integrates feedback and

control functionalities is sometimes referred to as a cybernetic system,
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signifying its capacity for self-monitoring and self-regulation.

• Feedback pertains to information concerning a system's performance. For

instance, data regarding sales performance serves as feedback for a sales
manager, while information about an aircraft's speed, altitude, attitude, and
direction functions as feedback for the aircraft's pilot or autopilot.
• Control encompasses the processes of monitoring and assessing feedback
to ascertain whether a system is progressing toward its intended goal.
Subsequently, the control function initiates necessary adjustments to a
system's input and processing components to ensure the generation of
accurate output. As an illustration, a sales manager exercises control by
reallocating sales personnel to new sales territories after evaluating

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feedback on their sales performance. Similarly, an airline pilot or the

aircraft's autopilot makes minor adjustments after evaluating feedback
from the instruments to maintain precise positioning according to the pilot's
desired course.

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In Figure 1.4, a business organization is employed as an illustrative example to
depict the fundamental elements of a system, alongside various other

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characteristics of systems. It's crucial to recognize that systems do not operate
in isolation but instead function within an environment that encompasses other

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systems. When a system serves as a constituent part of a larger system, it
assumes the role of a subsystem, with the larger system representing its
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environment.
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Figure 1.4: Information system components

Multiple systems can coexist within the same environment, and some of these
systems may be interconnected via shared boundaries, often referred to as

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interfaces. Figure 1.4 also introduces the notion of an open system, one that
engages in interactions with other systems in its environment. In the diagram,
this system engages in the exchange of inputs and outputs with its surroundings,
establishing connections through input and output interfaces. Consequently, we
can describe it as linked to its environment through these interfaces.

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Many organizations have multiple subsystems, including departments,

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divisions, process teams, and other workgroups. These organizations act as open
systems as they interact and interface with other systems in their environment.

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They also show adaptability by being able to modify themselves to meet the
changing demands of their surroundings.
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When we employ our comprehension of general system principles in the context
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of information systems, it becomes evident that there are striking parallels.

Information systems are composed of interconnected elements, encompassing
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individuals, hardware, software, peripherals, and networks. These systems

exhibit well-defined boundaries that revolve around functions, modules,
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application types, departments, or end-user groups.

The various interconnected elements within information systems collaborate

harmoniously to achieve a shared objective. They do so by receiving inputs and
orchestrating a structured transformation process to generate outputs. This
process involves activities such as utilizing raw materials, recruiting personnel,
manufacturing products for sale, and disseminating information to others.
Information systems rely extensively on feedback mechanisms and control
measures to enhance their efficiency, employing error messages, dialog boxes,
passwords, and user rights management.

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Numerous information systems are created to adjust and develop based on their
environment. They achieve this adaptability by utilizing intelligent software
agents, expert systems, and highly specialized decision support systems.
Essentially, information systems follow the principles of systems theory, much
like any other system. Nevertheless, their importance within modern

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organizations surpasses that of any other system ever created.

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We have already defined that an information system is a structure that takes in
data resources as input and generates information products as output. The

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question now is how this process is carried out and what components and
activities are involved. Figure 1.5 illustrates a model of an information system
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that provides a basic conceptual framework., outlining the primary components
and activities within information systems
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Figure 1.5: Information system model

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An information system relies on a variety of resources, including individuals

(end users and IS specialists), hardware (machines and media), software
(programs and procedures), data (data and knowledge bases), and networks
(communications media and network support). These resources collectively
facilitate input, processing, output, storage, and control activities, resulting in

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the transformation of data resources into information products.

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This information system model accentuates the interconnections among the
components and activities of information systems. Furthermore, it furnishes a

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framework that underscores four key concepts that are universally applicable
across all types of information systems:
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1. People, hardware, software, data, and networks constitute the five
foundational resources of information systems.
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2. People resources encompass both end users and IS specialists, hardware

resources encompass machinery and media, software resources
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encompass both programs and procedures, data resources comprise data

and knowledge bases, and network resources encompass communication
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media and network infrastructure."

3. Information products for end users are generated through the
transformation of data resources by information processing activities.
4. Information processing encompasses system functions such as input,
processing, output, storage, and control.

1.4.1 Information System Resources

The core model of our Information System (IS) shows that an information
system is made up of five essential components: people, devices, programs,
information, and connections. Let's take a quick look at important ideas and
examples that demonstrate how these components serve as the basic building

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blocks of information systems. It's important to be able to recognize these five

elements in any information system you encounter in the real world.
People are the vital ingredient for the successful operation of all information
systems. These human resources encompass end users and IS specialists.
¥ Individuals who use an information system (end users) or the information

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it produces are known as end users. They can be customers, sales
representatives, engineers, clerks, accountants, or managers and can exist

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at all levels of an organization. In reality, the majority of us are
information system end users. In the business context, most end users are

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knowledge workers, individuals who primarily engage in
communication, collaboration within teams, and the creation, utilization,
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and distribution of information.
¥ Individuals who work in the field of Information Systems (IS specialists)
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are divided into three main categories. Firstly, Systems Analysts design
information systems by considering the requirements of end users.
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Secondly, Software Developers create computer programs based on the

specifications provided by Systems Analysts. Lastly, System Operators
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are responsible for managing and monitoring large computer systems and
networks.

Hardware resources refer to all physical devices and materials used in

information processing. This includes not only machines like computers and
other equipment but also data storage media, which can range from sheets of
paper to magnetic or optical disks. Examples of hardware in computer-based
information systems include computer systems with central processing units
containing microprocessors and a range of interconnected peripheral devices
such as printers, scanners, monitors, and more. These systems can include
handheld, laptop, tablet, or desktop microcomputers, midrange computer
systems, and large mainframe computer systems. Computer peripherals are also

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included, such as keyboards, electronic mice, trackballs, or styluses for data

input and command execution, video screens or printers for information output,
and magnetic or optical disk drives for data storage.

The software resources concept encompasses all sets of information processing

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instructions. This generic software concept encompasses not only sets of
operational instructions known as programs that direct and govern computer

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hardware but also sets of information processing instructions referred to as
procedures, which are essential for individuals.

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It's critical to recognize that even information systems not utilizing computers
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possess a software resource component. This assertion holds true even for
historical information systems or manual and machine-supported systems still
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in use today. All of these necessitate software resources in the form of

information processing instructions and procedures to effectively capture,
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process, and distribute information to their users.

Software resources can be classified into three categories:
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¥ The first category is system software, which is responsible for overseeing

and supporting computer system operations. Examples of system software
include operating systems like Microsoft Windows and Unix.
¥ The second category is application software, which comprises programs
designed to guide processing for specific computer uses by end users.
Examples of application software are sales analysis, payroll, and word
processing programs.
¥ Lastly, procedures serve as operating instructions for individuals who will
interact with an information system. Examples of procedures include
instructions for completing a paper form or utilizing a software package.

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The role of data has evolved beyond being just raw material for information
systems. Managers and information systems professionals now recognize that
data are valuable assets for organizations. Therefore, data should be managed
efficiently like any other organizational resource to benefit all stakeholders. This
perspective has brought about changes in contemporary organizations.

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Previously, data were recorded during routine transactions, but now, they are
stored, processed, and analyzed using advanced software applications that

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reveal intricate relationships between sales, customers, competitors, and
markets. In today's interconnected world, customer data is guarded with the

10
same level of diligence as cash in a bank vault. Data is vital to modern
organizations, and their efficient and effective management is an integral part
40
of organizational strategy.
51

The data includes video images, as well as audio data which covers human
voices and other sounds. Databases hold organized data while knowledge bases
50

store business knowledge.

30

For instance, data concerning sales transactions may be accumulated, processed,

and stored in a web-enabled sales database, accessible to managers and
marketing professionals for generating sales analysis reports. Knowledge bases
find application in knowledge management systems and expert systems,
facilitating the sharing of knowledge and providing expert advice on specific
subjects. We will delve deeper into these concepts in subsequent chapters.

Let's distinguish between 'Data' and 'Information.' The term 'data' is the plural
form of 'datum,' although 'data' is commonly used to represent both singular and
plural forms. Data consists of raw facts or observations, typically pertaining to
physical phenomena or business transactions. For instance, a spacecraft launch
or the sale of an automobile generates substantial data describing these events.

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More specifically, data comprises objective measurements of attributes

(characteristics) of entities, such as people, places, things, or events.

Consider business transactions, like purchasing a car or booking an airline

ticket; they can generate extensive data. Think of the multitude of facts required

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to describe the characteristics of the desired car, its financing details, or even
the intricate specifics of a basic airline reservation.

06
People often use the terms 'data' and 'information' interchangeably. However,

10
it's more accurate to perceive data as raw material resources that undergo
processing to become finished information products. Information, then, is data
40
that has been transformed into a meaningful and useful context for specific end-
users. Consequently, data typically undergoes a value-added process, which
51

includes data processing or information processing, during which:

1. Data is aggregated, manipulated, and organized.
50

2. Data content is analyzed and evaluated.

3. Data is placed in a suitable context for human users.
30

Understanding the difference between information and data requires us to

consider the concept of 'context'. Data can be thought of as context-independent
- a mere list of numbers or names that don’t provide any insight into the context
in which it was recorded. It's worth noting that the same list could be recorded
in different contexts. However, to transform data into valuable information, we
need to consider both the context in which the data was recorded and the
perspective of the person accessing it. What might be valuable information to
one person could be entirely irrelevant to another. Essentially, data has the
potential to be valuable to all, whereas information is valuable relative to the
user.

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Sales forms contain data on sales transactions, including names, quantities, and
dollar amounts. However, this information does not become useful until it is
organized and analyzed in a meaningful way. With proper organization, sales
managers can access valuable sales information that specifies sales amounts by
product type, sales territory, or salesperson. Telecommunication technologies

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and networks, such as the Internet, intranets, and extranets, are essential for
successful e-business and e-commerce operations. These networks are made up

06
of interconnected computers, communication processors, and other devices,
facilitated by communication media and controlled through communication

10
software.
40
The concept of network resources underscores that communication technologies
and networks are essential resource components of all information systems.
51

Network resources encompass:

1. Communications Media: These include twisted-pair wire, coaxial and
50

fiber-optic cables, as well as microwave, cellular, and satellite wireless

technologies.
30

2. Network Infrastructure: This broad category highlights the numerous

hardware, software, and data technologies required to support the
operation and utilization of a communication network. Examples include
communication processors, such as modems and internetwork processors,
along with communication control software like network operating
systems and Internet browser packages.

1.4.2 Information System Activities

No matter what type of information system is being used, there are basic tasks
involved in processing information. These tasks include inputting, processing,
outputting, storing, and controlling data and information. When studying any

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information system, it's important to recognize the presence of these essential

activities.

The process of input activity involves capturing and preparing data related to
business transactions and other events for further processing. The task includes

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data entry, recording, and editing. End-users usually input data directly into a
computer system or record transaction data on physical mediums like paper

06
forms. The data entry process involves several editing procedures to ensure data
accuracy. Once entered, the data may be transferred to a machine-readable

10
medium, like a magnetic disk, until it is required for processing.
40
When recording sales transactions, information can be collected on paper order
forms which serve as the original transaction record. Alternatively, sales
51

personnel can use computer keyboards or optical scanning devices, guided by

visual prompts, to input sales data. This method offers a more convenient and
50

efficient user interface, including tools for input and output within a computer
system. Techniques like optical scanning and the presentation of menus,
30

prompts, and fill-in-the-blank formats simplify the process of accurately

entering data into an information system.

In order to make sense of data, it must undergo various processing activities

such as calculation, comparison, sorting, classification, and summarization.
These activities help to organize, analyze, and manipulate data, transforming it
into meaningful information for end users. To ensure that the data stored in an
information system is of high quality, it needs to be consistently corrected and
updated. For instance, data related to a purchase can be used to (1) add to
ongoing sales figures, (2) determine eligibility for a sales discount by comparing
against a standard, (3) sort numerically based on product ID numbers, (4)
categorize into product groups such as food or non-food items, (5) summarize

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to give sales managers insights into different product categories, and (6) update
sales records.

In order to make information accessible to users, information systems generate

a variety of products, such as messages, reports, forms, and graphics. These

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products are delivered through different means, such as video displays, audio
responses, paper-based formats, and multimedia. The information contained in

06
these products is essential for individuals and organizations to carry out their
daily activities. For example, a sales manager may use a video display to monitor

10
a salesperson's performance, listen to a computer-generated voice message via
telephone, and receive a printed report of monthly sales results.
40
Storage is a crucial aspect of information systems, as data must be
systematically retained for future use. Just as written text is organized into
51

words, sentences, paragraphs, and documents, data is structured into various

elements and databases to simplify retrieval and processing for system users.
50

More information about these elements and databases can be found in Chapter
4.
30

It is important to maintain high standards in the production of accurate

information products for end users. Discrepancies should be addressed promptly
by making appropriate adjustments to system activities. For instance, if a
manager notices that subtotals in a sales report do not match the total sales
figure, there may be a need to correct data entry or processing procedures. As a
result, changes should be implemented to ensure all sales transactions are
accurately captured and processed by the sales information system.

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Chapter 2

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Computer Hardware

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Chapter 2 – Computer Hardware

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Chapter 2 – Computer Hardware

2.1 Introduction
To construct a system that is both effective and efficient, it is crucial to carefully
select and arrange its components, all while considering the trade-offs between

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overall system performance, cost, control, and complexity. For instance, when
constructing an automobile, manufacturers strive to align the vehicle's intended

06
use with the choice of its components. In the case of racing cars, specialized
engines, transmissions, and tires are necessary. The selection of a transmission

10
for a racing car necessitates a delicate balance between delivering engine power
to the wheels efficiently and effectively, considering the cost, ensuring control
40
and reliability, and evaluating its level of complexity.
51

Similarly, organizations undertake the task of assembling computer systems that

are not only effective and efficient but also tailored to the specific tasks they
50

need to perform. Given that business needs and their relative importance vary
across different companies, the information system (IS) solutions they opt for
30

can differ significantly. Those responsible for selecting the computer hardware
for their organization must possess a clear understanding of both current and
future business requirements to make well-informed acquisition decisions.

Consider the following real-world examples that illustrate the application of

business knowledge in making critical hardware decisions:

1. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), a

scientific agency dedicated to understanding and predicting changes in
the Earth's environment, as well as conserving and managing coastal and
marine resources, plays a crucial role in providing daily weather
forecasts and severe storm warnings. Recognizing the need for increased

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computing and backup capacity, NOAA recently upgraded from a single

computer to two more powerful computer systems named Stratus and
Cirrus. This upgrade aims to enhance weather forecasts by processing
more detailed information and improving weather condition resolution.
The Stratus computer is also backed up by Cirrus, located at a separate

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site, ensuring seamless operation in the event of Stratus failure.
2. The North Carolina State Employees’ Credit Union, one of the country's

06
largest credit unions with 1.5 million members and 223 branch offices,
continually seeks ways to reduce ongoing costs and enhance customer

10
services. In pursuit of this goal, the credit union made a substantial
investment in computer hardware, replacing over 3,000 personal
40
computers with newer, cost-effective, and more flexible systems.
3. The Seaport Hotel, a 426-room, four-diamond-rated establishment
51

situated on Boston's picturesque waterfront, responded to guest

preferences by implementing touch-screen computers in each room.
50

This innovation allows guests to access real-time information about the

hotel and local attractions, obtain directions and weather updates, enjoy
30

unlimited Internet and email access, and make complimentary local and
long-distance calls over the Internet.

These examples underscore the importance of aligning computer hardware

choices with the broader information system and organizational needs.
Hardware objectives should always be subordinate to and supportive of the
organization's current and future requirements.

2.2 Hardware Components

Having more central processing units (CPUs) and primary storage is crucial for
a computer system. A CPU consists of two main components: the
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) that manages mathematical computations and

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logical comparisons, and the control unit that accesses program instructions,
interprets them, and regulates the flow of data to and from the ALU, primary
storage, secondary storage, and output devices. The primary memory that stores
both program instructions and data is closely linked to the CPU as depicted in
Figures 2.1 & 2.2.

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Figure 2.1: Logical hardware components

30

Figure 2.2 Physical hardware components

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Having gained an understanding of the underlying hardware components and

their operational functions, you are now prepared to explore the concepts of
processing power, speed, and capacity. These three attributes collectively define
the capabilities of a hardware device.

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2.3 Processing and Memory Devices: Power, Speed, and Capacity
The processing components, consisting of the CPU and memory, are co-located

06
within a single enclosure known as the system unit. All peripheral devices, such
as the monitor and keyboard, are interconnected directly or indirectly with the

10
system unit. As previously discussed, the primary consideration when selecting
processing and memory devices should be the attainment of IS objectives and
40
organizational goals. In this section, we will delve into the attributes of these
crucial components.
51

2.3.1 Characteristics and Functions of Processing

Efficient processing and timely output are vital, leading organizations to employ
50

various metrics to assess processing speed. These metrics encompass the time
required to complete a machine cycle, clock speed, and others.
30

Clock Speed: CPUs generate electronic pulses at a set frequency, called clock
speed, which affects how long it takes to complete a machine cycle. The control
unit follows these pulses and executes instructions accordingly. Each instruction
takes at least as long as the time between pulses. Higher clock speeds mean
shorter intervals between pulses, allowing for faster instruction execution. Most
personal computers have clock speeds in the gigahertz range, which means
billions of cycles per second.

Physical Characteristics of the CPU: The speed of a CPU is limited by

physical factors. CPUs typically contain digital circuits that are etched onto
small silicon wafers or chips, which are no bigger than the end of a pencil eraser.

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To activate or deactivate a digital circuit in the CPU, an electric current needs

to travel through a medium, typically silicon, from point A to…

2.3.2 Characteristics and Functions of Memory

Memory is positioned in close proximity to the CPU to minimize access time,

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offering the CPU a workspace for program instructions and data. The defining
attribute of memory is its rapid provision of data and instructions to the CPU.

06
Storage Capacity: Memory devices, much like CPUs, contain thousands of
circuits on a silicon chip. These circuits can either conduct electrical current (on)

10
or not (off). To store data in memory, a combination of these on/off circuit states
is used, typically utilizing 8 bits to represent a character, such as 'A'. Eight bits
40
together form a byte (B), with storage capacity usually measured in bytes. This
means that 1 byte equates to one character of data. For perspective, the Library
51

of Congress, which houses over 126 million items and 530 miles of bookshelves,
would require about 20 petabytes of digital storage. Table 2.1 lists units for
50

measuring computer storage capacity.

30

Table 2.1: Computer storage units

Types of Memory: Various forms of memory are available. Random access

memory (RAM) temporarily stores instructions or data, but it is volatile, losing
its contents when power is interrupted. RAM chips are situated either on the

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computer's main circuit board or on peripheral cards plugged into the main
board. RAM chips consist of millions of switches sensitive to changes in electric
current. In contrast, read-only memory (ROM) is typically nonvolatile, with its
circuit states fixed, ensuring data retention even when power is removed. ROM
serves as permanent storage for unchanging data and instructions, such as those

91
guiding the computer's startup.

06
2.3.3 Multiprocessing
Multiple forms of multiprocessing involve the simultaneous execution of two or

10
more instructions.

Multicore Microprocessor: A multicore microprocessor integrates two or

40
more independent processors within a single computer to share the processing
workload and enhance capacity. It can be likened to a four-lane highway,
51

accommodating twice as many tasks as its dual-core predecessor without

requiring each task to proceed twice as fast. Dual-core processors enable
50

concurrent multitasking, such as gaming and CD burning. Companies like Intel,

AMD, and IBM compete in the multicore processor market.
30

Both Intel and AMD have progressed beyond dual processors by introducing
quad-core chips. For example, the Intel Core i7 combines four processors on a
single chip, allowing them to share a common L3 cache. AMD offers its quad-
core Phenom II X4 Black Edition CPU, operating at 3.4 GHz. While AMD's
clock speed surpasses that of the Intel Core i7, direct clock speed comparison
between CPUs with different architectures holds limited significance. Effective
CPU performance necessitates seamless coordination with main memory and
other system components. The Intel Core i7 excels over the AMD Phenom
processor, as demonstrated by various computing benchmarks. IBM's Power7
chip features eight processing cores, each capable of handling four tasks or

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threads, yielding a 32-core processor. This potent processor enhances the

capabilities of electric utilities in managing power grids.

Parallel Computing: Parallel processing, another multiprocessing method,

accelerates processing by linking multiple processors to operate concurrently.

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Common applications of parallel computing include modeling, simulation, and
data analysis. In medicine, it expedites ultrasound scans and enhances diagnostic

06
accuracy. Engineers employ parallel computing to simulate product behavior,
expediting design iterations. For clothing designers, it facilitates virtual

10
modeling, reducing seasonal collection development time from six months to
just over a month.
40
Grid Computing: Grid computing harnesses a collection of computers owned
by individuals or organizations to collaboratively address a common problem.
51

It represents a cost-effective approach to parallel processing, involving dozens,

hundreds, or thousands of computers working together to solve extensive
50

parallel processing tasks. A central server, acting as the grid leader and traffic
overseer, plays a pivotal role. This server divides the computing task into
30

subtasks and assigns them to computers on the grid with surplus processing
power. It monitors progress and reallocates tasks if necessary. Once all subtasks
are completed, the central server consolidates results and advances to the next
task until the entire job is finished.

IBM initiated the World Community Grid project in 2004, leveraging the
combined computing power of personal and business computers in a large-scale
public computing grid. Researchers at the University of Texas Medical Branch
utilized over a million devices on the grid to test drug candidates for new and
drug-resistant flu strains, like H1N1. The project accelerated drug discovery,
moving from computer simulations to laboratory testing swiftly and with greater
precision.

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2.4 Moore’s Law

Is there a limit to how fast computers can become? Can we realistically afford
the future's advanced computers? These questions find their answers in Moore's
law. Gordon Moore, one of Intel Corporation's co-founders, famously made this
observation in 1965, just four years after the first integrated circuit entered the

91
commercial market. It was dubbed 'Moore's law' by the media, and the name has
endured. In its original form, Moore observed an exponential growth pattern,

06
with the number of transistors per integrated circuit doubling every 18 to 24
months, a trend he predicted would persist. Through continuous technological

10
advancements, Moore's law, characterized by the doubling of transistors at
regular intervals, remains valid to this day. Figure 2.3 graphically illustrates how
40
Moore's law impacts the evolution of computing power.
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50
30

Figure 2.3: Moore’s law suggests that computer power will double every 18 to 24 months.

Example: Say that your friend takes a job with a starting salary of $40000 and
a guaranteed raise of 20 percent every year. You take a job with a starting salary

Chapter 2 – Computer Hardware

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of $5000 but your salary doubles every year and a half (based on Moore's law),
as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: An Example of Moore’s Law

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Despite our frequent use of exponential growth to predict the future, especially
in the realm of technology, humans often struggle to grasp the true implications
of such growth. To gain a deeper understanding, let's take a moment to
contemplate what Moore's law would imply if applied beyond the realm of
transistors on a computer chip:

• According to Moore's law, the estimated number of transistors shipped in

2003 was 10^18, which is roughly 100 times the estimated global ant
population.
• In 1978, a commercial flight between New York and Paris cost
approximately $900 and took about seven hours. If Moore's law applied

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to commercial aviation, the same flight today would cost roughly a penny
and take less than a second.

Over the years, Moore's law has been interpreted more broadly than its original
formulation, yet its application and relative accuracy have proven valuable in

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understanding our past and predicting our future. One common corollary of
Moore's law is the expectation that the price of a given level of computing power

06
will halve approximately every 18 to 24 months. While Moore did not explicitly
predict this effect, it has consistently held true. This trend also extends to the

10
cost of storage, which we will delve into in the following section.

Initially offered as an observation and prediction, Moore's law gained

40
widespread acceptance and subsequently served as a goal for the entire
semiconductor industry. This drove marketing and engineering departments of
51

semiconductor manufacturers to channel immense efforts into achieving the

specified increases in processing power, which they believed their competitors
50

would soon attain.

30

Expressed as 'a doubling every 18 to 24 months,' Moore's law highlights the

remarkable technological progress of recent years. However, on a shorter
timescale, it signifies an average industry-wide performance improvement of
over 1 percent per week. For manufacturers competing in processor, storage, or
memory markets, a new product expected to take three years to develop and
delivered just two or three months late could be 10–15 percent slower or larger
than directly competing products, making it harder to sell.

It's important to note that exponentially improving hardware does not

necessarily translate to exponential improvements in software performance. The
productivity of software developers has not increased exponentially with
hardware improvements; instead, it has advanced slowly and unevenly over the

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decades. Software tends to become larger and more complex over time,
humorously echoing Wirth's law, which states that 'Software gets slower faster
than hardware gets faster.'

Recent studies in the computer industry project that Moore's law will persist for

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several chip generations, likely spanning another decade. Depending on the
doubling time used in calculations, this progress could result in a 100-fold

06
increase in transistor counts on a chip within the next 10 years. Such rapid
exponential advancement could lead to 100 GHz personal computers in every

10
household and 20 GHz devices in every pocket. It seems reasonable to expect
that, sooner or later, computers will surpass or meet any conceivable
40
computational need. Intel, in fact, suggests that it can sustain development in
line with Moore's law for the next 20 years, even without significant
51

technological breakthroughs. Given the frequent occurrence of such

breakthroughs in today's marketplace, it is conceivable that Moore's law could
continue indefinitely. Regardless of how the end of Moore's law may eventually
50

manifest or when it might occur, we are still progressing at an astounding rate

of evolution, with the potential for even greater advancements on the horizon
30

2.5 Secondary Storage, Input and Output Devices

As you've observed, memory plays a crucial role in determining the overall
computing power of a computer system. However, memory offers only limited
storage space for the data and instructions required by the CPU for processing.
In contrast, computer systems require a means to store larger amounts of data,
instructions, and information more permanently than main memory allows. This
purpose is served by secondary storage, also referred to as permanent storage.

In comparison to memory, secondary storage offers distinct advantages such as

nonvolatility, greater capacity, and cost-effectiveness. Most forms of secondary
storage are significantly more budget-friendly than memory. However, due to

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the electromechanical processes involved, secondary storage is noticeably

slower than memory. To select the appropriate secondary storage media and
devices, it is essential to understand their primary characteristics, including
access method, capacity, and portability.

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Access methods for data and information retrieval can be categorized as
sequential or direct. Sequential access necessitates accessing data in the order it

06
is stored. For instance, sequentially stored inventory data may be organized by
part number (e.g., 100, 101, 102, etc.). To retrieve information about part

10
number 125, one must read through and discard data related to parts 001 through
124.
40
In contrast, direct access permits the retrieval of data without following a
sequential path. With direct access, you can swiftly access the required data,
51

such as part number 125, without sifting through data for parts 001 through 124.
Consequently, direct access is generally faster than sequential access. Devices
50

used for sequential access to secondary storage data are known as sequential
access storage devices (SASDs), while those used for direct access are referred
30

to as direct access storage devices (DASDs).

2.5.1 Secondary Storage Devices

Common secondary storage forms include magnetic tapes, magnetic disks, and
optical discs. Some of these media, such as magnetic tape, only support
sequential access, while others, like magnetic and optical discs, offer both direct
and sequential access.

Magnetic Tapes: One prevalent secondary storage medium is magnetic tape,

which closely resembles the tape found in audio and video cassettes. Magnetic
tape functions as a sequential access storage medium. Despite slower access
times, magnetic tape is often more cost-effective than disk storage. It is

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commonly employed for backing up disk drives and storing data off-site for
disaster recovery. Recent technological advancements have resulted in tape
storage devices with increased capacities and faster transfer speeds. Bulky tape
drives have given way to compact tape cartridge devices, occupying minimal
floor space and accommodating numerous tape cartridges.

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Magnetic Disks: Magnetic disks, coated with iron oxide, can be either thin

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metallic platters (hard disks) see Figure 2.4 or Mylar film (diskettes). Similar to
magnetic tape, magnetic disks use magnetized areas to represent bits. Magnetic

10
disks serve as direct access storage devices, enabling rapid data retrieval,
particularly for organizations requiring swift responses to customer requests.
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Figure 2.4: Hard disk

RAID: As data storage requirements for businesses expand rapidly, concerns

about potential hardware failures necessitate fault-tolerant storage solutions.
Redundant Array of Independent/Inexpensive Disks (RAID) is one such method
that stores data redundantly on multiple physical disk drives using a technique
called striping. This ensures data recovery in case of hard drive failures. For
instance, Point360, a post-production company based in Burbank, California,
adopted a RAID storage solution to enhance security and manage the growing
storage demands of high-definition video and complex visual effect rendering.

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Virtual Tape: Virtual tape technology caters to less frequently accessed data by
simulating storage on tape cartridges, although some data portions may reside
on faster hard disks. Virtual tape systems often incorporate sophisticated storage
management to move data to more cost-effective storage media as its usage
diminishes. This technology reduces data access times, minimizes total

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ownership costs, and optimizes floor space usage. Boston Medical Center's IS
organization, responsible for maintaining over 400 TB of data, implemented a

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virtual tape management system to accommodate a 50 percent annual data
growth rate while controlling storage costs and meeting regulatory

10
requirements.
40
SAN (Storage Area Network): Storage Area Networks (SANs) integrate
computer servers, distributed storage devices, and networks to accelerate data
51

storage and retrieval as shown in Figure 2.5. High-speed communication

channels are frequently employed to enhance data transfer rates. Although SAN
technology is relatively recent, many organizations successfully use it for
50

efficient and reliable data storage. Austar, a prominent Australian subscription

TV provider, utilizes a 60-terabyte SAN to record customer interactions and
30

glean valuable insights for enhancing service.

Optical Discs: Optical discs, such as Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-
ROMs), are known for their storage capacity of 740 MB of data. Once data is
written on a CD-ROM, it becomes read-only and cannot be altered. CD burners
(CD recorders) enable data recording on compact discs. CD-Recordable (CD-
R) and CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) drives are the common types capable of
writing CDs, either once (CD-R) or repeatedly (CD-RW). CD-RW technology
is particularly useful for data backup.

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Figure 2.5: Storage Area Network
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Digital Video Discs (DVDs): Digital video discs (DVDs) resemble CD-ROMs
but offer greater storage capacity, holding about 135 minutes of digital video or
50

several gigabytes of data. DVDs have supplanted recordable and rewritable CD

discs (CD-R and CD-RW) for sharing movies and photos. While CDs store
30

around 740 MB of data, single-sided DVDs can store 4.7 GB, and double-sided
DVDs offer a capacity of 9.4 GB. DVDs come in record-once (DVD-R and
DVD+R) and rewritable formats (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM).
Compatibility between different types of rewritable DVDs may vary.

Emerging Technologies: The Blu-ray high-definition video disc, based on

blue-laser technology, stores significantly more data than DVDs. Its primary use
is in home entertainment equipment for high-definition video storage. The
Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD), still in development, promises to store even
more data than Blu-ray. HVD devices may transfer data at rates of 1 to 20 GB
per second and store up to 6 TB on a single optical disk.

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Solid State Secondary Storage Devices: Solid-state storage devices (SSDs) use
memory chips instead of magnetic or optical media, offering lower power
consumption and faster data access. SSDs are also more robust due to fewer
moving parts, making them ideal for portable computers. However, they tend to
have a higher cost per GB and lower capacity compared to traditional hard

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drives. Ongoing advancements in SSD technology are expected to reduce costs
and increase capacity.

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Examples include Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drives, and external and

10
rewritable devices with storage capacities ranging from 1 GB to 64 GB as
depicted in Figure 2.6. Marketing Architects, a marketing firm, utilizes SSD
40
technology to provide faster data responses and cost-effective storage.
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Figure 2.6: Flash Drive

In summary, the trend in secondary storage is moving towards direct access

methods, increased capacity, and enhanced portability. When choosing a
specific storage solution, it's essential to consider the unique requirements of
businesses and individual users. In general, the ability to store large volumes of
data and access it swiftly can significantly enhance organizational efficiency
and effectiveness

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2.5.2 Input Devices

Your initial encounter with computers typically occurs through the utilization
of input and output devices. These tools serve as the portals to the computer
system, facilitating the provision of data and instructions to the computer while
also delivering results from it. These input and output devices constitute a

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fundamental component of a computer's user interface, alongside other
hardware components and software that enable interaction with the computer

06
system.

10
Just like any other components within a computer system, organizations should
consider their business objectives when selecting input and output devices. For
40
instance, many restaurant chains have adopted handheld input devices or
computerized terminals that enhance the efficiency and accuracy of order entry
51

by waitstaff. These systems have additionally brought about cost savings by

streamlining inventory tracking and customer marketing efforts.
50

A wide array of devices can be employed for data input, ranging from
specialized devices designed to capture specific types of data to more versatile
30

input devices. We will now delve into several categories.

Input Devices for Personal Computers are the most commonly used devices for
entering data, such as characters, text, and basic commands, are the keyboard
and computer mouse as shown in Figure 2.7. Some companies are developing
newer keyboards that prioritize comfort, adjustability, and speed, aiming to
prevent wrist and hand injuries resulting from prolonged keyboard use. For
instance, Microsoft and other manufacturers have introduced split keyboards
that allow users to enter both sketches on a touchpad and text using keys. The
computer mouse, on the other hand, is employed for pointing to and clicking on
symbols, icons, menus, and commands displayed on the screen, prompting
various actions within the computer system.

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Figure 2.7: Examples of manual input devices

Speech Recognition Technology Speech recognition technology empowers

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computers equipped with speech input sources like microphones to interpret

human speech, providing an alternative means of input data or instructions.
50

Basic systems may necessitate training to recognize speech patterns or have a

limited vocabulary, while more advanced systems can handle continuous speech
30

without the need for breaking it into discrete words. In advanced applications
used by government and military entities, these systems can even decipher
unfamiliar voices and comprehend an extensive vocabulary.

Businesses that frequently interact with customers seek to reduce customer

support costs while enhancing service quality. For example, SBI Funds
Management, an Indian fund management organization with over 5.8 million
investors, implemented a speech recognition system to replace services
previously handled by live agents. Aside from staff reduction cost savings, this
system eliminates the need for customers to wait for available agents. Customers
can interact with the system using their natural voice without the need for
manual keypad input.

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Digital cameras capture and store images or videos in digital format. When
pictures are taken, the images are stored electronically within the camera. These
images can be transferred to a computer either directly or via a flash memory
card. Once stored on the computer's hard drive, the images can be edited, shared
with other locations, pasted into other applications, or printed. For example, you

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can download a digital camera-captured photo of your project team and then use
it on a website or incorporate it into a project status report. Digital cameras have

06
surpassed film cameras used by professional photographers in terms of photo
quality and features, including zoom, flash, exposure controls, special effects,

10
and video capture capabilities. With suitable software, sound and handwriting
can be added to the photos.
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The head-mounted display (HMD) was the first device to provide the wearer
51

with an immersive experience, the device consists of screens and an optical

system that transmits images to the eyes, providing a 3D view of a virtual world.
A motion tracker tracks the user's head position and orientation, enabling the
50

computer to adjust the scene representation accordingly. This allows for a

realistic experience of moving through the virtual environment, such as using a
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head-mounted display in a virtual car interior while operating a workstation in

a factory, as shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: An example of using HMD

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Touch-Sensitive Screens Advancements in screen technology enable display

screens to function as both input and output devices. By touching specific areas
of a sensitive screen, users can initiate programs or trigger actions on the
computer. Touch-sensitive screens are commonly employed at gas stations for
selecting fuel grades and requesting receipts, in fast-food restaurants for order

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entry, in hotel information centers for accessing local dining and drinking
establishment details, and in amusement parks for providing directions to

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visitors. They are also utilized in airport kiosks and department stores.

10
Optical Data Readers Specialized scanning devices known as optical data
readers can be used to scan documents. There are two primary categories of
40
optical data readers: optical mark recognition (OMR) and optical character
recognition (OCR). OMR readers are used for purposes such as scoring tests,
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where test takers mark boxes on OMR paper using pencils. These systems are
widely used in standardized tests like the SAT and GMAT and are being
considered for capturing voters' choices on Election Day. In contrast, most OCR
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readers employ reflected light to recognize and scan various characters. With
specialized software, OCR readers can convert handwritten or typed documents
30

into digital data. Once entered, this data can be shared, edited, and distributed
over computer networks to numerous individuals. For instance, the St. Peters
police department employs OMR technology to capture data about each traffic
stop, which is then scanned and summarized in various reports to meet the state
attorney general's requirements.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Devices In the 1950s (see Figure
2.9), the banking industry faced an overwhelming amount of paper checks, loan
applications, bank statements, and more. To address this issue and expedite
document processing, magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) was
developed. MICR involves the use of special magnetic ink to print data on the

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bottom of checks and other forms. This data, printed using a unique character
set, can be read by both humans and computers.

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Figure 2.9: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

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Pen Input Devices With a pen input device as outlined in Figure 2.10, you can
40
activate commands, perform tasks, input handwritten notes, and create drawings
and figures by touching a touch screen. Pen input necessitates specialized
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software and hardware. Handwriting recognition software can convert on-screen

handwriting into text. For example, Microsoft's Tablet PC and its hardware
50

partners offer the capability to transform handwritten notes into typed text while
preserving the digital ink's original appearance. Users can employ a pen to write
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and send emails, add comments to Word documents, annotate PowerPoint

presentations, and even hand-draw charts within a document. This data can then
be manipulated, highlighted, searched, and converted into text. The success of
pen input hinges on the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of handwriting
recognition.

Figure 2.10: Pen Input Device

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Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) see Figure 2.11 systems transmit data
via mobile devices called tags, which are read by RFID readers and processed
by information system programs. One popular application of RFID is the
placement of microchips on retail items, along with in-store readers that monitor
inventory on shelves and trigger restocking alerts when needed. RFID tags

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contain a form of erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) that
stores data about the tagged item. A radio-frequency signal can update this

06
memory to reflect changes in the item's status. The transmitted data may include
identification, location information, or details about the product, such as its

10
manufacturing date, retail price, color, or purchase date.
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RFID Tag
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50

Figure 2.11: Radio Frequency Identification

30

For instance, the Newmount Leeville Gold Mine in Nevada employs RFID
technology to track miners, equipment, and vehicles. RFID tags are affixed to
miners' cap lamps and mounted on vehicles and equipment to provide real-time
location data, aiding in the monitoring of miners' activities and facilitating rapid
responses in the event of accidents.

2.5.3 Output Devices

Computer systems deliver information to decision-makers at all levels of an
organization, enabling them to address business challenges or seize competitive
opportunities. Additionally, the output produced by one computer system can
serve as input for another. This output may take various forms, including visual,

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audio, or digital content. Irrespective of the content or format, output devices

are specifically designed to provide the correct information, in the appropriate
format, to the right individuals, at the right time.

For instance, display monitors are devices utilized to present computer-

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generated output. Early monitors, often referred to as CRTs due to their cathode-
ray tube technology, employed electron beams to illuminate phosphorescent

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compounds (phosphors) on the screen's inner surface, producing individual
pixels. Each pixel represents a point of color or light on the display screen,

10
existing in either an "on" or "off" state. The electron beam continuously sweeps
across the screen, re-illuminating fading phosphors.
40
In contrast, plasma displays use numerous smart cells (pixels) composed of
electrodes and electrically charged neon and xenon gases to emit light. These
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displays render images based on the information in the video signal, with each
pixel capable of emitting red, green, and blue light at varying intensities, thereby
50

generating a wide spectrum of colors. The result is high-resolution, accurate

color representation, and a high-quality image.
30

LCD displays are flat screens employing liquid crystals, sandwiched between
polarizers, to create characters and graphics on a backlit screen. They offer
benefits such as reduced eye strain, absence of certain types of radiation, space
efficiency, and lower energy consumption compared to CRTs.

Another technology, OLED, utilizes organic material between conductors and

glass plates to produce electro-luminescent light when an electric current is
applied. OLED displays excel in producing sharp, bright colors and can achieve
exceptional thinness and flexibility. Moreover, they do not shatter upon impact
and can enable 3D video displays without requiring special glasses or laser
optics.

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When selecting a monitor, power usage becomes a vital consideration,

especially given extended computer usage. LCD monitors typically consume
35-50% less power than plasma screens, with OLED monitors being even more
energy-efficient.

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Moving on to hard copy output, printers come in various models with different
speeds, features, and capabilities. The speed of a printer is measured in pages

06
per minute (ppm), while the quality or resolution depends on the number of dots
printed per inch (dpi). Inkjet and laser printers offer distinct advantages, with

10
laser printers generally offering higher speeds and volumes than inkjets.
Plotters, on the other hand, are ideal for creating large-scale designs, blueprints,
40
and schematics.

For digital audio playback, digital audio players store, organize, and play digital
51

music files, with the popular MP3 format offering efficient compression without
compromising sound quality. These portable devices enable users to download
50

music from various sources and have revolutionized the way we consume music.
30

E-books, or electronic books, have become a digital counterpart to traditional

printed books. E-books can be downloaded onto personal computers or
dedicated e-book readers. These devices, with e-paper displays, resemble
printed pages, are lightweight, and have adjustable text sizes, making them
versatile and accessible for various readers.

In conclusion, computer systems and their associated output devices play a

crucial role in delivering information to decision-makers and facilitating various
forms of content consumption in today's digital world.

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Chapter 3

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Computer Software

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Chapter 3 – Computer Software

3.1 Application Software: End-User Applications

This section comprehensively explores the fundamental categories of software
essential for your computer interactions and network access. It delves into their

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attributes, and purposes, and provides instances of their applications. Before we
embark on this journey, let's examine an example illustrating the evolving

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landscape of software in the business realm.

10
To fully grasp the significance and utility of the wide array of available software,
it is crucial to first understand what software encompasses. Software is the
40
overarching term encompassing diverse programs employed to operate and
manipulate computers and their peripheral devices. A common analogy
51

describes hardware as the unchanging component of a computer and software

as the variable counterpart. Software, in its myriad forms, holds many
50

classifications and applications, which we will explore in this chapter.

Our exploration of software commences with an overview of the major types

30

and functions of application software and system software accessible to

computer users. This information is summarized in Figure 3.1 However, please
note that this figure serves as a conceptual representation. The specific types of
software you encounter largely depend on your choice of computers and
networks, as well as your intended tasks. We will delve into application software
in this section and delve into the various categories of system software in the
next section.

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Figure 3.1: An overview of computer software

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Figure 3.1 delineates that application software includes an array of programs,

further divided into general-purpose and function-specific categories. General-
30

purpose application programs perform standard information processing tasks for

end users. For instance, word processing, spreadsheet, database management,
and graphics software find popularity among microcomputer users in diverse
domains, including home, education, business, science, and more. Due to their
substantial enhancement of user productivity, they are often referred to as
productivity suites. Examples also encompass Web browsers, email clients, and
groupware tools, facilitating communication and collaboration within
workgroups and teams.

Another significant classification of software pertains to its development.

Custom software denotes applications developed within an organization for
internal use. In this scenario, the organization that crafts the program code is

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also its primary user. Conversely, COTS software (Commercial Off-The-Shelf)

is developed with the intention of selling multiple copies, usually for profit. In
this case, the organization developing the software is not the primary user.

Several attributes are crucial in characterizing COTS software. As per our

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definition, COTS software is distributed in numerous copies with minimal
changes apart from scheduled upgrades. Purchasers of COTS software typically

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have limited control over specifications, schedules, evolution, and access to
source code or internal documentation. The vendor of a COTS product usually

10
retains intellectual property rights. In contrast, custom software is generally
owned and controlled by the organization that developed or commissioned it.
40
A recent innovation in software development is known as open-source software.
In this approach, developers collaborate on application development using
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programming standards that invite contributions from anyone. As each

developer completes their work, the code becomes available for others to use
50

freely. We will delve into this novel approach in greater detail in the next section
of this chapter.
30

Business Application Software: A multitude of function-specific application

software packages are available to support various user applications in business
and other domains. For instance, business application software facilitates
business process reengineering and automation, encompassing strategic e-
business applications like customer relationship management, enterprise
resource planning, and supply chain management. Other examples encompass
software tailored for electronic commerce, as well as functional areas such as
human resource management, accounting, finance, data mining, enterprise
information portals, and knowledge management systems.

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Software Suits and Integrated Packages: Let's initiate our examination of

popular general-purpose application software by focusing on software suites.
These widely-used productivity packages are bundles of software, such as
Microsoft Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Corel WordPerfect Office, Sun's
StarOffice, and the open-source alternative, OpenOffice. Examining their

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components will provide us with an overview of essential software tools that
can enhance your productivity.

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Figure 3.2 offers a comparison of the core programs included in the top four

10
software suites. Note that each suite integrates software packages for tasks like
word processing, spreadsheet handling, presentation graphics, database
40
management, and personal information management. Depending on the chosen
version, Microsoft, Lotus, Corel, and Sun may include additional programs such
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as internet browsers, email clients, web publishing tools, desktop publishing

software, voice recognition, financial management applications, and electronic
encyclopedias.
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30

Figure 3.2: The basic program components of the top four software suites

Opting for a software suite often results in cost savings compared to purchasing
individual packages separately. Moreover, these suites share a common
graphical user interface (GUI) featuring icons, toolbars, status bars, menus, and
more, providing a consistent user experience and facilitating ease of use. They
also share useful tools like spell checkers and help wizards, enhancing

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efficiency. Furthermore, software suites are designed for seamless integration

among their components, allowing for effortless file import and export,
regardless of the specific program in use at any given moment.

However, there are downsides to bundling numerous programs and features into

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a single package. Critics argue that many features included in software suites
often go unused by the majority of end-users. Additionally, these suites can

06
consume significant disk space, sometimes exceeding 250 megabytes,
depending on the version and functions chosen. Due to their size, software suites

10
are occasionally disparagingly referred to as "bloatware" by their critics. Costs
also vary widely, ranging from as low as $100 for a competitive upgrade to over
40
$700 for certain full versions of these suites.

These limitations have led to the continued use of integrated packages like
51

Microsoft Works, Lotus eSuite WorkPlace, and AppleWorks. These integrated

packages consolidate functions from multiple programs, such as word
50

processing, spreadsheets, presentation graphics, and database management, into

a single software package. While integrated packages may lack some advanced
30

features found in individual programs and software suites, they are cost-
effective, lightweight (often consuming less than 10 megabytes of disk space),
and frequently come pre-installed on many budget-friendly microcomputer
systems. Integrated packages offer sufficient functionality for numerous
computer users while providing some of the advantages associated with
software suites in a more compact package.

Web Browsers and More: For many computer users today, the most critical
software component is the once-basic but now robust web browser. Browsers
like Microsoft Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Firefox, Opera, or Mozilla serve
as software applications designed to facilitate navigation through hyperlinked
resources on the World Wide Web, the broader internet, corporate intranets, and

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extranets. Browsers have evolved beyond mere web surfing; they are
increasingly becoming the universal platform from which users launch activities
such as information searches, email communication, multimedia file transfers,
discussion group participation, and various other internet-based applications.

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Figure 3.3 depicts the utilization of the Microsoft Internet Explorer browser to
access search engines hosted on the Netscape.com website. Netscape employs

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Google as its primary search engine, while also offering links to other popular
search tools such as Ask Jeeves, Look Smart, Lycos, and Overture. The use of

10
search engines to locate information has become an integral aspect of both
business and personal applications on the Internet, intranets, and extranets.
40
Industry experts anticipate that web browsers will serve as the blueprint for how
most individuals interact with networked computers in the foreseeable future.
51

Presently, web browsers enable users to initiate and host various applications,
including video streaming, phone calls, software downloads,
videoconferencing, email checking, and collaborative spreadsheet work. This
50

versatile nature of browsers is why they are sometimes referred to as the

universal client, a component installed on all networked computing and
30

communication devices used by clients (users) within an enterprise. It's

noteworthy that this entire book underwent revision and editing using a browser-
based authoring program called PowerXEditor (we will delve into
PowerXEditor later in this chapter).

Electronic Mail, Instant Messaging, and Weblogs: In workplaces across the

globe, the first task for many individuals is checking their electronic mail. Email
has revolutionized the way people conduct work and communication. Millions
of end users now rely on email software to exchange electronic messages and
file attachments over the Internet, their organization's intranets, or extranets.
These emails are stored on networked mail servers until users choose to access

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them, making it effortless to read messages on their workstations. With just a

few minutes of effort (and minimal transmission time), individuals can
compose, send, and receive messages to one or multiple recipients.

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Figure 3.3: Using the Microsoft Internet Explorer browser to access Google and other
search engines on the Netscape.com Web site.

As previously mentioned, email software has become an integral component of

leading software suites and web browsers. Internet users have access to free
email services like Microsoft HotMail, Yahoo! Mail, and Netscape WebMail
through online services and internet service providers. Most email software
options, such as Microsoft Outlook Express, Windows Mail, or Netscape
Messenger, facilitate message distribution to multiple users via predefined
mailing lists. These software solutions offer password security, automatic

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message forwarding, and remote user access, in addition to enabling the

organization of messages into folders and the attachment of documents and web
files to emails. Furthermore, email packages support the editing and sending of
graphics, multimedia files, and text, along with computer conferencing
capabilities. Many email clients also include features for filtering and sorting

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incoming messages, routing them to appropriate mailboxes and folders, and
providing calendaring and contact management functions.

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Instant messaging (IM) is a hybrid technology combining elements of email and

10
computer conferencing. It has experienced rapid growth and become a standard
method of electronic messaging for millions of internet users worldwide.
40
Through instant messaging, business professionals, friends, and associates can
exchange electronic messages instantaneously, facilitating real-time
51

communication and collaboration in a conversational manner. Instant messages

appear immediately in an IM window on the computer screens of all individuals
in the business workgroup or on the user's IM "buddy list," as long as they are
50

online, regardless of their ongoing tasks. Instant messaging software can be

downloaded, and IM services can be accessed by subscribing to various popular
30

IM systems, including AOL's Instant Messenger, ICQ, MSN Messenger, and

Yahoo Messenger (see Figure 3.4).

A Weblog, often shortened to "blog," "Web log," or "weblog," is a website of

personal or noncommercial origin that follows a dated log format, regularly
updated with new information pertaining to a specific subject or range of
subjects. The content of a Weblog may be authored by the site owner, extracted
from other websites or sources, or contributed by users through email
submissions. Weblogs typically provide a "log of our times" from a particular
perspective and focus on one or several subjects or themes, typically of
contemporary interest. They can be seen as evolving commentaries on their

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chosen subjects, either individual or collaborative in nature, with many being

moderated discussions.

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Figure 3.4: Using the e-mail features of the Yahoo! Instant messaging system.

Given the numerous variations in this concept and the potential for new ones to
emerge, the meaning of the term "Weblog" may evolve over time. As a
formatting and content approach for websites, Weblogs are popular because
they signal to viewers that something new is posted daily, offer a personal
perspective rather than a commercial one, and provide opportunities for
collaboration and engagement with the website and its participants.

Word processing software has revolutionized the process of creating various

types of documents, including letters, memos, and reports, by automating the
creation, editing, revision, and printing of text data (words, phrases, sentences,

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and paragraphs). Leading word processing packages such as Microsoft Word,

Lotus WordPro, Corel WordPerfect, and OpenOffice Writer offer extensive
desktop publishing capabilities, allowing users to produce professionally
formatted documents. These packages can also convert documents into HTML
format for publishing on corporate intranets or the World Wide Web.

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Word processing software offers additional features, including spell checkers to

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identify and correct spelling errors and thesaurus functions to suggest alternative
words. Grammar and punctuation errors can be identified and corrected, and

10
improvements in writing style can be suggested through grammar and style
checker functions. Top packages also support the creation and design of web
40
pages from scratch for Internet or intranet websites (see Figure 3.5).
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Figure 3.5: Using the Microsoft Word

Desktop publishing (DTP) software enables end users and organizations to

produce their own printed materials with a professional appearance. This

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includes newsletters, brochures, manuals, and books featuring various types of

styles, graphics, photos, and colors on each page. Word processing and graphics
packages generate text and graphics, which can be imported as files. Optical
scanners may be used to input text and graphics from printed materials, and clip
art files, which consist of pre-drawn graphic illustrations, can be used as well,

91
either provided by the software package or obtained from other sources

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Spreadsheet software packages like Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, OpenOffice
Calc, and Corel QuattroPro are employed by virtually every business for the

10
purposes of analysis, planning, and modeling. These applications enable the
creation of electronic spreadsheets, essentially worksheets composed of rows
40
and columns that can be stored on a personal computer or network server, or
converted into HTML format for storage as a web page or web sheet on the
51

World Wide Web. Building a spreadsheet entails designing its layout and
formulating the relationships (formulas) that will be used within the worksheet.
50

Upon receiving your input, the computer executes the necessary calculations
according to the defined formulas and promptly displays the results, whether on
30

your workstation or website. Most of these software packages also facilitate the
creation of charts and graphical representations of spreadsheet data (See Figure
3.6).

For instance, you can develop a spreadsheet to record and analyze the historical
and current advertising performance of a business. Furthermore, you can
establish hyperlinks to a corresponding web sheet on your marketing team's
intranet web page. This equips you with a decision support tool that assists in
addressing hypothetical questions regarding advertising, such as, "What would
be the impact on market share if advertising expenses were to increase by 10
percent?" To answer this question, you would simply modify the advertising
expense formula within the advertising performance worksheet. The computer

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would then recalculate the affected figures, generating fresh market share
statistics and visuals. This approach enhances your understanding of the
repercussions of advertising decisions on market share, allowing you to share
this insight by adding notes to the web sheet on your team's intranet web page.

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Figure 3.6: Using an electronic spreadsheet package

Presentation graphics software packages serve the purpose of converting

numerical data into visual displays, including line charts, bar graphs, pie charts,
and various other graphic formats. Most leading packages also assist in the
creation of multimedia presentations that encompass graphics, photos,
animations, and video clips, with the option to publish these presentations on
the World Wide Web. Graphics and multimedia presentations are not only more
comprehensible and effective in conveying information compared to numerical
data, but they can also emphasize key points, strategic distinctions, and
significant trends within the data. This approach proves highly effective in

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advertising media, management reports, and other business presentations (See

Figure 3.7).

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Figure 3.7: Using the slide preview feature of a presentation graphics package, Microsoft
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PowerPoint

Presentation graphics software packages like Microsoft PowerPoint,

OpenOffice Impress, Lotus Freelance, or Corel Presentations offer user-friendly
features for designing and managing computer-generated slide shows that
incorporate integrated graphics and multimedia displays. Users can choose from
a range of pre-designed templates for business presentations, create and edit
presentation outlines and notes, and manage multimedia files like graphics,
photos, sounds, and video clips. Top-tier packages also facilitate the
customization of graphics and multimedia presentations for HTML format
transfer to corporate intranet sites or the World Wide Web.

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The personal information manager (PIM) is widely adopted for enhancing

end-user productivity and fostering collaboration, both as a standalone
application and for personal digital assistant (PDA) handheld devices. Various
PIMs, such as Lotus Organizer and Microsoft Outlook, enable end-users to
store, organize, and retrieve information related to customers, clients, prospects,

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appointments, meetings, and tasks. PIM software structures and presents data in
various formats, ranging from electronic calendars and appointment lists to

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project timetables and summarized financial data about customers, clients, or
sales prospects. Most PIMs now feature web access and email functionality,

10
with some employing these features to support team collaboration by sharing
information like contact lists, task lists, and schedules among networked PIM
40
users (See Figure 3.8).
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Figure 3.8: Using a personal information manager (PIM)

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Groupware, a category of versatile application software, facilitates

collaboration within workgroups and teams. Products such as Lotus Notes,
Novell GroupWise, and Microsoft Exchange support collaboration through
features like email, discussion groups, databases, scheduling, task management,
data sharing, audio and video conferencing, and more. These groupware

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products leverage the Internet, corporate intranets, and extranets to enable global
collaboration among virtual teams dispersed worldwide. Team members can use

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the Internet for global email, project discussions, and joint web page
development, or rely on corporate intranets to publish project updates and

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collaborate on documents stored on web servers (See Figure 3.9).
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Figure 3.9: Lotus Sametime enables workgroups and project teams to share spreadsheets
and other work documents in an interactive online collaboration process.

Additionally, collaborative features are being incorporated into other software

applications to imbue them with groupware-like functionality. For instance, in
the Microsoft Office suite, Microsoft Word tracks document revisions, Excel
logs spreadsheet changes, and Outlook facilitates the delegation and tracking of

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tasks assigned to team members. Recent enhancements have even enabled

multiple team members to edit the same document in real time.

Two notable additions to the collaborative software landscape are Microsoft's

Windows SharePoint Services and IBM's WebSphere. Both platforms empower

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teams to swiftly create sophisticated web-based environments for information
sharing and document collaboration. Moreover, businesses can harness these

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platforms for application development, streamlining the creation of web-based
business portals and transaction processing applications. Collaboratively

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developed websites can seamlessly integrate a wide array of individual
applications, enhancing both individual and team productivity.
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Numerous businesses are exploring alternatives to the procurement, installation,
51

and maintenance of business application software. Rather than acquiring or

internally developing software, many large corporations are now outsourcing
their software development and maintenance requirements to contract
50

programming firms and other software development companies. This includes

utilizing offshore software developers in foreign countries and leveraging the
30

Internet for communication, collaboration, and project management.

A growing number of companies are shifting their focus toward Application

Service Providers (ASPs) to meet their software needs instead of investing in
the development or purchase of software. ASPs are companies that own,
operate, and sustain application software along with the essential computer
system resources (such as servers, system software, networks, and IT personnel)
required to offer the application as a service over the Internet. These ASPs can
bill their customers based on usage or through monthly or annual fees.

Businesses are opting for ASPs for several reasons, with one of the primary
benefits being the lower initial investment cost and the rapid setup of web-based

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applications. The pay-as-you-go pricing structure of ASPs is generally more

cost-effective than developing, purchasing, and maintaining application
software. Additionally, adopting an ASP approach reduces or eliminates the
need for extensive IT infrastructure, including servers, system software, and IT
personnel, thereby simplifying the challenges associated with distributing and

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managing companywide software patches and updates. As a result, the adoption
of ASPs by businesses and organizations is expected to increase in the coming

06
years.

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Another recent development in computing and software delivery is known as
cloud computing. Cloud computing involves providing software and, in some
40
cases, virtualized hardware resources as services over the Internet. Users are not
required to have expertise in or control over the underlying technology
51

infrastructure in the cloud. The term "cloud" is used metaphorically to represent

the Internet, as depicted in network diagrams. Cloud computing leverages the
Internet to satisfy users' computing needs, with vendors like SAP Business
50

ByDesign, MidlandHR's "iTrent as a Service," Salesforce.com, and Google

Apps offering common business applications accessible via a web browser
30

while storing software and data on servers.

It's worth noting that cloud computing is often confused with grid computing,
where the combined CPU power of multiple computers acts as a single large
computer when needed. While many cloud computing deployments rely on grid
technology, cloud computing is considered a natural progression from the grid
model. Most cloud computing infrastructure is based on reliable services
delivered through data centers and servers with varying levels of virtualization
technology. These services are accessible from any location with network
connectivity, creating a unified access point for users' computing needs.

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Cloud computing follows a utility-based model similar to how consumers pay

for electricity or natural gas. Users can avoid upfront capital expenses and
instead pay for resources as a service, whether based on consumption (e.g.,
resources used) or subscription (e.g., time-based). This approach leads to cost
savings, shared infrastructure, low management overhead, and immediate

91
access to a wide range of applications. Users often have the flexibility to
terminate contracts at any time, with service level agreements in place to ensure

06
agreed-upon service levels are met. It is anticipated that cloud computing will
become a ubiquitous computing model in the future.

10
Regardless of whether software is acquired commercially or accessed through
40
an ASP, software licensing remains a crucial aspect. Software licensing
encompasses various considerations, including intellectual property rights such
51

as copyright, trademark, and trade secrets, as well as contract law like the
Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). Contrary to popular belief, purchasing a
software application does not equate to ownership; it grants the user a license to
50

use the software under specified terms and conditions. Licenses often prohibit
activities like reverse engineering, modification, disclosure, or transfer of the
30

software. The purchaser typically has the right to sell or dispose of the rights
granted by the license but not to duplicate or resell multiple copies of the
software.

Even when software is obtained through an ASP, licensing remains essential. In

this scenario, the ASP obtains a license to distribute the software from various
software vendors and pays royalties based on the number of user accounts to
which the ASP provides access. Software vendors strive to offer convenient
licensing and access while combating software piracy, which can inflate the
ultimate cost of their products. The next section will introduce a new approach
to software licensing: open-source code.

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3.2 System Software: Computer System Management

System software comprises a collection of programs designed to oversee and
facilitate the management of a computer system and its various information
processing functions. Notably, operating systems and network management
programs play a crucial role as they serve as the essential software interface

91
bridging computer networks, hardware components, and end-user application
programs. System software can be categorized into two major divisions, as

06
illustrated in Figure 3.10

10
40
51
50
30

Figure 3.10: The system and application software interface

between end users and computer hardware.

1. System Management Programs: These programs are responsible for

overseeing the hardware, software, network infrastructure, and data
resources within computer systems during the execution of various user-
initiated information-processing tasks. Prominent examples of system
management programs encompass operating systems, network
management tools, database management systems, and system utilities.
2. System Development Programs: These programs are designed to assist
users in the development of information system programs, procedures,
and the preparation of user programs for computer processing. Notable

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software development programs include programming language

compilers and editors, as well as a diverse range of Computer-Aided
Software Engineering (CASE) tools. A more in-depth exploration of
CASE tools will be provided later in this chapter.

91
3.2.1 Operating Systems
Undoubtedly, the most vital component of system software for any computer is

06
its operating system. An operating system functions as an integrated suite of
programs responsible for managing the CPU's operations, controlling

10
input/output and storage resources, and providing an array of support services
while the computer executes user application programs.
40
The primary objective of an operating system is to enhance the productivity of
51

a computer system by ensuring its efficient operation. Operating systems

minimize the need for human intervention during processing, simplifying
50

common operations like network access, data entry, file saving and retrieval, as
well as printing or displaying output. Users familiar with computers understand
that the operating system must be loaded and activated before other tasks can be
30

accomplished. This emphasizes the indispensable role of operating systems as

the primary software interface between users and their computer hardware.

An operating system performs five core functions in managing a computer

system's operation: providing a user interface, resource management, task
management, file management, and offering utilities and support services, as
elaborated in Figure 3.11.

¥ User Interface: The user interface is the component of the operating

system that enables interaction, facilitating program loading, file access,
and other tasks. There are three main types of user interfaces: command-
driven, menu-driven, and graphical user interfaces. Presently, most

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software leans towards user-friendly graphical user interfaces (GUIs),

incorporating icons, buttons, and other visual elements, often utilizing
pointing devices like a mouse or touchpad.

91
06
10
Figure 3.11: The basic functions of an operating system
40
¥ Resource Management: Operating systems employ resource
51

management programs to oversee hardware and network resources such

as the CPU, memory, storage devices, telecommunications processors,
50

and input/output peripherals. Memory management programs, for

instance, track data and program storage locations, enabling efficient data
30

swapping between memory and secondary storage devices, effectively

providing virtual memory capabilities.
¥ File Management: Operating systems encompass file management
programs that govern file creation, deletion, and access, while also
maintaining records of file locations on secondary storage devices.
¥ Task Management: Task management programs facilitate the execution
of user tasks, controlling CPU access and allocating time slices to
different tasks. Multitasking, whether preemptive or cooperative, allows
multiple tasks to appear as if they are executed simultaneously.

While the terms multitasking and multiprocessing are sometimes used

interchangeably, they differ in terms of CPU usage, with multitasking typically

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utilizing a single CPU for multiple tasks. Modern microcomputers enable

multitasking by dividing primary storage into partitions for various software
applications. This capability enables the execution of multiple applications
simultaneously, enhancing user productivity.

91
Microsoft Windows: Historically, MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating
System) served as the dominant microcomputer operating system, characterized

06
as a single-user, single-tasking OS. Microsoft later integrated it with Windows,
providing a graphical user interface and limited multitasking. However, with the

10
introduction of Windows 95 in 1995, Microsoft began transitioning away from
this combination. Subsequent versions, such as Windows 98 and Windows Me
40
(Millennium Edition), brought enhanced features.

In 1995, Microsoft introduced Windows NT (New Technology), a powerful,

51

multitasking, multiuser OS tailored for network servers with high-performance

computing demands. Further enhancements were introduced with Windows
50

2000 in 2000.
30

In 2001, Microsoft launched Windows XP Home Edition and Professional

versions, unifying the Windows operating system lines around the Windows NT
and Windows 2000 code base. Windows XP marked a significant improvement
in performance and stability for consumers and home users.

Microsoft's commitment to security led to the development of Windows Vista

in 2006. Vista introduced numerous features, including an updated graphical
interface, improved search capabilities, multimedia tools, and revamped
networking, audio, print, and display subsystems. For developers, Vista
introduced the .NET Framework 3.0, aiming to simplify application
development.

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Notably, Vista aimed to bolster Windows security, addressing common

criticisms of prior Windows versions. Microsoft's "Trustworthy Computing
Initiative," initiated in 2002, sought to enhance security in Windows XP and
Windows Server 2003. This focus on security delayed the completion of
Windows Vista.

91
In 2008, Windows Server 2008 emerged, sharing its architecture and

06
functionality with Windows Vista. It featured various technical, security,
management, and administrative enhancements.

10
Windows Server 2008, in its Release 2, incorporated several performance and
security improvements, consolidating its position as a robust server solution."
40
UNIX: Originally developed by AT&T, UNIX is now also available from other
51

vendors, including Sun Microsystems offering Solaris and IBM offering AIX.
UNIX serves as a multitasking, multiuser, and network-managing operating
50

system known for its portability, enabling it to run on mainframes, midrange

computers, and microcomputers. Even today, UNIX remains a popular choice
30

for Web and network servers.

Linux, an affordable, robust, UNIX-like operating system, is rapidly gaining

market share, challenging UNIX and Windows servers as a high-performance
choice for network servers and web servers in both small and large networks.
Linux originated as freely available or low-cost shareware, developed by Linus
Torvald of Finland and a global community of programmers in the 1990s. While
Linux continues to receive community enhancements, it is also commercially
available with extra features and support services offered by vendors such as
Red Hat, Caldera, and SUSE Linux. Additionally, PC versions that support
office software suites and web browsers are readily accessible.

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The concept of open-source software (OSS) extends far beyond Linux. It

revolves around a simple premise: granting programmers the ability to read,
redistribute, and modify source code for software, resulting in a collaborative
evolution process. This agile development surpasses the slow pace of traditional
commercial (closed) software development, where only a select few have access

91
to the source code. While the open-source idea contradicts the conventional,
highly commercial, and proprietary nature of traditional software development,

06
an ever-growing community of developers has embraced it, recognizing the
hidden costs of the proprietary model.

10
Since 1998, the OSS movement has revolutionized software development,
40
tracing its roots back over 30 years. Unlike in the past, where software was sold
exclusively as a finished product, open source ensures free access to source
51

code, allowing users to install it on new platforms without additional costs and
receive support from like-minded users if the original creator abandons it. Bug
fixes are not solely reliant on the software organization, and a central
50

distribution mechanism simplifies source code access, often alongside

precompiled binaries.
30

Open source distinguishes itself from shareware, public domain software,

freeware, and software viewers by maintaining copyright and guaranteeing
source code accessibility. Licensing is underpinned by specific principles,
ensuring that source code remains available for all users and unrestricted by-
product specificity or constraints on accompanying software. The open-source
movement, despite facing opposition, particularly from Microsoft, continues to
thrive, reshaping conventional notions of software development.

Sun Microsystems offers an open-source office suite, OpenOffice.org 3,

aligning with the open-source principles mentioned earlier. This integrated suite
comprises word processing, spreadsheet, presentation graphics, and database

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management applications. It supports various data formats and is available for

free, under the LGPL license, allowing unlimited installations and distribution.

Mac OS X, based on a form of UNIX, is Apple's latest operating system for

Macintosh microcomputers. Offering an advanced graphical user interface,

91
multitasking, multimedia capabilities, and an integrated suite of applications,
Mac OS X represents a departure from previous Mac operating systems. It

06
incorporates a UNIX-like core called Darwin and proprietary components like
the Aqua interface, resulting in a distinctive GUI-based OS.

10
Mac OS X includes software development tools, notably Xcode, supporting
multiple programming languages. It accommodates both Intel and PowerPC-
40
based Macintosh machines.
51

Considering the diverse software applications and operating systems,

application virtualization emerges as a solution to run platform-specific
50

applications seamlessly. Application virtualization isolates applications from

the underlying OS, allowing them to operate as if interfacing directly with the
30

original OS. This concept builds upon the earlier virtualization practices, such
as partitioning hard drives, offering benefits ranging from cost savings to energy
efficiency.

In summary, virtualization, including application virtualization, blurs the

boundaries between machines, operating systems, and applications,
complementing the evolving landscape of cloud computing and enabling a
versatile, accessible, and interconnected digital world.

3.2.2 Programming Languages

To gain insight into computer software, it is essential to possess a fundamental
understanding of the role played by programming languages in the development

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of computer programs. Programming languages serve as the medium through

which programmers craft the sets of instructions that compose a computer
program. Diverse programming languages have been created, each
characterized by its distinct vocabulary, grammar, and applications.

91
At the most elementary level of programming languages, we encounter
Machine Languages, also known as first-generation languages. During the

06
early stages of computer evolution, programmers were compelled to compose
program instructions using binary codes unique to each computer system. This

10
form of programming involved the challenging task of formulating instructions
as strings of binary digits (comprising ones and zeros) or other numerical
40
systems. Programmers were obliged to possess in-depth knowledge of the inner
workings of the specific CPU (Central Processing Unit) they were employing.
51

This process necessitated the authoring of extensive sequences of precise

instructions even for relatively simple computational tasks. Programming in
machine language entailed specifying storage locations for each instruction and
50

data element used in the program. Every switch and indicator utilized in the
program also required an associated instruction. These stringent demands
30

rendered machine language programming a laborious and error-prone endeavor.

As an example, a machine language program for adding two numbers within a
specific computer's CPU and storing the result might take a form akin to that
depicted in Figure 3.12.

Moving up the hierarchy of programming languages, we encounter Assembler

Languages, often referred to as second-generation languages. These
languages were conceived to alleviate the difficulties associated with crafting
machine language programs. The utilization of assembler languages necessitates
language translation programs called assemblers, which enable a computer to
convert instructions from such languages into machine-level instructions.

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Assembler languages are frequently denoted as symbolic languages since they

employ symbols to represent operation codes and storage locations. Convenient
alphanumeric abbreviations, known as mnemonics, and other symbols are
employed to represent operation codes, storage locations, and data elements. For
instance, performing the computation X + Y + Z in an assembler language could

91
assume a form similar to that depicted in Figure 3.12.

06
10
40
51

Figure 3.12: Examples of four levels of programming languages.

50

Assembler languages are still employed as a means of programming a computer

in a machine-oriented fashion. Many computer manufacturers offer an
30

assembler language tailored to the unique machine language instruction set of

their computer line. This feature is particularly advantageous for system
programmers, who develop system software (as opposed to application
programmers responsible for application software), as it affords them greater
control and flexibility in designing programs for specific computers.
Consequently, they can produce more efficient software, characterized by a
minimized need for instructions, storage, and CPU time to execute specific
processing tasks.

High-Level Languages, often referred to as third-generation languages,

employ statements that encompass concise expressions or arithmetic operations.
Each high-level language statement functions as a macroinstruction, generating

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multiple machine instructions when translated into machine language using

high-level language translation programs known as compilers or interpreters.
High-level language statements resemble the phrases or mathematical
expressions used to articulate the problem or procedure being programmed. The
syntax (comprising vocabulary, punctuation, and grammatical rules) and

91
semantics (meanings) of such statements are detached from the internal code of
any particular computer system. For example, the computation X + Y + Z would

06
be expressed in high-level languages like BASIC and COBOL as demonstrated
in Figure 3.12.

10
High-level languages such as BASIC, COBOL, and FORTRAN are more
40
accessible for learning and programming in comparison to assembler languages
due to their less rigid rules, formats, and syntax. However, high-level language
51

programs tend to be less efficient than assembler language programs and

necessitate more computational time for translation into machine instructions.
Since most high-level languages are machine-independent, programs written in
50

high-level languages do not necessitate reprogramming when transitioning to a

new computer system, alleviating the need for programmers to learn a different
30

language for each computer type.

The term "fourth-generation language" encompasses a range of programming

languages that exhibit a more nonprocedural and conversational nature than
their predecessors. These languages are categorized as fourth-generation
languages (4GLs) to distinguish them from machine languages (first
generation), assembler languages (second generation), and high-level languages
(third generation).

Most 4GLs are nonprocedural languages that encourage both users and
programmers to specify desired results while letting the computer determine the
sequence of instructions required to achieve those results. Consequently, 4GLs

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have played a pivotal role in simplifying the programming process. Natural

languages, sometimes referred to as fifth-generation languages (5GLs),
closely resemble English or other human languages. Research and development
efforts in artificial intelligence (AI) have resulted in programming languages
designed to be as user-friendly as everyday conversation in one's native tongue.

91
For instance, INTELLECT, a natural language, might employ a statement like
"What are the average exam scores in MIS 200?" to program a straightforward

06
task such as calculating average exam scores.

10
In the initial stages of 4GL development, it was suggested that these languages
were ill-suited for high-volume transaction processing environments. Although
40
4GLs were celebrated for their ease of use, they were perceived as less flexible
than their predecessors, primarily due to increased storage and processing speed
51

requirements. In today's landscape of large data volumes, 4GLs have gained

widespread acceptance and are no longer considered a trade-off between user-
friendliness and flexibility. Object-oriented languages like Visual Basic, C++,
50

and Java are also classified as fifth-generation languages and have become
essential tools in software development. In brief, while most programming
30

languages segregate data elements from the procedures or actions that operate
on them, object-oriented languages unite data and the associated operations into
objects. An object encompasses both data and the actions that can be performed
on that data. For instance, an object might represent data pertaining to a bank
customer's savings account along with operations like interest calculations.
Alternatively, an object might embody graphic data, such as a video display
window, alongside the actions applicable to it.

In procedural languages, a program consists of procedures to perform actions

on individual data elements. However, in object-oriented systems, objects
communicate with other objects, instructing them to perform actions on

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themselves. For instance, to open a window on a computer's video display, a

starting menu object could send a message to a window object, prompting the
window to appear on the screen. This is possible because the window object
contains the program code necessary to initiate its own display.

91
Object-oriented languages offer ease of use and greater efficiency for
programming graphics-oriented user interfaces, a requirement for many

06
applications. Consequently, they have become the predominant programming
languages in contemporary software development. Furthermore, once objects

10
are created, they can be reused, a significant advantage of object-oriented
programming. For example, programmers can construct a user interface for a
40
new program by assembling standard objects like windows, bars, boxes, buttons,
and icons. Consequently, most object-oriented programming packages offer a
51

graphical user interface (GUI) that facilitates point-and-click, drag-and-drop

visual assembly of objects, a practice known as visual programming.
50

3.2.3 Web Languages and Services

HTML, XML, and Java represent a trio of programming languages that serve as
30

crucial tools in the construction of multimedia web pages, websites, and web-
based applications. Furthermore, both XML and Java have emerged as pivotal
components within the realm of software technologies, playing a significant role
in supporting various business initiatives related to web services.

HTML, which stands for Hypertext Markup Language, functions as a page

description language responsible for generating hypertext or hypermedia
documents. Within these documents, HTML incorporates control codes at
specified points, thereby creating links (also known as hyperlinks) to various
sections within the document or to external documents accessible on the World
Wide Web.

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It does so by embedding control codes within the ASCII text of the document,
which define titles, headings, graphics, multimedia elements, and hyperlinks
within the content. Notably, several top-tier software suites offer the capability
to automatically convert documents into HTML formats. These software suites
encompass web browsers, word processors, spreadsheet programs, database

91
managers, and presentation graphics packages. Additionally, specialized web
publishing programs such as Microsoft FrontPage, Lotus FastSite, and

06
Macromedia's DreamWeaver provide an array of features designed to facilitate
the creation and design of multimedia web pages, even for those without formal

10
HTML programming skills.
40
In contrast, XML, or eXtensible Markup Language, differs from HTML in that
it doesn't serve as a format description language for web pages. Instead, XML
51

is dedicated to describing the contents of web pages, including business-related

documents designed for web usage, through the application of identifying tags
or contextual labels to the data within these documents. For instance, a travel
50

agency's web page displaying airline names and flight times might employ
concealed XML tags such as "airline name" and "flight time" to categorize each
30

of the airline flight times on the page. Similarly, product inventory data on a
website can be labeled using tags like "brand," "price," and "size." This
classification of data by XML enhances the searchability, sorting, and analysis
of website information.

For instance, XML-enabled search software can effortlessly locate a specific

product if its data on the website has been labeled with identifying XML tags.
Moreover, a website employing XML can more effectively discern which
features its customers utilize and which products they explore. Consequently,
XML holds the promise of streamlining electronic business and commerce

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processes by facilitating the automated exchange of business data among

companies, their customers, suppliers, and other business partners.

As previously mentioned in this chapter, the entire textbook underwent revision

and editing for the current edition using an XML-based application known as

91
PowerXEditor, developed by Aptara. Let's now shift our focus to this distinctive
application of XML that aims to enhance efficiency within the publishing

06
industry.

Java, a product of Sun Microsystems, is an object-oriented programming

10
language that has sparked a revolution in the development of web-based
applications for the World Wide Web, corporate intranets, and extranets. Unlike
40
some programming languages such as C and Objective C, Java stands out for its
simplicity, security, and platform independence. It has been specifically
51

designed to cater to real-time, interactive, web-based network applications. Java

applications consist of small application programs termed "applets," which can
50

be executed on any computer and operating system within a network.

30

One of Java's major attractions is its ease in creating applets and distributing
them from network servers to client PCs and networked computers. Applets can
take the form of small, specialized application programs or serve as modules
within larger Java application programs. Notably, Java programs maintain their
platform independence, making them compatible with Windows, UNIX, and
Macintosh systems without the need for modification.

In contrast, Microsoft's .NET represents a comprehensive collection of

programming support geared towards Web services, which enable the use of the
Web, rather than local computing resources, for various services. .NET aims to
deliver a seamless, interoperable, and web-enabled interface for both individual
and corporate users, facilitating web browser-centric computing activities. The

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.NET platform encompasses servers, building-block services like web-based

data storage, and device software. Additionally, it includes Passport, Microsoft's
identity verification service that requires users to fill in their information only
once.

91
The .NET platform holds the potential to unify the functionalities of diverse
computing devices and maintain automatic synchronization and updating of user

06
information across them. Furthermore, it offers a premium online subscription
service with customized access to a range of products and services from a central

10
hub for application and software management. For developers, .NET introduces
the capability to create reusable modules, thereby enhancing productivity and
40
reducing programming errors.

The full deployment of .NET is anticipated to unfold over several years, with
51

intermittent product releases, including personal security services and updated

versions of Windows and Office that incorporate the .NET strategy. Visual
50

Studio .NET, a development environment, is currently available, with Windows

XP offering support for select .NET capabilities.
30

The most recent iteration of Java is Java Enterprise Edition 5 (Java EE 5), which
has become the primary alternative to Microsoft's .NET software development
platform for numerous organizations striving to harness the business potential
of web-based applications and web services.

Web services represent software components rooted in a framework of web and

object-oriented standards and technologies. They facilitate the electronic
linkage of applications across different users and computing platforms within
the web, enabling real-time data exchange in web-based applications shared
among businesses, customers, suppliers, and other partners. For instance, web
services enable a business's purchasing application to use the web to check a

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supplier's inventory before placing a substantial order. Simultaneously, the

supplier's sales application can utilize web services to automatically verify the
business's credit rating with a credit-reporting agency before approving the
purchase. Therefore, the term "Web services" is commonly employed by both
business and IT professionals to denote the web-based business and computing

91
functions accomplished through web services software technologies and
standards.

06
Web services are poised to become the fundamental software technology for

10
automating access to data and application functions between a business and its
trade partners. As businesses increasingly transition to conducting operations
40
online, web services will become indispensable in developing efficient e-
business and e-commerce applications. The adaptability and interoperability of
51

web services will prove vital in managing the rapidly changing dynamics
between a company and its business partners within the dynamic global business
landscape.
50

3.2.4 Programming Software

30

Numerous software packages are available to aid programmers in the

development of computer programs. These packages encompass a range of
tools, such as programming language translators, which translate programs into
machine language instruction codes that computers can execute. Additionally,
programming language editors, categorized as programming tools, assist
programmers in composing programs by offering diverse program creation and
editing capabilities.

Computer programs consist of sets of instructions written in programming

languages, necessitating translation by a language translator into the
computer's native machine language before execution by the CPU.
Programming language translator programs, often referred to as language

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processors, go by various names. An assembler, for instance, translates symbolic

instruction codes from programs written in an assembler language into machine
language instructions. Conversely, a compiler translates high-level language
statements.

91
An interpreter represents a specialized type of compiler that translates and
executes each statement in a program one at a time, instead of producing a

06
complete machine language program as compilers and assemblers typically do.
Java, in particular, serves as an example of an interpreted language, with Java

10
applets having their program instructions interpreted and executed on-the-fly as
they run on a client PC.
40
Programming tools: The realm of software development and the process of
computer programming have benefited from the inclusion of graphical
51

programming interfaces and a wide array of integrated development capabilities.

Language translators have historically provided some level of editing and
50

diagnostic capabilities for identifying programming errors or bugs. However,

contemporary software development programs now include robust, graphics-
30

oriented programming editors and debuggers. These programming tools assist

programmers in identifying and mitigating errors during the programming
process. They create a computer-aided programming environment, reducing the
tedium associated with programming while boosting the efficiency and
productivity of software developers. Additional programming tools encompass
diagramming packages, code generators, libraries containing reusable objects
and program code, and prototyping tools. All these programming tools
constitute essential elements of widely-used programming languages such as
Visual Basic, C, and Java.

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Chapter 4

91
Data Management

06
10
40
51
50
30

Chapter 4 – Data Management

 - 88 -

Chapter 4 – Data Management

4.1 Introduction
A database is a structured repository of data, an integral component within an
information system designed to support an organization in achieving its

91
objectives. It plays a pivotal role in enhancing organizational success by
furnishing timely, precise, and pertinent information based on stored data. As

06
an illustration, consider a database that supplies information about movies
featuring Tom Cruise, including his acting roles, productions, endorsements,

10
and other relevant aspects of his career. Through this database, an agent can
efficiently identify clients associated with a particular product or film, or
40
conversely, all the products and films linked to a single client. Moreover,
databases assist enterprises in producing information to cut costs, bolster profits,
51

track historical business activities, and explore new market avenues. In certain
instances, organizations collaborate on the creation and utilization of
50

international databases. For instance, six organizations, such as the Organization

of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the International Energy Agency
30

(IEA), and the United Nations, employ a database to oversee global oil supply.

A well-structured and accurate database is crucial for an organization's

information and decision support system. Without it, executives, managers, and
others may struggle to access critical information necessary for sound decision-
making. For example, the city of Albuquerque, New Mexico provides its
residents with access to a database containing important details such as water
bills and usage, neighborhood crime statistics, and campaign contributions for
elections. This database enables citizens to directly access valuable information
while also relieving city staff from the burden of supplying the data.
Additionally, a database serves as the foundation for most systems development

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projects. Poor database design can cause system development efforts to collapse
like a house of cards due to inaccuracies.

A suite of programs known as a database management system (DBMS) is used

to manipulate databases and facilitate interaction between users and other

91
application programs. These systems are typically purchased from specialized
vendors and offer centralized control over data resources, which is crucial for

06
maintaining data security and integrity. The combination of a database, DBMS,
and application programs make up a database environment, which is overseen

10
by a knowledgeable information system professional known as a database
administrator (DBA)., including security measures against unauthorized access.
40
Unfortunately, security breaches, like the one experienced by an Ivy League
college that exposed students' private information, have become all too common
51

due to the increasing accessibility of many databases via the internet.

Additionally, DBAs must remain vigilant regarding data quality and accuracy,
as exemplified by a database error in the United Kingdom that left 400,000
50

individuals without paychecks in March 2007.

30

In light of the escalating volume of digital information, databases, and database

management systems are assuming ever-greater significance for businesses.
According to a report by IDC titled 'The Diverse and Exploding Digital
Universe,' the digital universe is estimated to reach 281 exabytes or 281 billion
gigabytes. By 2011, it is projected to expand to 1,800 exabytes of electronic
data, equivalent to 1.8 zettabytes. To put this into perspective, if a tennis ball
represented one byte of information, a zettabyte-sized ball would approximate
the size of Earth. IDC urges businesses and organizations to proactively
establish policies, tools, and standards to accommodate the imminent surge in
digital data and information

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4.2 Overview of Data Management

An organization's ability to carry out essential business operations hinges on
both data and its processing capabilities. These functions are indispensable for
tasks like compensating employees, generating invoices, replenishing
inventory, and providing decision-making support to managers. Remember that

91
data encompasses unprocessed information, including metrics like employee
IDs and sales data. To convert data into valuable information, it must initially

06
undergo meaningful organization.

4.2.1 The Hierarchy of Data

10
Data is typically structured in a hierarchical manner, commencing with the
40
smallest unit of information utilized by computers, known as a "bit," and
progressing up the hierarchy to culminate in a "database." A "bit," denoting a
51

binary digit, signifies a circuit that can be in one of two states: on or off. These
bits can be organized into larger units known as "bytes," with a byte
50

conventionally comprising eight bits. Each byte serves as a representation of a

"character," which constitutes the fundamental unit of information. Characters
30

can encompass uppercase letters (A, B, C... Z), lowercase letters (a, b, c... z),
numeric digits (0, 1, 2... 9), or special symbols (., !, [+], [-], /, …).

Characters are combined to construct a "field," which is typically a name,

number, or a combination of characters describing a facet of a business object
(such as an employee, a location, or a vehicle) or an activity (such as a sale).
Besides being entered into a database, fields can also be derived from other
fields, encompassing computed fields like totals, averages, maximums, and
minimums. A cluster of interrelated data fields constitutes a "record." By
aggregating descriptions of an object's or activity's attributes, a record furnishes
a comprehensive portrayal of that object or activity. For instance, an "employee

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record" comprises various fields related to a single employee, such as their

name, address, phone number, pay rate, earnings to date, and more.

A compendium of interlinked records forms a "file." For instance, an "employee

file" is an amalgamation of all records pertaining to company employees, while

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an "inventory file" comprises all records pertaining to an organization's
inventory. Some database software may refer to these files as "tables."

06
At the apex of this hierarchical arrangement lies the "database," which
encompasses an amalgamation of integrated and interconnected files. In

10
summary, the hierarchy of data encompasses bits, characters, fields, records,
files, and databases as shown in Figure 4.1. Characters unite to compose fields,
40
fields combine to create records, records aggregate to form files, and files
amalgamate to establish a database. In addition to housing all these tiers of data,
51

a database also encapsulates the relationships that exist among them.

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30

Figure 4.1: The hierarchy of data

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4.2.2 Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys

Database concepts encompass entities, attributes, and keys, all of which hold
significant importance. An entity represents a broad category of individuals,
locations, or objects for which data is collected, stored, and maintained.
Examples of entities include employees, inventory items, and customers. Most

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organizations structure and store their data in the form of entities. Attributes, on
the other hand, denote the specific characteristics of an entity. For instance, an

06
employee can have attributes such as employee number, last name, first name,
hire date, and department number (as shown in Figure 4.2). Inventory items

10
possess attributes such as inventory number, description, quantity on hand, and
warehouse location. Similarly, customers are associated with attributes like
40
customer number, name, address, phone number, credit rating, and contact
person. Attributes are typically chosen to represent the pertinent traits of entities,
51

such as employees or customers.

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30

Figure 4.2: Keys and attributes

The actual value of an attribute, referred to as a data item, can be located within
the fields of the record that describe the entity. Most organizations employ
attributes and data items in their data management processes. Governments also
rely on attributes and data items for tasks like criminal investigations. For
instance, the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation is constructing a

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colossal computer database, known as Next Generation Identification, which

will house digital images of faces, fingerprints, and palm prints of both U.S.
citizens and visitors. In this context, each person in the database serves as an
entity, each biometric category constitutes an attribute, and each image serves
as a data item. This information will serve as both a forensics tool and a means

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to enhance homeland security.

06
As previously discussed, a collection of fields pertaining to a specific object
constitutes a record. A key, on the other hand, refers to a field or a set of fields

10
within a record that serves to identify that record. A primary key is a field or set
of fields that uniquely distinguishes a record, ensuring that no other record
40
shares the same primary key. The primary key plays a crucial role in
distinguishing records and facilitating their retrieval, organization, and
51

manipulation. For example, in the case of an employee record as depicted in

Figure 4.2, the employee number serves as an illustration of a primary key.
50

When you need to find a specific record that meets certain criteria, you can use
secondary keys to speed up the process. For example, if you call a mail-order
30

company to order clothes but don't have your customer number, the order clerk
can use a secondary key like your last name instead. They'll enter "Adams" and,
if there are multiple customers with that last name, they can check other fields
like your address and first name to find the right record. Once your record is
located, they'll process your order and send your clothes your way.

The Database Approach In the past, applications relied on distinct files; for
instance, a payroll application would operate using a dedicated payroll file. This
approach to data management, where individual data files are created and
maintained for each application program, is referred to as the traditional
approach to data management.

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Today, the majority of organizations have transitioned to the database approach

for data management, wherein multiple application programs share a common
pool of interconnected data. A database facilitates the sharing of data and
information resources. For instance, federal databases often include DNA test
results as an attribute for convicted criminals, which can be shared with law

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enforcement agencies nationwide.

06
To implement the database approach to data management, specialized
software—a database management system (DBMS)—is necessary. As

10
previously mentioned, a DBMS comprises a set of programs that serve as an
intermediary between a database and its users, including application programs.
40
Typically, this software acts as a buffer between application programs and the
database itself. Figure 4.3 provides an illustration of the database approach.
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Figure 4.3: The Database Approach to Data Management

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4.3 Data Modeling

When it comes to organizing a database, several key considerations must be
taken into account. These considerations encompass the determination of the
data to be collected, defining access permissions, and outlining potential use
cases for the data. Once these details have been ascertained, an organization can

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embark on the process of creating the database. The construction of a database
involves two distinct phases: logical design and physical design.

06
The logical design represents an abstract model of how data should be structured

10
and organized to meet the information needs of the organization. This phase
entails identifying relationships among data elements and organizing them in a
40
coherent manner. Given that databases play a crucial role in providing input and
output for information systems across various business functions, it is
51

imperative that users from all functional areas contribute to the creation of the
logical design. This collaborative effort ensures that the database effectively
50

addresses the needs of all stakeholders.

Following the logical design, the physical design phase refines the database for
30

optimal performance and cost-efficiency. This includes considerations such as

improved response times, reduced storage space, and lower operating costs.
Fine-tuning the physical design requires a deep understanding of the Database
Management System (DBMS). For instance, adjustments may need to be made
to the logical database design, such as consolidating certain data entities,
incorporating summary totals within data records, or duplicating certain data
attributes across multiple entities. These actions, though introducing planned
data redundancy, are aimed at enhancing system performance and expediting
the creation of user reports or queries.

Database designers use a data model as a tool to show the logical relationships
between data. This model visually represents entities and how they are

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interconnected. To create a data model, designers analyze specific business

challenges and the data needed to solve them. When done at the organizational
level, it is known as enterprise data modeling. This starts with exploring the
overall data and information requirements at the strategic level, followed by
examining more detailed data and information needs in individual functional

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areas and departments.

06
Several models have been developed to aid managers and database designers in
analyzing these data and information needs. An example of such a model is the

10
entity-relationship diagram (ER diagram). ER diagrams employ standardized
graphical symbols to depict the structure and relationships of data. In most cases,
40
boxes within ER diagrams represent data items or entities found within data
tables, while diamonds signify relationships between data items and entities. In
51

essence, ER diagrams provide a visual representation of data entities in tables

and illustrate their interdependencies.
50

ER diagrams play a crucial role in ensuring that the relationships among data
entities in a database are accurately structured. This alignment helps ensure that
30

any application programs developed align with business operations and user
requirements. Additionally, ER diagrams can serve as valuable reference
documents even after a database is in active use. They are instrumental in
guiding any necessary modifications to the database design.

Figure 4.4 presents an ER diagram for an order database as an illustrative

example. In this particular design, one salesperson serves multiple customers,
representing a one-to-many relationship, denoted by the "crow's-foot" symbol.
The diagram also depicts that each customer can place multiple orders, each
order can contain multiple line items, and many line items can be associated
with the same product—a many-to-one relationship. Furthermore, this database

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design can accommodate one-to-one relationships, such as one order generating

one invoice.

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Figure 4.4: An Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram for a Customer Order Database
51

4.4 The Relational Database Model

50

While various database models, including flat files, hierarchical structures, and
network models, exist, the relational model has emerged as the most popular
30

choice, and its utilization is poised to continue growing. The relational model
describes data using a standardized tabular format, where all data elements are
arranged in two-dimensional tables referred to as relations, mirroring the logical
equivalence of files. In relational databases, data is organized into rows and
columns within these tables, simplifying data retrieval and manipulation. It is
generally more comprehensible for managers compared to other database
models (see Figure 4.5).

Prominent databases built on the relational model encompass IBM DB2, Oracle,
Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, and MySQL. Presently,
Oracle leads the market in general-purpose databases, commanding
approximately half of the multibillion-dollar database industry. Oracle's latest

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edition, 11g, is notably sophisticated, featuring database grids that enable a

single database to run across a cluster of computers.

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30

Figure 4.5: A Relational Database Model

In the relational model, each row in a table signifies a data entity, commonly
known as a record, while each column represents an attribute, which is
equivalent to a field. Each attribute has a predefined domain that limits the
permissible values it can accept. This domain concept ensures data accuracy; for
instance, an attribute like gender would only accept values "male" or "female,"
while a pay rate attribute would exclude negative numbers. Defining domains
in this manner enhances data precision.

Data Manipulation After inputting data into a relational database, users can
perform inquiries and analyze the data. Fundamental data manipulation
operations include selecting, projecting, and joining. "Selecting" involves

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filtering rows based on specific criteria. For example, if a project table contains
information about various projects, the company president can employ selection
to isolate the row pertaining to Project 226, the sales manual project, and
determine its department number, which turns out to be 598.

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"Projecting" entails reducing the number of columns in a table. For instance, a
department table might contain the department number, department name, and

06
Social Security number (SSN) of project managers. A sales manager may want
to create a new table with only the department number and the SSN of managers

10
responsible for the sales manual project. Using projection, they can eliminate
the department name column and generate a new table containing just the
40
department number and SSN.

"Joining" involves merging two or more tables. For instance, one can combine
51

the project table with the department table to create a new table that includes
project details (number and description), department details (number and name),
50

and the SSN of the manager overseeing each project.

30

In a relational database, as long as tables share at least one common data

attribute, they can be interconnected to provide valuable information and
generate reports. The ability to link tables via common data attributes is a crucial
aspect of the flexibility and power inherent in relational databases. Suppose the
company president wishes to ascertain the name of the manager for the sales
manual project and the manager's tenure with the company. Given the existence
of the project, department, and manager tables (as depicted in Figure 4.5), a
simplified ER diagram (Figure 4.6) illustrates their relationships. Notably, the
crow's-foot notation near the project table signifies that a department can have
multiple projects. To fulfill the president's inquiry, the database management
system (DBMS) begins with the project description, searches the project table
to retrieve the project's department number, uses this number to locate the

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manager's SSN in the department table, and finally utilizes the SSN to access
the manager's hire date in the manager table. The common data attribute here is
the department number, linking the project table to the department table.
Similarly, the manager's SSN serves as the common element connecting the
department table and the manager table. The final outcome presents the

91
president with the manager's name and hire date as a response to the inquiry (see
Figure 4.7).

06
10
40
51
50

Figure 4.6: A Simplified ER Diagram

30

A primary advantage of relational databases is their capacity to link tables, as

demonstrated in Figure 4.7. This linkage reduces data redundancy and facilitates
a more logical organization of data. The ability to link to the manager's SSN
stored once in the manager table obviates the need for multiple entries in the
project table.

The relational database model reigns as the most widely adopted choice due to
its ease of control, flexibility, and intuitive organization of data into tables.

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10
40
51

Figure 4.7: Linking Data Tables to Answer an Inquiry

50

Figure 4.8 showcases a relational database management system, such as Access,

offering guidance and tools for creating and employing database tables. The
30

system provides information on data types and indicates the availability of

additional assistance. The capability to link relational tables also enables users
to explore data relationships without the need to redefine intricate connections.
Given these advantages, many companies employ the relational model for
extensive corporate databases, including those dedicated to marketing and
accounting. Furthermore, the relational model can be implemented on both
personal computers and mainframe systems. For instance, a travel reservation
company can develop a fare-pricing system utilizing relational database
technology capable of handling millions of daily queries from online travel
companies like Expedia, Travelocity, and Orbitz.

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10
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Figure 4.8: Building and Modifying a Relational Database
51

4.5 Big Data

50

We are amassing an ever-expanding reservoir of data and information from a

wide array of sources, including company documents, emails, web pages, credit
card transactions, phone messages, stock trades, memos, address books, and
30

radiology scans. Additionally, emerging data sources encompass blogs,

podcasts, videocasts (such as YouTube), digital video surveillance, RFID tags,
and other wireless sensors (as detailed in Chapter 8). Remarkably, organizations
now collect data on nearly all conceivable events, even those that were
previously not regarded as data, such as an individual's location, engine
vibrations, and temperature, or stress levels at various points on a bridge.
Subsequently, these data are subjected to in-depth analysis.

Both organizations and individuals face the daunting task of processing an

overwhelmingly vast and ever-accelerating volume of data. According to IDC,
a technology research firm, the world generates exabytes of data annually (with

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an exabyte equal to one trillion terabytes). Furthermore, global data production

is increasing by a staggering 50 percent each year. As initially discussed in this
chapter, this profusion of data is referred to as "Big Data," with "Big Data" being
capitalized to distinguish it from traditional data in large quantities. We find
ourselves inundated with data that necessitates interpretation and effective

91
management. To confront the growth and diversity of digital data, organizations
must employ advanced data management techniques.

06
At its essence, Big Data revolves around making predictions. These predictions

10
do not arise from teaching computers to emulate human thinking; rather, they
result from the application of mathematical principles to massive datasets,
40
allowing us to infer probabilities. Consider the following examples:

¥ Estimating the probability that an email message is spam.

51

¥ Assessing the likelihood that the typed letters "teh" should be corrected
to "the."
50

¥ Determining the probability that a jaywalker's trajectory and velocity

suggest they will safely cross the street, indicating that a self-driving car
30

only needs to make a minor adjustment in speed.

The effectiveness of Big Data systems derives from their access to vast datasets
upon which to base predictions. Furthermore, these systems are designed to
enhance their performance over time by identifying the most valuable signals
and patterns as additional data is fed into them.

4.5.1 Defining Big Data

Defining Big Data can be a challenging task. In this context, we offer two
distinct descriptions of this phenomenon. Firstly, according to Gartner, a
prominent technology research firm (www.gartner.com), Big Data is
characterized by its diversity, high volume, and rapid velocity. It comprises

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information assets that demand novel processing methods to facilitate improved

decision-making, the discovery of insights, and the optimization of processes.
Secondly, the Big Data Institute (TBDI; www.the-bigdatainstitute.com) defines
Big Data as expansive datasets that possess the following attributes:

Diverse in nature,

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¥

¥ Comprising structured, unstructured, and semi-structured data,

Generated at a high velocity with an unpredictable pattern,

06
¥

¥ Not neatly fitting into conventional, structured, relational databases

(which we will discuss later in this chapter),
¥

10
Requiring sophisticated information systems for effective capture,
processing, transformation, and analysis within a reasonable timeframe.
40
Big Data typically encompasses the following categories, though it's important
51

to note that this list is not exhaustive and may expand with the emergence of
new data sources:
50

1. Traditional enterprise data: Examples include customer information

from customer relationship management systems, transactional enterprise
30

resource planning data, web store transactions, operational data, and

general ledger data.
2. Machine-generated/sensor data: This category includes data from
sources like smart meters, manufacturing sensors, sensors integrated into
smartphones, automobiles, airplane engines, industrial machines,
equipment logs, and trading systems.
3. Social data: Social data comprises information like customer feedback
comments, microblogging site content (e.g., Twitter), and content from
social media platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, and LinkedIn.

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4. Images from various devices: These images are captured by countless

devices worldwide, ranging from digital cameras and camera phones to
medical scanners and security cameras.

Let's delve into a few specific examples that illustrate the vastness of Big Data:

91
¥ The Sloan Digital Sky Survey in New Mexico, which commenced in
2000, amassed more data within its initial weeks than the entire history

06
of astronomy. By 2013, its archive contained hundreds of terabytes of
data. In contrast, the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope in Chile, set to

10
launch in 2016, was projected to collect the same quantity of data every
five days.
40
¥ In 2013, Google processed over 24 petabytes of data daily.
¥ Every hour, Facebook users upload more than 10 million new photos and
51

engage with content by clicking "like" or leaving comments nearly 3

billion times each day.
50

¥ Google's YouTube service, with over 800 million monthly users, saw
users uploading more than an hour of video every second.
30

¥ On Twitter, the number of messages grew at a staggering rate of 200

percent each year, surpassing 450 million tweets per day by mid-2013.
¥ In the year 2000, only 25 percent of stored information in the world was
digital, while the remaining 75 percent existed in analog forms such as
paper, film, vinyl records, and others. By 2013, the estimated volume of
stored information worldwide had reached approximately 1,200 exabytes,
with less than 2 percent remaining in non-digital formats.

4.5.2 Characteristics of Big Data

Big Data possesses three distinct characteristics: volume, velocity, and variety,
setting it apart from conventional data.

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¥ Volume: As emphasized in this chapter, the sheer magnitude of Big Data

presents significant data management challenges, yet it simultaneously
bestows immense value. Regardless of their source, structure, format, or
frequency, data always hold intrinsic value. Data types that may appear
to lack value today are often a result of our current inability to effectively

91
analyze them. Consider, for instance, Google's earlier foray into
harnessing satellite imagery, capturing street views, and openly sharing

06
geographical data. At that time, the true value of such data was not widely
recognized. Today, we acknowledge their profound usefulness (e.g., think

10
of the numerous applications of Google Maps).
40
Think about machine-generated data, which is generated at a scale far
surpassing that of traditional data. For example, a single jet engine's
51

sensors can generate a staggering 10 terabytes of data within just 30

minutes. With over 25,000 airline flights occurring daily, the daily influx
50

of data from this single source is truly astounding. Smart electrical meters,
sensors in heavy industrial machinery, and telemetry from automobiles
30

further amplify the volume of Big Data.

¥ Velocity: The pace at which data enters an organization is rapidly

accelerating. Velocity is of paramount importance as it expedites the
feedback loop between a company and its clientele. Take, for instance,
the Internet and mobile technology, which empower online retailers to
compile comprehensive records not only of final sales but also of every
customer interaction and click. Companies that can swiftly leverage this
information, such as by providing tailored recommendations, gain a
competitive edge.

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¥ Variety: Traditional data formats tend to be structured, well-

documented, and slow to evolve. Examples include financial market data
and point-of-sale transactions, among others. In contrast, the formats of
Big Data are highly dynamic. They encompass a wide array of sources,
including satellite imagery, live audio streams, digital music files, web

91
page content, scans of government documents, and comments posted on
social networks

06
4.5.3 Big Data Sources

10
Big data sources can be broadly categorized into two main types: internal data
sources and external data sources. An example of big data sources is depicted in
40
Figure 4.9
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Figure 4.9: Example of big data sources

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1. Internal Data Sources:

¥ Internal data refers to data that is generated, owned, and controlled
by a company or organization. This data is typically generated
through the company's day-to-day operations, transactions, and
interactions with customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders.

91
¥ Examples of internal data sources include customer transaction
records, sales data, employee records, production data, financial

06
statements, and any other data that is collected and stored by the
company as part of its business activities.

10
¥ Companies have full control over internal data and can use it for
various purposes, such as business analytics, decision-making, and
40
improving internal processes.
51

2. External Data Sources:

¥ External data, on the other hand, refers to data that is not generated,
50

owned, or controlled by the company. This data is typically sourced

from outside the organization and can come from a wide range of
30

external providers and public sources.

¥ Examples of external data sources include:
- Publicly available data: Information from government
agencies, public databases, social media, news feeds, and
other publicly accessible sources.
- Third-party data providers: Companies that specialize in
collecting and aggregating data, such as market research
firms, data brokers, and data syndication services.
- Internet of Things (IoT) devices: Data generated by sensors
and devices connected to the internet, such as weather
sensors, GPS devices, and smart appliances.

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- Social media and web data: User-generated content, online

reviews, social media posts, and website analytics.
¥ Companies do not have direct control over external data, but they
can acquire and use it to gain insights, enhance decision-making,
and supplement their internal data.

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Both internal and external data sources are valuable for organizations in the era

06
of big data, as they provide a wealth of information that can be analyzed to
uncover insights, trends, and opportunities. Effective data management and

10
integration strategies are often needed to harness the full potential of both types
of data sources for business intelligence and strategic decision-making.
40
4.6 Database Management Systems
Ensuring the creation and implementation of the appropriate database system is
51

vital to guarantee that the database adequately supports both business operations
and objectives. But how do we go about creating, implementing, utilizing, and
50

maintaining a database? The solution lies within the database management

system (DBMS). As previously discussed, a DBMS comprises a collection of
30

software programs serving as an intermediary between a database and

application programs or users. However, the capabilities and varieties of
database systems can vary significantly. For instance, internet companies like
Twitter, Google, Brightkite, and others that offer GPS location services are
contemplating the development of a 'Unified Database of Places.' Instead of
each company individually constructing proprietary databases containing
business and attraction locations, they aim to pool their resources to create a vast
shared database encompassing details about every location on Earth. Such data
would power applications like Google Street View. Indeed, DBMSs are utilized
for managing diverse types of data for various purposes.

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Database management systems span a spectrum from small, affordable software

packages to sophisticated systems with price tags in the hundreds of thousands
of dollars. The following sections will explore a few popular alternatives. Refer
to Figure 4.10 for an illustrative example.

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Figure 4.10: Microsoft OneNote

30

Flat File: A flat file is a basic type of database program that does not establish
inherent relationships between records. Typically, flat file databases are used for
storing and manipulating a single table or file and do not follow any of the
database models discussed earlier, such as the relational model. Many
spreadsheet and word-processing programs include flat file capabilities. These
software tools can organize tables and perform basic calculations and
comparisons. For instance, Microsoft OneNote allows users to input ideas,
thoughts, and notes into a flat file. In OneNote, each note can be positioned
anywhere on a page or within a designated container. Pages are organized into
sections and subsections represented as colored tabs.. After creating a note, it
can be retrieved, copied, and pasted into other applications like word processors

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and spreadsheets. ResMed, a medical firm specializing in products for

respiratory conditions, employs OneNote to collect new ideas for product
enhancements and monitor the progress of those ideas from evaluation to
implementation. OneNote facilitates the company's efforts to enhance cost
reduction and efficiency.

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Similarly, EverNote is a free online database service capable of storing notes

06
and miscellaneous information. Given the vast storage capacity of today's high-
capacity hard drives, the popularity of databases capable of managing

10
unstructured data is expected to continue growing.

Single User Databases installed on personal computers are typically designed

40
for use by a single user. Software like Microsoft Office Access and FileMaker
Pro is tailored for single-user applications. Microsoft InfoPath is another
51

database program catering to individual users. It is integrated into the Microsoft

Office suite and assists users in gathering and organizing information from
50

various sources. InfoPath provides built-in forms for entering data, including
expense information, timesheets, and more.
30

Multiple Users: Small, medium-sized, and large enterprises require multiuser

DBMSs to facilitate information sharing across the organization via a network.
These robust and relatively costly systems enable dozens or even hundreds of
users to access the same database concurrently. Prominent vendors offering
multiuser database systems include Oracle, Microsoft, Sybase, and IBM. While
some single-user databases like Microsoft Access can be adapted for multiuser
support over a network, they often have limitations on the number of users they
can accommodate.

All DBMSs share common functionalities, such as offering a user interface,

physically storing and retrieving data within a database, enabling database

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modifications, data manipulation, and report generation. These DBMSs are

equipped to handle the most intricate data processing tasks, and because they
are accessible over a network, a single database can serve multiple locations
worldwide. For instance, the Linde Group, a global leader in industrial gases
and hydrogen production, employs its DBMS to serve its 50,000 employees

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spread across 100 countries, all access a central database stored in a data center
in Munich, Germany.

06
Schema: Because the DBMS is responsible for managing access to a database,

10
one of the initial tasks in the installation and utilization of a large database
involves providing the DBMS with information about the logical and physical
40
structure of the data, as well as the relationships among the data for each user.
This information is referred to as a schema, akin to a schematic diagram. In the
51

case of extensive database systems like Oracle, schemas are typically used to
define tables and other database components associated with individual users.
50

A schema can either be integrated within the database or exist as a separate

schema file. The DBMS can then reference a schema to determine how to access
30

the requested data in relation to other data elements.

4.6.1 Creating and Modifying the Database

The creation and modification of the database involve inputting schemas into
the DBMS, typically performed by database personnel, using a data definition
language (DDL). A DDL consists of a set of instructions and commands used to
define and describe data and relationships within a specific database. Through
DDL, the creator of the database can define the data and relationships to be
included in the schema. In essence, a DDL outlines the logical access pathways
and logical records within the database.

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Figure 4.11 illustrates a simplified example of a DDL used to CREATE TABLE

statement (creates a table EMP_TEST). Note the column specifications, data
type, and precision. Depending on the particular DBMS in use, different terms
and commands may be employed.

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Figure 4.11: Using a Data Definition Language
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Another crucial step in establishing a database is the creation of a data

dictionary, which provides a comprehensive description of all the data utilized
within the database. The data dictionary includes the following information:
50

¥ The name of the data item

Any aliases or alternative names used to describe the item
30

¥ The permissible range of values

¥ The data type (e.g., alphanumeric or numeric)
¥ The required storage capacity for the item
¥ Notation of the person responsible for updates and the various users with
access
¥ A list of reports that utilize the data item

Furthermore, a data dictionary may encompass a description of data flows,

record organization, and data-processing requirements. Figure 4.12 illustrates a
typical data dictionary entry. For instance, a data dictionary entry for the part
number of an inventory item could include details such as:

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Figure 4.12: A Typical Data Dictionary Entry

¥
10
The name of the individual who made the data dictionary entry (D.
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Bordwell)
¥ The date when the entry was created (August 4, 2010)
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¥ The name of the person who approved the entry (J. Edwards)
¥ The approval date (October 13, 2010)
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¥ The version number (3.1)

¥ The number of pages utilized for the entry (1)
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¥ The part name (PARTNO)

¥ Other potential part names (e.g., PTNO)
¥ The range of acceptable values (part numbers ranging from 100 to 5,000)
¥ The data type (numeric)
¥ The storage requirement (four positions needed for the part number)

Having a data dictionary is essential to keep a database organized and free of

unnecessary duplication, thus ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the stored
information. It also streamlines any required modifications to the database.
Moreover, computer and system programmers find data dictionaries useful as
they provide a comprehensive overview of the data elements within a database,
which helps them create the code necessary for accessing the data.

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4.6.2 Storing and Retrieving Data

A key role of a Database Management System (DBMS) is to serve as a mediator
between an application program and the database. When an application program
requires data, it makes a request to the DBMS.

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For instance, consider a scenario where an automobile dealership's pricing
software needs pricing information for a six-cylinder engine option instead of

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the standard four cylinders to calculate the total car price. The application
program sends a data request to the DBMS, following a logical access route.

10
Subsequently, the DBMS collaborates with various system programs to access
a storage device, like a disk drive, where the data is stored. During this retrieval
40
process, the DBMS follows a path to the physical location (referred to as the
physical access path) where the pricing data for this option resides. In the
51

context of pricing, the DBMS might navigate to a disk drive to fetch the price
data for six-cylinder engines. This relationship is depicted in Figure 4.13.
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30

Figure 4.13: Logical and Physical Access Paths

This same sequence of actions applies when a user seeks information from the
database. Initially, the user makes a data request to the DBMS. For instance, a
user might issue a command such as "LIST ALL OPTIONS FOR WHICH

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PRICE IS GREATER THAN 200 DOLLARS." This represents the logical

access path (LAP). Subsequently, the DBMS might access the section of the
disk containing option prices to retrieve the required information for the user.
This is the physical access path (PAP).

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However, difficulties can arise when two or more individuals or programs
attempt to access the same record in the database simultaneously. For instance,

06
an inventory management program might try to reduce the inventory level for a
product by ten units due to recent customer shipments, while simultaneously, a

10
procurement program might endeavor to increase the inventory level for the
same product by 200 units because of a fresh inventory receipt. In the absence
40
of proper database control mechanisms, one of these inventory updates could be
incorrect, leading to an inaccurate product inventory level. To prevent such
51

issues, concurrency control methods can be implemented. One possible

approach is to restrict all other application programs from accessing a record if
that record is being updated or in use by another program
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30

4.6.3 Manipulating Data and Generating Reports

Once a Database Management System (DBMS) has been successfully installed,
it empowers employees, managers, and consumers to utilize it for the purpose
of reviewing reports and accessing crucial information. An illustrative example
of this utility can be observed in the context of the Food Allergen and Consumer
Protection Act, enacted in 2006, which mandates food manufacturing
companies to generate reports regarding their ingredients, formulations, and
food preparation methods for public disclosure. With the assistance of a DBMS,
a company can seamlessly fulfill this regulatory requirement.

In certain database systems, a visual approach called Query-by-Example (QBE)

is employed to formulate database queries or requests. Similar to the user-

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friendly interface of Windows and other graphical user operating systems, users
can execute queries and perform various database tasks by simply opening
windows and clicking on the data or features they require (as depicted in Figure
4.14).

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Figure 4.14: Query by Example

Alternatively, database commands can be incorporated into programming

languages. For instance, C++ commands can be employed in straightforward
programs designed to access or manipulate specific data elements within the
database. An example of a DBMS query is as follows: "SELECT * FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE JOB_CLASSIFICATION = 'C2'." The asterisk (*)
signifies that the program should include all columns from the EMPLOYEE
table. Generally, the commands used for database manipulation are part of the
data manipulation language (DML) that is provided alongside the DBMS. This

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specific language empowers managers and other database users to access,

modify, and query the data contained within the database, thereby generating
reports. It is important to note that application programs interact with schemas
and the DBMS before directly accessing physically stored data on storage
devices like disks.

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In the 1970s, D. D. Chamberlain and colleagues at the IBM Research Laboratory

06
in San Jose, California, devised a standardized data manipulation language
known as Structured Query Language (SQL, pronounced as "sequel"). The

10
EMPLOYEE query mentioned earlier is written in SQL. In 1986, the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) adopted SQL as the standard query
40
language for relational databases. Since ANSI's endorsement of SQL, there has
been a growing interest in integrating SQL into relational databases on both
51

mainframe and personal computer systems. SQL offers numerous built-in

functions, such as AVG (average), MAX (maximum value), MIN (minimum
value), and others. SQL enables programmers to master a single powerful query
50

language that can be applied across a spectrum of systems, ranging from

personal computers to large mainframes (as depicted in Figure 4.15).
30

Furthermore, programmers and database users find SQL valuable because SQL
statements can be seamlessly integrated into many programming languages,
including the widely adopted C++ and COBOL languages. Given its
standardized and simplified procedures for retrieving, storing, and manipulating
data within a database system, SQL has gained popularity as a user-friendly
database query language.

Once a database is established and populated with data, it becomes capable of

generating desired reports, documents, and other forms of output. These outputs
are typically presented through screen displays or hard-copy printouts. The
output-control features inherent to a database program enable users to select

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specific records and fields for inclusion in reports. Additionally, users can
perform calculations tailored to the report by manipulating database fields.
Formatting controls and organizational options, such as report headings,
facilitate the customization of reports, creating versatile, user-friendly, and
powerful information management tools. A DBMS has the capacity to generate

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a diverse array of documents, reports, and other outputs, contributing to an
organization's pursuit of its objectives. Among the most common types of

06
reports are those that aggregate and structure data to offer summarized insights
into various aspects of company operations. For instance, accounting reports

10
often provide summarized financial information, including current accounts and
overdue accounts. Many companies rely on regular status reports to make
40
routine operational decisions, gaining visibility into the progress of specific
orders towards completion and delivery.
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30

Figure 4.15: Structured Query Language

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Databases also have the potential to provide valuable support to executives and
decision-makers, enhancing their ability to make informed choices. For
instance, Intellifit's database can aid online shoppers in making well-informed
decisions about clothing purchases. This database encompasses the authentic
sizes of apparel items from different clothing companies operating online. The

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process initiates with the scanning of a customer's body at one of the company's
locations, usually situated within shopping malls, resulting in the acquisition of

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approximately 200,000 measurements that construct a 3-D representation of the
customer's body shape. Subsequently, the database compares the actual body

10
dimensions with the sizes provided by web-based clothing retailers, ensuring an
optimal fit for the customer
40
4.6.4 Popular Database Management Systems
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There are many database management systems available for individual users,
such as Microsoft Access and FileMaker Pro. However, there are also programs
50

designed for professional programmers that run on midrange, mainframe, and

supercomputers. This market includes major players like IBM, Oracle, and
30

Microsoft, and generates billions of dollars in revenue each year. While

Microsoft is a dominant force in desktop PC software, its presence in the larger
computer database software sector is relatively small.

A new type of database system known as Database as a Service (DaaS) or

Database 2.0 is gaining popularity. DaaS is similar to the Software as a Service
(SaaS) model, where software is hosted on a service provider's servers and can
be accessed by clients through a network. With DaaS, the database is also hosted
on the service provider's servers and accessed by clients over the Internet. The
service provider usually handles the database administration in DaaS.. Both
SaaS and DaaS are integral components of the broader cloud computing
paradigm, which leverages extensive clusters of computers to host high-

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performance computing applications. Within the realm of cloud computing, all

information systems and data are managed and maintained by service providers,
and delivered over the Internet, thus freeing businesses and individuals from the
burdens of installation, servicing, maintenance, upgrades, and security.

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A growing number of companies are embracing the DaaS model, including
industry giants like Google, Microsoft, Intuit, Serran Tech, MyOwnDB, and

06
Trackvia. Organizations such as XM Radio, Google, JetBlue Airways, Bank of
America, and Southwest Airlines have adopted QuickBase from the service

10
provider Intuit to manage their databases externally. For instance, JetBlue
employs DaaS from Intuit for effective organization and management of IT
40
projects. Thanks to the accessibility of both the database and DBMS via any
internet connection, those involved in managing and executing systems
51

development projects can easily monitor their progress and that of their
colleagues from any location.
50

4.7 Database Applications

Contemporary database applications today harness the power of database
30

content to generate valuable insights. They engage in various fundamental

operations, including searching, filtering, synthesizing, and consolidating data,
through a multitude of database applications. These applications enable users to
seamlessly integrate corporate databases with the Internet, establish data
repositories and marts, leverage databases for strategic business intelligence,
distribute data across diverse locations, employ online processing, adhere to
open connectivity standards for heightened productivity, construct databases
using the object-oriented paradigm, and harness unstructured data such as
graphics, audio, and video.

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4.7.1 Linking the Company Database to the Internet

The capability to connect databases to the Internet stands out as a driving force
behind the Internet's widespread popularity. A significant portion of corporate
databases is accessible via the Internet using standard web browsers. This
accessibility to online resources, encompassing bank account information,

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student transcripts, credit card statements, product catalogs, and a myriad of
other data, offers unparalleled convenience to individual users while

06
simultaneously enhancing effectiveness and efficiency for businesses and
organizations. Leading entities like Amazon.com, eHarmony.com, eBay, and

10
many others have amassed substantial profits by seamlessly amalgamating
databases, the Internet, and astute business models.
40
Tech giants like Google and Microsoft have spearheaded the development of
51

Personal Health Record (PHR) systems aimed at providing physicians and

patients a centralized repository for all medical records, accessible through web
browsers. Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault exemplify the emergence
50

of "patient-centered" health records, empowering patients to take a more active

role in managing their healthcare. President Obama's initiative to establish
30

electronic health (e-health) records for all Americans by 2015, backed by a $17
billion investment in e-health projects and programs, will undoubtedly drive
extensive efforts by database companies to create accessible health and medical
database systems on the Internet.

While the prospect of accessing private medical information on the public web
raises concerns among privacy advocates, the benefits offered by this system,
such as the significant reduction in paper-based documentation and streamlined
data management procedures leading to a decline in clerical errors, garner
support from the majority within the field. Robust encryption and authentication
technologies will be deployed to maximize the security of these systems.

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4.7.2 Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and Data Mining

Sound business decisions rely on raw data, which is distributed across various
locations and formats. Initially, this data is captured, stored, and managed by
transaction processing systems, designed to facilitate day-to-day organizational
operations. For decades, organizations have accumulated operational, sales, and

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financial data through online transaction processing (OLTP) systems. This data
serves as the foundation for supporting decision-making processes via data

06
warehouses, data marts, and data mining.

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4.7.2.1 Data Warehouses

A data warehouse is a database housing business information sourced from

40
multiple enterprise facets, encompassing processes, products, and customers. It
offers business users a multidimensional perspective on data for in-depth
51

analysis of business conditions. Data warehouses empower managers to delve

deeper for detailed insights or consolidate data for generating aggregate or
50

summary reports. Unlike transaction processing systems, data warehouses are

tailor-made for supporting managerial decision-making. They store historical
30

data extracted from operational systems and external sources (as shown in
Figure 4.16), refining and integrating this data to create a new information
repository optimized for business analysis.

Typically, data warehouses start as vast databases containing millions or even

hundreds of millions of data records. As data accumulates from production
systems, a historical database forms, enabling business analysts to track
organizational changes over time and evaluate current conditions. Regular
updates ensure data freshness and accuracy, with obsolete data purged to
maintain efficiency. Timely and automated data warehouse updates are critical
to preserving its value. It is customary for data warehouses to retain three to ten
years of current and historical data. Data-cleaning tools facilitate data

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consolidation, automate collection and verification, remove unwanted data, and

manage data within a database management system.

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Figure 4.16: Elements of a Data Warehouse

Data warehouses can also incorporate data from unique sources. For instance,
30

Oracle's Warehouse Management software can incorporate data from Radio

Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, which tags products during
shipping or movement. Honda Italia employs RFID to supply its data warehouse
with production-related information, using RFID chips to track vehicle
components throughout the production process. This detailed data empowers
production managers to identify and rectify problems swiftly, optimizing supply
chain efficiency.

The primary advantage of data warehousing lies in its capacity to establish

innovative data relationships. However, implementing a data warehouse for a
large organization can be challenging and costly, often exceeding $2 million.

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Table 4.1 provides a comparison between online transaction processing (OLTP)

and data warehousing.

Table 4.1: Comparison of OLTP and Data Warehousing

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4.7.2.2 Data Marts

Data marts are subsets of data warehouses, extending the concept of online
analysis of sales, inventory, and other critical business data from transaction
processing systems to small and medium-sized businesses and departments
within larger corporations. Instead of housing all enterprise data within a single
monolithic database, data marts focus on specific aspects of a company's

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operations, such as finance, inventory, or personnel. In some cases, a specific

data mart may contain more detailed data than the overarching data warehouse.

Data marts are particularly beneficial for smaller groups requiring access to
detailed data. Unlike warehouses with summary data for the entire organization,

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data marts contain tens of gigabytes of data, making them suitable for
deployment on less powerful hardware with smaller secondary storage devices,

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leading to cost savings. While any database software can establish a data mart,
some vendors offer specialized software designed and priced exclusively for this

10
purpose. Companies like Sybase, Software AG, Microsoft, and others provide
products and services that simplify and economize the deployment of scaled-
40
down data warehouses. The key advantage of data marts is their ability to place
targeted business information in the hands of a broader range of decision-
51

makers. An illustrative example is the U.S. Department of Defense's Defense

Health Services Systems' Clinical Data Mart (CDM), which delivers medical
information to over 9 million military personnel worldwide, addressing
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President Obama's call to enhance healthcare quality while reducing costs.

30

4.7.2.3 Data Mining

Data mining is an information analysis tool that automates the discovery of
patterns and relationships within a data warehouse, akin to sifting for gold in a
mountain of data to uncover valuable insights. For instance, Brooks Brothers,
the oldest clothing retailer in the U.S., employs data mining to provide store
managers with reports that enhance store performance and customer
satisfaction.

Data mining aims to extract patterns, trends, and rules from data warehouses to
assess proposed business strategies, enhancing competitiveness, profitability,
and business processes. It is extensively used in marketing to boost customer
retention, identify cross-selling opportunities, manage campaigns, analyze

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markets, channels, and pricing, and segment customers, particularly for one-to-
one marketing. Data-mining tools aid users in finding answers to unanticipated
questions. E-commerce offers significant opportunities for effective data
mining, where user traffic through websites is analyzed to personalize the site
and develop targeted sales promotions. However, concerns about data privacy

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arise, as seen in instances like Facebook sharing member data with commercial
partners for targeted marketing campaigns.

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Predictive analysis, a form of data mining, combines historical data with

10
assumptions about future conditions to forecast outcomes, such as future
product sales or customer default probabilities. Retailers employ predictive
40
analysis to convert occasional customers into frequent buyers by predicting their
potential purchases with suitable incentives. Various companies, including
51

Analytics, Magnify, NCR Teradata, SAS Institute, Sightward, SPSS, and

Quadstone, have developed predictive analysis tools, that analyze customer lists
and a year's worth of sales data to identify profitable market segments.
50

The American Airlines Consumer Research Department utilizes predictive

30

analysis to guide corporate decisions. Passengers on approximately 100 of

American Airlines' 3,300 daily flights participate in brief surveys. The collected
data undergoes processing with predictive analytics software in a data
warehouse, generating valuable statistics for optimizing flight schedules,
staffing, in-flight services, and other airline considerations.

Traditional DBMS vendors, such as Oracle, Sybase, Tandem, and Red Brick
Systems, recognize the immense potential of data mining and are incorporating
data-mining capabilities into their products.

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4.7.3 Business Intelligence

The utilization of databases in the context of business intelligence is intricately
connected to the concept of data mining. Business intelligence (BI)
encompasses the acquisition of relevant information in a timely and usable
format, followed by its analysis to exert a positive influence on business

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strategies, tactics, or operations. A case in point is IMS Health, which offers a
BI system tailored to assist pharmaceutical industry businesses in tailoring their

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marketing efforts towards physicians, pharmacists, nurses, consumers,
government agencies, and nonprofit healthcare organizations. BI transforms raw

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data into actionable insights that are disseminated across an organization,
shedding light on the root causes of issues and, when effectively implemented,
40
enhancing business operations. For instance, Puma North America, a renowned
athletic footwear manufacturer, leverages SPSS software to provide sales
51

consultants with essential business intelligence. Puma's 70 independent sales

consultants rely on SPSS to access crucial information for making informed
50

decisions regarding orders, shipments, and product availability.

Competitive intelligence represents a facet of business intelligence, primarily

30

focusing on information related to competitors and how this knowledge impacts

strategic planning, tactics, and day-to-day operations. Competitive intelligence
plays a pivotal role in a company's ability to adapt swiftly and effectively to
dynamic market conditions. It's essential to note that competitive intelligence
should not be conflated with espionage; it involves lawful and ethical means of
gathering information, often through the examination of publicly available
sources, interviews, and other legitimate methods. Through the adept use of
various analytical tools, skilled competitive intelligence professionals can
bridge informational gaps using deductive methods.

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The term "counterintelligence" delineates the measures adopted by an

organization to safeguard its information from being sought after by "hostile"
intelligence collectors. One of the most effective counterintelligence strategies
involves defining and controlling the dissemination of "trade secret"
information that holds relevance to the company.

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4.7.4 Distributed Databases

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Distributed processing entails deploying processing units across various
locations and establishing connections between them through

10
telecommunications equipment. A distributed database, which is a database
wherein data can be distributed across multiple smaller databases interconnected
40
via telecommunications devices, operates on a similar principle. Consider, for
instance, a scenario where a user at the Milwaukee branch of a clothing
51

manufacturer requests data that is physically stored at the corporate headquarters

in Milan, Italy. In this setup, the user need not be aware of the actual physical
storage location of the data (refer to Figure 4.17).
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30

Figure 4.17: The Use of a Distributed Database

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Distributed databases offer corporations and other organizations increased

flexibility in terms of how they organize and utilize their databases. Local
offices can independently create, manage, and utilize their databases, while
individuals at different offices can access and share data within these local
databases. Granting local sites direct access to frequently used data can

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significantly enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness. For example,
the New York City Police Department employs thousands of officers who

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search for information located on servers situated across the city.

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Despite the advantages, distributed processing presents additional challenges in
terms of integrating different databases (information integration), upholding
40
data security, ensuring accuracy, timeliness, and adherence to standards.
Distributed databases facilitate direct access to a larger number of users at
51

various locations; however, controlling access to and modifications of data can

be challenging at times. Additionally, since distributed databases rely on
telecommunications lines for data transmission, accessing data may be subject
50

to delays.
30

The process of data synchronization ensures that replicated databases are

consistent and up-to-date with each other, aligning with the organization's
needs. This can be useful for a railroad company, as a replicated database can
improve punctuality, safety, and reliability. The primary database can contain
important information such as fares and routes. Data can be constantly copied
from the master database to multiple remote servers located throughout the
country, but these remote sites can only read the data. The latest figures on ticket
sales and reservations from the remote sites can be sent back to the main
database.

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4.7.5 Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

For nearly two decades, multidimensional databases and their analytical
information presentation systems have been captivating audiences with flashy
sales demonstrations and trade show exhibits. If you wanted to know where a
particular product was performing well, you simply had to inquire, and a vibrant

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table showcasing sales performance across regions, product categories, and
timeframes would instantly grace the screen. This technology, known as online

06
analytical processing (OLAP), has evolved to efficiently store and deliver data
warehouse information. Leading OLAP software providers include Microsoft,

10
Cognos, SAP, Business Objects, MicroStrategy, Applix, Infor, and Oracle. Blue
Mountain, the largest mountain resort in Ontario, harnesses OLAP to enable its
40
analysts, managers, and executives to swiftly comprehend extensive and
intricate datasets. With 13 distinct business lines, encompassing restaurants, ski
51

ticketing, call centers, and lodging, decision-makers utilize the OLAP system to
explore data across various dimensions and delve into specifics.
50

The true worth of data ultimately resides in the decisions it empowers. Robust
information analysis tools like OLAP and data mining, when integrated into a
30

data warehousing framework, sharpen the focus on market conditions and

empower organizations to deliver heightened competitive value. OLAP offers
top-down, query-driven data analysis, whereas data mining employs a bottom-
up, discovery-driven approach. OLAP entails iterative testing of user-generated
hypotheses, whereas data mining operates without preconceptions, identifying
facts and conclusions based on uncovered patterns. OLAP, or multidimensional
analysis, demands significant human ingenuity and interaction with the database
to unearth information, whereas users of data mining tools don't need to
formulate specific queries; their approach is more along the lines of, "Here's the
data; reveal the intriguing patterns." For instance, a data mining tool in a credit
card company's customer database can construct a profile of fraudulent activity

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based on historical data. Subsequently, this profile can be applied to all

incoming transaction data to identify and thwart fraudulent behavior that might
otherwise go unnoticed. Table 4.2 provides a comparison between OLAP and
data mining.

Table 4.2: Comparison of OLAP and Data Mining

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4.7.6 Object-Relational Database Management Systems
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In the realm of object-oriented databases, the fundamental approach aligns

closely with the principles of object-oriented programming, as elaborated upon
50

in Chapter 2. In this paradigm, both the data and the corresponding processing
instructions find their abode within the database. To illustrate, an object-oriented
30

database has the capability to store not just monthly expenses but also the
instructions essential for computing a monthly budget based on those expenses.
In contrast, a conventional DBMS typically confines itself to storing only the
monthly expenses. An exemplary illustration of the efficacy of this approach
can be found in Skype, the renowned Internet phone service, which has found
great satisfaction in employing an object-oriented database derived from
PostgreSQL. The inherent object-oriented nature of this database empowered
Skype to refine and expand its database as the company scaled and evolved.
Object-oriented databases prove particularly advantageous when dealing with
intricate data that necessitates rapid and efficient processing.

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Within an object-oriented database, a 'method' corresponds to a procedure or an

action. For instance, a 'sales tax method' might denote the procedure for
calculating the appropriate sales tax for an order or sale—such as multiplying
the total order amount by 7 percent in cases where that constitutes the local sales
tax. A 'message' denotes a request for executing or running a method. In

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practical terms, a sales clerk could transmit a message to the object-oriented
database, instructing it to calculate the sales tax for a new order. Many object-

06
oriented databases feature their unique query language, known as the 'object
query language' (OQL), which bears similarities to SQL, as previously

10
discussed.
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An object-oriented database relies on an object-oriented database management
system (OODBMS) to furnish a user interface and establish connections with
51

other software applications. Prominent computer vendors engaged in the sale or

lease of OODBMSs encompass Versant and Objectivity. Numerous
organizations opt for object-oriented databases due to their formidable
50

processing capabilities. Versant’s Object-Oriented Database Management

System (OODBMS) has been widely adopted in various industries such as
30

telecommunications, defense, online gaming, healthcare, and government

agencies. The Object Database Management Group (www.odmg.org) has
formulated the Object Data Standard as a design standard for the development
of object-oriented database systems.

On the other hand, an ORDBMS offers a complete set of relational database

features together with the flexibility for third-party entities to add new data types
and operations into the database. These new data types may include unstructured
text, audio, images, spatial data, or time series data, requiring fresh indexing,
optimization, and retrieval functionalities. ORDBMS vendors provide a set of
APIs that allow users to integrate external data definitions and methods into the

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database system. Essentially, these vendors offer a standardized interface that

allows users to smoothly integrate custom instructions. Oracle and IBM use
terms like "DataBlades," "Cartridges," and "Extenders" to describe the plugins
available for their respective products. Other plugins serve as gateways to
interact with web servers.

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4.7.7 Visual, Audio, and Other Database Systems

06
Organizations are realizing the importance of managing large amounts of visual
and audio signals, in addition to raw data. A good example is credit card

10
companies, which use scanners to input images of charge slips into an image
database for efficient management. These images are then stored within the
40
database and subsequently organized by customer name, allowing for printing
and inclusion with monthly statements. Similarly, medical professionals employ
51

image databases to store and transmit x-rays to clinics distant from the primary
hospital. Image databases also find utility in the realms of financial services,
50

insurance, and government, serving as repositories for critical records and

replacements for paper documents. In the pharmaceutical sector, there's often a
30

need to analyze numerous visual images from laboratory settings. Visual

databases can be accommodated in various ways, including within certain
object-relational databases or specialized database systems. Furthermore,
numerous relational databases have the capacity to house image data.

The amalgamation and analysis of data from diverse databases pose a growing
challenge. Global corporations, for example, sometimes require the analysis of
sales and accounting data stored in disparate database systems worldwide.
Companies such as IBM have responded by developing virtual database
systems, enabling the seamless collaboration of different databases as a unified
system. This merging of separate databases is sometimes referred to as a
federated database system. Lloyd's of London, a globally acclaimed insurer,

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successfully integrated its database with that of the International Underwriting

Association (IUA), resulting in the creation of a virtual database that not only
enhanced customer service but also reduced costs.

In addition to visual, audio, and virtual databases, there are other specialized

91
database systems tailored to meet specific business needs. Spatial data
technology, for instance, involves the use of a database to store and access data

06
based on their respective geographical locations, facilitating spatial queries and
analysis. Notably, MapInfo software by Pitney Bowes is utilized by businesses

10
like Home Depot, Sonic Restaurants, CVS Corporation, and Chico's to make
informed decisions about the optimal placement of new stores and restaurants
40
based on geospatial demographics. It also aids law enforcement agencies and
emergency response teams in disaster preparedness and community protection.
51

The software supplies insights into local competition, population trends, and
traffic patterns, predicting a business's performance in a given location.
Furthermore, builders and insurance companies rely on spatial data to inform
50

decisions related to natural hazards. Spatial data technology can even enhance
financial risk management by organizing information according to investment
30

type, currency, interest rates, and time. This technology proves invaluable in
geographic information systems (GIS), enabling the visualization of data on
maps

Chapter 4 – Data Management

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Chapter 5

91
Developing Business

06
Solutions
10
40
51
50
30

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

5.1 Developing Business Systems

Imagine your company's CEO tasks you with finding a web-based solution for
facilitating communication between the sales team and the rest of the company.

91
How would you approach this challenge? Would you simply dive in, hoping to
stumble upon a workable solution? How can you ensure that your solution aligns

06
with your company's needs? Is there a structured method for tackling this?
Indeed, there is – it's known as the systems approach.

10
When applied to crafting information systems solutions for business challenges,
40
this problem-solving approach is termed "information systems development" or
"application development." This section elucidates how the systems approach
51

can be leveraged to design business systems and applications that cater to a

company's needs and the expectations of its employees and stakeholders.
50

5.1.1 Systems Approach

30

The systems approach to problem-solving involves adopting a systems-oriented

mindset to identify problems and opportunities, followed by analyzing and
formulating practical solutions through a series of interrelated activities.
1. Identifying and characterizing a problem or opportunity using systems
thinking.
2. Formulating and evaluating various system-based solutions.
3. Opting for the system solution that best satisfies your requirements.
4. Designing the chosen system solution.
5. Executing and assessing the success of the designed system.

Creating effective information system solutions for business challenges is a

significant undertaking faced by today's business managers and professionals.

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In your role as a business professional, you will have the responsibility of

suggesting and crafting innovative uses of information technologies to benefit
your company. Meanwhile, as a business manager, you will frequently oversee
the development endeavors undertaken by information systems specialists and
other business end users.

91
The development of most computer-based information systems adheres to a

06
structured development process. As depicted in Figure 5.1, a comprehensive IS
development cycle encompasses numerous essential tasks that must be executed

10
and managed. Within this development framework, end users and information
specialists collaborate to design information system applications based on a
40
thorough analysis of an organization's business requirements. Other critical
activities include assessing the economic and technical viability of proposed
51

applications, acquiring and mastering any necessary software for system

implementation, and continually enhancing systems to uphold their business
value.
50
30

Figure 5.1: Stages for developing IS solutions

5.1.2 System Thinking

Employing systems thinking to comprehend a problem or opportunity is pivotal

in the systems approach. Management consultant and author Peter Senge calls
this concept the "fifth discipline." He argues that mastering systems thinking,

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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along with other disciplines such as personal mastery, mental models, shared
vision, and team learning, is crucial for personal fulfillment and business
triumph in an ever-evolving world. Systems thinking essentially involves
"seeing the forest and the trees" in any given scenario by:
¥ Recognizing interconnections among systems instead of linear cause-

91
and-effect sequences when events transpire.
¥ Discerning processes of change amid systems rather than isolated

06
"snapshots" of change during transitions.

10
One way to cultivate systems thinking is by identifying systems, subsystems,
and constituent components within any scenario under scrutiny. This approach
40
is also known as adopting a systems context or maintaining a systemic outlook.
For instance, when encountering a problem or opportunity within a business
51

organization or process, one can consider it as a system comprising input,

processing, output, feedback, and control elements. Subsequently, to understand
and rectify the issue, one would assess whether these fundamental system
50

functions are adequately performed. Refer to Figure 5.2 for visual clarity.
30

Figure 5.2: An example of systems thinking

Consider an example: viewing a business's sales process as a system allows you

to inquire whether poor sales performance (output) arises from inadequate sales
effort (input), outdated sales procedures (processing), erroneous sales data

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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(feedback), or deficient sales management (control). Figure 5.2 illustrates this

concept.

The overall process for designing and implementing information systems within
organizations is referred to as "systems analysis and design" (SA&D). This

91
process encompasses activities such as identifying business problems,
proposing information system solutions to address one or more identified issues,

06
and devising and executing the proposed solution to achieve the organization's
goals.

10
Today, several approaches to SA&D exist, with object-oriented analysis and
design and the life cycle approach being the most prevalent. Although each
40
approach has its merits and drawbacks and diverges in various aspects, they all
revolve around the analysis and design of a successful information system. The
51

choice between these approaches often hinges on the nature of the system under
examination and the clarity of user-defined needs and requirements.
50

While there is a multitude of development approaches, it's important to note that

30

understanding the core principles of the two primary approaches will facilitate
comprehension of nuances in others. Regardless of the approach's name or
specifics, the fundamental concerns remain constant. Thus, this text
concentrates on the life cycle approach as it serves as the foundation for all other
methods.

5.2 Systems Development Life Cycle

One method within the systems approach, and the one most prevalent in
organizational systems analysis and design, is a multi-step, iterative process
known as the systems development life cycle (SDLC). Figure 5.3 illustrates the
activities within each stage of this process: investigation, analysis, design,
implementation, and maintenance.

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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91
06
10
40
51
50
30

Figure 5.3: The activities of SDLC

It's essential to realize that all SDLC activities are closely intertwined and reliant
on each other. Consequently, in practical terms, multiple developmental
activities may occur concurrently, and certain tasks within a given step may be

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revisited. Hence, both users and systems analysts may revisit previous activities
to refine and enhance a system in development.

We delve into the activities and outcomes of each step in the systems
development cycle in this chapter. Questions like "Do we have business

91
opportunities? What are our business priorities? How can information
technologies provide information system solutions that address our business

06
priorities?" are central to the systems investigation stage – the initial phase in
the systems development process. This stage might entail assessing proposals

10
generated during a company's business/IT planning. Typically, the IT function
conducts feasibility studies to assess proposed information system solutions
40
aligned with a company's business priorities and opportunities outlined in its
strategic planning.
51

5.2.1 Investigation Phase

Given the potentially high costs associated with development, the systems
50

investigation phase often requires the creation of a feasibility study. This

preliminary study gauges the information needs of prospective users, resource
30

requirements, costs, benefits, and the viability of a proposed project. A team

comprising business professionals and IS specialists may formalize these
findings in a report, including preliminary specifications and a development
plan for a proposed business application. Upon approval of these
recommendations by company management, the development process proceeds.

It's crucial to understand that the preliminary feasibility study is an initial,

rudimentary assessment of a project's viability that necessitates continual
refinement. Nevertheless, it serves as an indispensable first step before
committing organizational resources to a project's development. However, in
some scenarios, particularly with very small or straightforward projects,
conducting a preliminary feasibility assessment may be impractical. Certain

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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changes in the business environment may also mandate immediate action,

regardless of assessed feasibility. For instance, if government regulations
change, an organization must adapt its systems accordingly. If a critical program
contains a major bug, the organization must address and rectify it. In such cases,
feasibility assessments may be better It is important to conduct a thorough

91
preliminary feasibility study before deciding on a solution. However, alternative
approaches can also be evaluated, provided that skipping the initial step is

06
carefully justified.

10
Therefore, the main objective of conducting a preliminary feasibility study is to
evaluate various system options and determine the most practical and desirable
40
business application for future development. The feasibility of a proposed
business system can be assessed by analyzing five major categories, as
51

illustrated in Figure 5.4.

50
30

Figure 5.4: five major categories for the feasibility study

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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The assessment of operational feasibility concentrates on the alignment of the

proposed development project with the existing business environment and
objectives, considering aspects such as development schedule, delivery date,
corporate culture, and existing business processes. Moreover, this evaluation
gauges how well the project aligns with the specific business goals established

91
during the proposal phase. In the initial phases of the operational feasibility
assessment, our primary concern is to ascertain whether the identified problem

06
warrants a solution or if the proposed solution effectively addresses the issue at
hand. Additionally, we must initially evaluate the feasibility of the project

10
schedule—can we identify and resolve the problem within a reasonable
timeframe? In the later stages of operational feasibility assessment, particularly
40
during the physical design phase of the SDLC, our focus shifts to strategic
compatibility and organizational impact. This involves assessing the extent to
51

which the proposed physical system necessitates changes in the organizational

structure or adjustments to current authority structures to accommodate the new
50

system.

The economic feasibility assessment aims to determine the degree to which the
30

proposed system will yield positive economic benefits for the organization. This
assessment involves identifying and quantifying all anticipated benefits from
the system and explicitly outlining all projected project costs. During the early
stages of the project, it's often impossible to accurately define and assess all
benefits and costs associated with the new system. Therefore, the economic
feasibility assessment remains an ongoing process, constantly weighing
definable short-term costs against definable long-term benefits. If a project
cannot be deemed economically feasible based on concrete costs, it should not
proceed, regardless of the outcomes of other assessment categories.

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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Typically, the assessment of economic feasibility involves preparing a

cost/benefit analysis. When costs and benefits can be precisely quantified, they
are termed tangible, while those that cannot are referred to as intangible.
Tangible costs include expenses such as hardware and software costs, employee
salaries, and other quantifiable expenditures required for IS solution

91
development and implementation. Intangible costs are challenging to quantify
and may encompass factors like the loss of customer goodwill or employee

06
morale due to errors and disruptions caused by implementing a new system.

10
Tangible benefits are positive outcomes, such as reduced payroll costs through
personnel reduction or lowered inventory carrying costs due to reduced
40
inventory levels. Intangible benefits are more challenging to estimate and
encompass advantages like improved customer service or faster, more accurate
51

information for management. Figure 5.5 provides a list of typical tangible and
intangible benefits with accompanying examples. Tangible and intangible costs
would be the opposite of each corresponding benefit.
50
30

Figure 5.5: Examples of typical tangible and intangible benefits

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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Technical feasibility assessment centers on gaining an understanding of the

organization's current technical resources and their suitability for meeting the
expected requirements of the proposed system. The analyst must evaluate
whether the existing technical resources, including hardware, software, and
operating environments, can be upgraded or expanded to meet the proposed

91
system's needs. If the current technology is deemed adequate, the project's
technical feasibility is clear. However, if not, the analyst must determine if the

06
necessary technology exists, with a key concern being the stability of such
technology. Despite vendor claims, the analyst must accurately assess the extent

10
to which the required technology exists in a form suitable for the proposed
project. Refer to Figure 5.6 for further details.
40
51
50
30

Figure 5.6: Examples of how a feasibility study might measure the feasibility of a proposed
e-commerce system for a business

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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Assessing whether a proposed system can function is distinct from evaluating

whether it will succeed. Human factors feasibility assessment places emphasis
on critical components of a successful system implementation: the managers
and end users. Regardless of how advanced the technology may be, a system
will not succeed if end users and managers do not perceive it as relevant and do

91
not offer support. In this category, we assess the level of resistance to the
proposed system, the perceived role of end users in the development process,

06
the degree of change the new system will introduce to end users' work
environments, and the current state of available human resources for project

10
execution and post-implementation system management and utilization.
40
The legal/political feasibility assessment for a proposed project involves a
thorough analysis of potential legal implications arising from the construction
51

and implementation of the new system. Legal issues may include copyright or
patent violations, breaches of antitrust laws, foreign trade restrictions, or
existing contractual obligations of the organization. On the political side, this
50

assessment focuses on understanding the key stakeholders within the

organization and how the proposed system may impact the distribution of
30

power, potentially leading to political consequences that could disrupt or

jeopardize an otherwise valid development effort.

5.2.2 Systems Analysis Phase

Systems analysis, unlike a preliminary feasibility study, involves an in-depth
exploration of end-user information requirements that form the basis for
designing a new information system. This comprehensive analysis includes:
1. Identifying the information needs of the company and its end users.
2. Analyzing the activities, resources, and products of existing information
systems.

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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3. Determining the information system capabilities necessary to meet the

information needs of various business stakeholders.

Prior to designing a new system, understanding the organizational environment

where the system operates is crucial. This includes knowledge of the

91
management structure, business activities, environmental systems, and existing
information systems. Detailed insight into specific business units or end-user

06
workgroups affected by the proposed system, such as a chain of department
stores implementing a new inventory control system, is essential. Consequently,

10
business end users are often integrated into systems development teams.

Examining the system to be improved or replaced is also important before

40
designing a new system. This analysis assesses how the system utilizes
hardware, software, networks, and people resources to transform data resources
51

into information products, considering aspects such as input, processing, output,

storage, and control activities. Evaluating factors like input and output format,
50

timing, volume, and quality is essential for effective end-user interaction with a
computer-based system. The systems design stage then specifies the necessary
30

resources, products, and activities to support the user interface in the system
being designed.

One of the primary activities in the analysis phase is constructing a logical model
of the current system. The logical model serves as a blueprint, representing what
the current system does without focusing on how it accomplishes tasks.
Constructing this logical model aids in comprehending the system's processes,
functions, and data, regardless of hardware or software concerns. Additionally,
non-computer components are included, analyzed, and understood within the
logical model.

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Creating a logical model necessitates a team effort, often involving IS analysts

and end users to determine specific business information needs. This includes
identifying information types required for various business activities, specifying
format, volume, frequency, and response time needs, and outlining information
processing capabilities for each system activity (input, processing, output,

91
storage, control). The primary goal is to identify what should be done, leaving
the 'how' to the design stage. Once this step is complete, a set of functional

06
requirements for the proposed new system is established. Functional
requirements are end-user information needs that aren't tied to specific

10
hardware, software, network, data, or people resources, which are determined in
the design stage.
40
5.2.3 Systems Design Phase
51

After completing the analysis phase of the life cycle, the systems design process
commences. This phase involves refining the logical model of the existing
50

system until it serves as the blueprint for the new system. This revised logical
model defines the functionality of the upcoming system. During the physical
30

design stage within this phase, users and analysts collaborate to determine how
the system will achieve its objectives. This is where matters related to hardware,
software, networking, data storage, security, and various other aspects are
deliberated and resolved. Consequently, systems design encompasses the design
activities that ultimately yield concrete system specifications, aligning with the
functional requirements established during the systems analysis phase.

A helpful framework for understanding systems design is depicted in Figure 5.7,

which underscores three primary deliverables emerging from the design phase.
In this framework, systems design encompasses three core activities: user
interface design, data design, and process design. These activities lead to the

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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formulation of specifications for user interface methods and products, database

structures, and processing and control procedures.

91
06
Figure 5.7: Systems design

During the design phase, the development process often incorporates a

10
prototyping approach, involving the rapid creation and testing of working
models or prototypes of new applications. This interactive, iterative process
40
facilitates collaboration between IS specialists and business professionals,
making the development process more efficient, particularly for projects with
51

ambiguous end-user requirements. Prototyping has also expanded the role of

business stakeholders in system development and has contributed to the
50

adoption of agile systems development (ASD). Refer to Figure 5.8 for further
details.
30

Prototyping can be applied to both small and large applications. Large business
systems typically adhere to a traditional development approach, but prototyping
may still be employed for specific components. For instance, a prototype of a
business application needed by an end user can be rapidly developed using
various application development tools. This prototype is then refined iteratively
until it meets acceptance criteria.

Chapter 5 – Developing Business Solutions

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91
06
10
40
51

Figure 5.8: Application development using prototyping

50

As illustrated in Figure 5.8, prototyping follows an iterative, interactive pattern.

End users, equipped with experience in application development tools, can
30

engage in prototyping themselves. Alternatively, they can collaborate with IS

specialists to create a prototype system through interactive sessions. This may
entail the development, testing, and refinement of prototypes for management
reports, data entry screens, or output displays. Typically, a prototype undergoes
multiple iterations before gaining end-user approval. Program modules are
subsequently generated using application development software, employing
conventional programming languages. The final application system is handed
over to end users for operational use. While prototyping is beneficial for end
users to create small software applications, its primary strength lies in its role as
a development tool within a comprehensive life cycle project, aiding analysts
and users in finalizing the interfaces and functions of large business systems.

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Let's delve deeper into user interface design, which holds significance as it is
the system component closest to business end users, and they are likely to be
involved in its design. The user interface design activity centers on facilitating
interactions between end users and computer-based applications. Designers
focus on crafting user-friendly and efficient forms of user input and output, such

91
as user-friendly Internet or intranet web pages.

06
As mentioned earlier, user interface design frequently adopts a prototyping
approach, wherein working prototypes of user interface methods are designed

10
and refined based on feedback from end users. This process results in detailed
design specifications for information products, encompassing elements such as
40
display screens, interactive user/computer dialogues (including the sequence or
flow of dialogue), audio responses, forms, documents, and reports.
51

System specifications formalize the design of an application's user interface

methods, products, database structures, processing, and control procedures.
50

Consequently, systems designers often develop specifications for hardware,

software, network, data, and personnel requirements for a proposed system.
30

In a traditional systems development cycle, your role as a business end user is

akin to that of a customer or client. You typically initiate requests for new or
enhanced systems, provide insights into your specific information needs and
processing challenges, and offer background information on existing business
systems. Subsequently, IS professionals collaborate with you to analyze the
problem and propose alternative solutions. Once the best alternative gains your
approval, it is designed and implemented. In some instances, you may
participate in a prototyping design process or be part of an implementation team
with IS specialists.

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5.2.4 End-User Development

When it comes to end-user development, you have the opportunity to take
charge of your own application development, with support from a team of user
consultants if needed. These consultants can provide assistance with training on
application packages, hardware and software selection, and database access, as

91
well as guidance in analyzing, designing, and implementing your IT business
application. Meanwhile, IS professionals are available to consult as needed.

06
It's crucial to bear in mind that end-user development should center on the

10
fundamental activities inherent to any information system: input, processing,
output, storage, and control, as elucidated in Chapter 1. When evaluating a
40
prospective application, the primary focus should be on the desired output it will
generate. What information is necessary, and in what format should it be
presented? Subsequently, scrutinize the input data that the application will
51

require. What data is available, and from which sources? In what format does it
exist? Next, delve into the processing requirements, understanding the
50

operations or transformation processes essential to convert available inputs into

the desired output. Among the available software packages, determine which
30

one best aligns with the required operations.

In certain cases, you may find that the expected output cannot be produced using
the available inputs. In such scenarios, adjustments to the expected output or the
acquisition of additional input sources, including data from external files and
databases, may be necessary. The significance of the storage component varies
depending on the nature and scope of end-user applications. Some applications
heavily rely on stored data or necessitate the creation of data for future use,
making them better suited for database management development projects
rather than spreadsheet applications.

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Control measures in end-user applications differ substantially based on factors

such as the application's scope, duration, user count, and the nature of the data
involved. For instance, measures are imperative to safeguard against accidental
loss or damage to end-user files. The most fundamental safeguard is the
systematic creation of backup copies of application files. Additionally, features

91
like cell protection in spreadsheets are employed to prevent unintentional
erasure of critical cells by users.

06
End-user development empowers you and other business professionals to devise

10
new or enhanced methods for executing your responsibilities without direct
involvement from IS specialists. The built-in application development
40
capabilities in various end-user software packages have simplified the process
of creating computer-based solutions. For example, Figure 5.9 illustrates a web
51

development tool that you could utilize to create, update, and manage an intranet
web page for your business unit. Alternatively, you might employ an electronic
spreadsheet package to craft a tool for analyzing weekly sales results for your
50

company's sales managers. Businesses are increasingly encouraging business

end users to engage in their own web development projects.
30

Figure 5.9: Microsoft FrontPage is an example of an easy-to-use

end-user Web site development tool

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References
[1] Patricia Wallace [May 4, 2020]. Introduction to Information Systems 4th
Edition.

[2] Ralph Stair and George Reynolds [Mar 6, 2017]. Fundamentals of

91
Information Systems 9th Edition.

[3] R. Kelly Rainer and Brad Prince [Dec 17, 2019]. Introduction to

06
Information Systems 8th Edition.

[4] Eric Frick [Nov 13, 2019]. Information Technology Essentials Volume 1:

10
Introduction to Information Systems.

[5] Patricia Wallace [Jan 1, 2019]. Introduction To Information Systems:

40
People, Technology And Processes, 3rd Edition.

[6] Ralph Stair and George Reynolds [Jan 1, 2017]. Principles of Information
51

Systems 13th Edition.

[7] R. Kelly Rainer, Brad Prince, et al. [Nov 11, 2013]. Introduction to
50

Information Systems: Supporting and Transforming Business 5th Edition.

[8] George Marakas and James A. O’Brien [Jan 19, 2012].Introduction to

30

Information Systems 16th Edition.

References
 -156 -

About The Author

MANAL A. ABDEL-FATTAH received a Ph.D. degree in

information systems from the Faculty of Computers and Information,
Cairo University. She worked as a Business Development Consultant
at the Management National Institute and a Project Manager at the

91
Ministry of State and Administrative Development. She is currently a
Professor at the Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, at
Helwan University. She has supervised many master’s and Ph.D.
theses. Her research interests include big-data analytics, data mining,

06
and evaluation methodologies. She is a reviewer of many information
systems journals. She has published more than 50 papers, for more information about her
publications see:

1.
2.
3.
Web of Science ResearcherID: ABD-8146-2021
Scopus AU-ID ( "Abdel-Fattah, Manal A." 55545556200 )
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2888-0367
10
40
4. https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Seje_KAAAAAJ
51

‫ﻣﻨﺎل ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﻘﺎدر ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﻔﺘﺎح ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮراه ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎت واﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت – ﻗﺴﻢ ﻧﻈﻢ‬
‫ و ﻋ ﻤ ﻠﺖ ﻛ ﺎ ﺳ ﺘ ﺸ ﺎ ر ي ﺗ ﻄ ﻮ ﯾﺮ ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻤ ﻞ ﻓ ﻲ ﻣ ﻌ ﮭ ﺪ ا ﻹ د ا ر ة ا ﻟ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑﻊ ﻟﻮ ز ا ر ة ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻨ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ‬، ‫ا ﻟ ﻤ ﻌ ﻠﻮ ﻣ ﺎ ت ﺟ ﺎ ﻣ ﻌ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻘ ﺎ ھ ﺮ ة‬
50

‫ و ﻟﮭ ﺎ ا ﻟﻌ ﺪ ﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ا ﻟﺨ ﺒﺮ ا ت‬،‫ ﻛ ﻤ ﺎ ﺷ ﻐ ﻠ ﺖ ﻣ ﻨ ﺼ ﺐ ﻣ ﺪ ﯾﺮ ﻣ ﺸ ﺮ و ﻋ ﺎ ت ﺑﻮ ز ار ة ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻨ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ اﻹ د ار ﯾ ﺔ‬، ‫ا ﻹ د ا ر ﯾ ﺔ‬
‫ ﺗﺸﻐﻞ ﺣﺎﻟﯿﺎ وﻛﯿﻞ ﻛﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎت واﻟﺬﻛﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﺸﺌﻮن اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻢ واﻟﻄﻼب وأﺳﺘﺎذ‬،‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
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‫ وھﻲ‬،‫ وﻗﺪ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﻹﺷﺮاف ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ رﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻤﺎﺟﺴﺘﯿﺮ واﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮراه‬،‫ﺑﻘﺴﻢ ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬
‫ ﺣ ﯿﺚ ﻗﺎ ﻣ ﺖ‬،‫ ﻓ ﻀ ﻼ ﻋ ﻦ أ ﻧﮭ ﺎ ﻟﮭ ﺎ ا ﻟﻌ ﺪ ﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ا ﻟﻤﺆ ﻟﻔﺎ ت ا ﻟﻌ ﻠﻤ ﯿﺔ‬،‫ﻣﺮ ا ﺟ ﻊ ﻟﻠﻌ ﺪ ﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ا ﻟﻤ ﺠ ﻼ ت ا ﻟﻌ ﻠﻤ ﯿﺔ‬
.‫ ﺑﺤﺚ وﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻻطﻼع ﻋﻠﻲ أﺑﺤﺎﺛﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺮواﺑﻂ ﺑﺄﻋﻠﻰ‬٥٠ ‫ﺑﻨﺸﺮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻔﻮق‬

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