Course Code: GEO CE

Course Title: Geology for Civil Engineers

LEARNING MATERIAL 2

CHAPTER 4

Structural Geology and rock mechanics

Engr. Mekaela Louise B. Taroy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Material Overview

2. Learning Outcomes
3. Concepts/Module Map
4. Introduction
5. Lesson 1 – Attitudes of beds Outcrops
6. Lesson 2 - Geologic mass
7. Lesson 3 - Study of structures Bearing on engineering constructions
8. Lesson 4 - Rock mechanics
9. Lesson 5 - Physical and Mechanical properties of rocks
10. Activity
11. Answers
12. References
 Learning Material 1
Geology for Civil Engineers
This learning material is composed of Lesson on Petrology.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:

Use the geologic literature to establish the geotechnical framework needed to properly design and
construct heavy civil works rock projects.

Learning Material Map

Structural Geology
and rock
mechanics

Study of Physical and

Attitudes of beds Geologic Mass structures Rock Mechanics Mechanical
Outcrops Bearing on properties of
engineering rocks
constructions

Introduction

Geology for Civil Engineers is a vital topic to be discussed in the field of Engineering. This
course covers fundamentals of geology applied to civil engineering problems. Topics include rock and
mineral types, soil properties, rock mechanics, geologic structures, active tectonics and earthquakes
hazards, slope stability and landslide, groundwater, rivers and flood hazards. Team projects includes
engineering geology case studies and site assessment investigation. This is a 2 unit course.
 Lesson 1

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

Geologic maps show the distribution of different types of structures and rock stratigraphic units
generally on a topographic base such as a quadrangle map. Key structures that are commonly shown
include (1) bedding attitudes, (2) anticlines, (3) synclines, and (4) faults.

A bedding attitude is defined as the strike and dip of a bed. Strike is the direction of a line produced
by the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with an inclined bed. From previous laboratories
you should know that based on the Principle of Original Horizontality sedimentary beds are originally
deposited as a series of horizontal layers one on top of another. Such beds would have an infinite
number of strike lines as the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with a horizontal bed is an
infinite number of lines oriented from 0o to 360o (Figure 1).

In contrast, if a bed is inclined relative to the horizontal, then its intersection with an imaginary
horizontal plane produces one and only one line (Figure 2). The direction of this line is the strike of the
bed.
Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering
Dip is the angle between the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined bed measured in a plane
oriented at 90o to the strike line (Figure 3).

In all of the above illustrations strike and dip is defined for an inclined layer such as a bed or lamination
or rock stratigraphic unit (e.g., a member or formation). However, the orientation of any planar
surface can be expressed by its strike and dip. For example, the orientation of a fault or foliation
surface is commonly given as its strike and dip.

Geologists use a Brunton or Silva compass to measure strike and dip. The various parts of the standard
Brunton compass are shown in Figure 4. When using the compass to determine the attitude of a plane
the edge of the compass is placed against the inclined surface and then the bulls-eye bubble is
centered. In this configuration the compass lies in a horizontal plane and its edge is parallel to the line
produced by the intersection of the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined surface or layer. The
sighting armature points in the direction that this line is oriented, and this direction is read directly off
the compass.

Once the attitude of a bed is determined it is entered into a field notebook and then is plotted on a
quadrangle map at the location that it was collected. Geologists across the globe have agreed that on
all geologic maps the attitude of a bed will always be represented by the same symbol. This symbol is
shown in Figure 5. The quadrant notation that is commonly used to express the strike of a layer is
illustrated in Figure 6.
 The concept of strike and dip is fundamental to the development of geological maps as it allows a
geologist to represent the 3D orientations of planes on 2D sheets like quadrangle maps.

Anticlines

An anticline that has not been modified by erosion would look something like the crest of an ocean
wave approaching the shore but frozen in time (Figure 8(A)). The hinge line of any fold is the locus of
the points of maximum curvature of a given layer in the fold (see Figure 8(A)). A cross-section of a fold
is a view of a vertical slice of the fold that is oriented at right angles to the hinge line (see Figure 8(B)).
Note that in Figure 8(B) below that the layers converge upward. The surface (in 3D) separating the
purple from the green layer is referred to as a contact. Geologists would say that a contact is a 3D
surface separating Earth material of differing lithologic aspect (Figure 8).

The bisector of a fold divides it into two symmetrical parts called the limbs of the fold (see Figure 8(B)).
In 3D the bisector and the hinge line define the axial surface, the plane that subdivides the fold in 3D
into two symmetrical parts (compare Figure 8(A) and (B) below). When an anticline is eroded, the
older layers always occur in the center of the fold with younger layers occurring on opposite sides (see
Figure 8(C) below).

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

The map symbols for an anticline and syncline are shown in Figure 9. Note that in map view bedding
dips away from the trace of the axial surface of an anticline while it dips toward the trace of axial
surface in a syncline.
Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering
Lesson 2
 Mass movement, also called Mass Wasting, bulk movements of soil and rock debris down slopes in
response to the pull of gravity, or the rapid or gradual sinking of the Earth’s ground surface in a
predominantly vertical direction. Formerly, the term mass wasting referred to a variety of processes by
which large masses of crustal materials are moved by gravity from one place to another. More recently,
the term mass movement has been substituted to include mass wasting processes and the sinking of
confined areas of the Earth’s ground surface. Mass movements on slopes and sinking mass movements
are often aided by water and the significance of both types is the part each plays in the alteration of
landforms.

Evidence of mass wasting

Talus cones located on the north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway are produced by mass movement
(mass wasting).

Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology, The College of Wooster)

The variety of downslope mass movements reflects the diversity of factors that are responsible for their
origin. Such factors include: weathering or erosional debris cover on slopes, which is usually liable to
mass movement; the character and structure of rocks, such as resistant permeable beds prone to
sliding because of underlying impermeable rocks; the removal of the vegetation cover, which increases
the slope’s susceptibility to mass movement by reducing its stability; artificial or natural increases in the
slope’s steepness, which will usually induce mass movement; earthquake tremors, which affect the
slope equilibrium and increase the likelihood of mass movement; and flowing ground water, which
exerts pressure on soil particles and impairs slope stability. These factors affecting slope conditions will
often combine with climatic factors such as precipitation and frost activity to produce downslope mass
movement.

The types of mass movements caused by the above factors include: the abrupt movement and free fall
of loosened blocks of solid rock, known as rockfalls; several types of almost imperceptible downslope
movement of surficial soil particles and rock debris, collectively called creep; the subsurface creep of
rock material, known as bulging: the multiplicity of downslope movements of bedrock and other debris
caused by the separation of a slope section along a plane of least resistance or slip surface, collectively
called landslides; the separation of a mass along a concave head scarp, moving down a curved slip
surface and accumulating at the slope’s foot, known as a slump; the saturation of debris and weathered
material by rainfall in the upper section of a slope or valley, increasing the weight of the debris and
causing a slow downslope movement, called an earthflow; a rapidly moving earthflow possessing a
higher water content, known as a mudflow; a fast-moving earthflow in a mountainous region, called a
debris flow or avalanche; and the downslope movement of moisture-saturated surficial material, known
as solifluction, over frozen substratum material, occurring in sub-Arctic regions during seasonal periods
of surface thaw.

Sinking mass movements occur in relatively rapid fashion, known as subsidence, and in a gradual
manner, called settlement. Subsidence involves a roof collapse or breakdown of a subsurface cavity
such as a cave. Extensive subsidence is evident in areas where coal, salt, and metalliferous ores are
mined. Marine erosion sometimes causes the roof collapse of sea caves. Regions of karst topography
will exhibit widespread subsidence in the form of sinkholes caused by underground drainage. Other
types of subsidence caused by underground solutions have been found in chalk, gypsum, anhydrite,
halite (salt), and loess terrains. The melting of ground ice also contributes to subsidence such as the
formation of glacial kettles and depressions following the seasonal surface thaw of perennially frozen
land. The chemical decomposition of subsurface rocks and ores is also a cause of subsidence. Another

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

form of subsidence is the steep-walled depression, known as a volcanic sink, formed following the
withdrawal of magma from below the ground surface.

The gradual settlement of confined areas of earth material occurs through consolidation of soil and rock
by the squeezing or removal of fluids from the pore spaces, and by the collapse of the grain structure.
The most widespread cause of consolidation is by surface loading such as the continued deposition of
sediments in sea and lake beds or by loads imposed on land by glacial ice sheets or outwash deposits.
Human-made structures also cause surface loading, consolidation, and settlement. Consolidation is
also caused by the lowering of the ground water table. The extraction of pressurized water or oil from
deep beneath the surface will cause a collapse of the pore spaces and consolidation of rock material.
Grain structure collapse usually occurs from the wetting of rock materials such as clays and sands,
which causes the structure of the grains to shift and settle in a more compact and dense configuration.
 Lesson 3

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

A detailed and accurate knowledge inventory of geology is an essential part of construction and hazard
analysis. The landslides, earthquake, and tsunami must also be located accurately and mapped as
polygons depicting their true shapes. Detailed inventory maps of land-slide triggered by earthquakes
began in the early 1960s with the use of aerial photography. In recent years, advances in technology
and knowledge of geology have resulted in the accessibility of civil engineering project and high
resolution to identify. Producing the earthquake in sea triggered the tsunami. An earthquake may serve
as a warning that a tsunami is coming, and so may a rapid fall or rise in coastal waters. Earthquakes
are an unavoidable natural hazard, but proper planning and a well-informed and well prepared public
can reduce their impact. Construction of dam, tunnel, reservoir and other civil engineering projects
under the consideration of safety precaution, and using material are more stable, durable and
economical due to the knowledge of geology. Rocks are the most common material which is used in
the construction of foundation. The local geology of an area is important when planning a major
construction. The full knowledge of geology increases the strength, stability, and durability of civil
engineering projects.
Construction of projects under the consideration of geologist: The branch of engineering that deals with
the planning, construction and maintenance of these major structures is known as civil engineering.
This unit summarizes some geological aspects of civil engineering. Examples of facilities that require
considerable alteration of Earth’s surface are highways, railways, bridges, dams and pipelines. The
geology of an area dictates the location and nature of any civil engineering structures.
(i) Dam: Geological investigations of a site proposed for construction of a dam must be complete and
detailed. Features such as rock-types, geological structures, weathering, fractures and fissures must
all be considered. The main considerations are that the material on which the dam rests must be able
to carry the weight of the structure without failing. The geology upon which the dam is built must also
be impervious to water. A dam is built across the river and width of river should be minimum as well as
possible or narrow river valley cast that is reduce the cost of dam, primarily to store the water. The
whole ideas of build the dam will become useless if the foundation on which the dam is built is the
porous or permeable. In such a place quite an appreciable amount of water is leakage in to the rock
below the foundation, and reduces the capacity of dam.
Failure of a dam can be due to many factors including:
• Earthquakes
• A sudden drop in water level
• Inadequate protection of the reservoir side of the dam from wave action
• Insufficient spillway capacity, so that water flows over the whole of the dam surface, with consequent
erosion.
(ii) Reservoir: A natural or artificial pond or lake used for the storage and regulation of water is called
reservoir. A dam is also called a reservoir. In reservoir all consideration and safety precaution taken in
to account as well as dam.
(iii)Tunnel: Tunnels are underground passage. Therefore, to pass the traffic or to pass the water. The
design, construction, and maintenance of tunnel will be depending on a full knowledge of the situation
of the ground water and quantity of water. Knowledge of rock geology, rock formation around the tunnel
is very important.
(iv) Highway: Road and highways are very important project for any country, their planning, designing,
construction, and maintenance is among the major duties of civil engineer the world over. For any civil
engineering project geological investigation play important role. These geological factors on the
alignment and stability of roads.
• Topography
• Lithology
• Geological character
• Weathering
• Ground water condition.
The main object of geological investigation for any civil engineering project
 • Investigation of geological structure of the related area.
• Investigation of earth surface.
• Investigation of sub surface of earth.
• Ground water condition of that particular area.
• Seismic condition of that region and study the last 60 years’ seismic detail.
• Lithology of the area.
Occurrence of hazards and their prevention:
(i)Earthquake: Earthquake capable of causing structural damage is expected to occur somewhere in
the province about once every decade. There is a real risk that one of these could be “the big one”. The
shaking motion of an earthquake is due to this sudden release of energy. The first sign of an earthquake
may be a loud bang or a roar. The ground may start to pitch and roll likes a ship for several seconds to
several minutes. An earthquake is defined as a natural force which originates below the earth surface,
work randomly and creates irregularities on the surface of earth. Since the earthquake is capable of
server damaging to any civil engineering structure. Seismic areas are the place which experiences the
earthquake frequency. In this region following precaution is taken in to account
• Construction is earthquake proof.
• For large building, the raft type of foundation is desirable.
• Formed R.C.C. structure is preferred.
• To prevent the sliding, the foundation structure should be thoroughly tied up.
(ii)Landslide: Landslide is a general term for a wide variety of down slope movements of earth materials
that result in the perceptible downward and outward movement of soil, rock, and vegetation under the
influence of gravity. The materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing. Some
landslides are rapid, occurring in seconds, whereas others may take hours, weeks, or even longer to
develop. Many factors contribute to slides, including geology, gravity, weather, groundwater, wave
action, and human actions. Although landslides usually occur on steep slopes, they also can occur in
areas of low relief. Landslides can occur as ground failure of river bluffs, cut and-fill failures that may
accompany highway and building excavations, collapse of mine waste piles. A landslide occurs when
several of these factors converge
• Gravity
• Geological factor
• Earth quake
• Forest fire
• Volcanoes
• Waves
• Heavy rainfall
One of the important tasks of a civil engineer is to design and construct retaining walls in the active
slide regions this method depends upon the slope geometry. Retaining walls protects the land slide
movement and regulate the surface drainage system. It is necessary to construct retaining walls taking
in to consideration all the safety factors
(iii)Tsunami: Tsunamis can be associated with earthquakes. Sometimes a large earthquake beneath
the ocean floor will produce a tsunami, which is a series of large waves. Damaging tsunamis are a rare,
but serious event. The force of tsunami waves can cause great destruction. The first wave of a tsunami
is often not the largest. Other waves may follow every few minutes, for a period of hours. Tsunami
waves can kill and injure people and cause great property damage where they come ashore. It is
important to remember that tsunamis are rare events and not all earthquakes will generate a tsunami.
However, it is also critical to know what to do as a precaution if you live in a vulnerable area . Tsunami
wave rise up to height of 20-30m with the greatest velocity of 500 km/h and length of the wave is 2.0-
3.0 km (51). As a civil engineer a thermo study of that area with regards to its distance from sea must

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

be study, so the safe structure. In this affected area high building should not be built. Tsunami cannot
prevent, but its prediction is determined. Presently the tsunami warning system is located near
Honolulu.
The construction of large civil engineering projects requires knowledge of the geology of the area
concerned. The geology of an area dictates the location and nature of each of the following structures:
Dams, Building foundations, roads and railways. Describe causes of slope failure and preventive
measures that can be taken. Discuss the role of a geologist in the feasibility study and site selection
stages of a large civil engineering project. There must be continuous efforts among the government and
various stakeholders on public awareness and preparedness. The local government need to establish
a Disaster Preparedness Education Center, where an Audio Visual/Training Room, a small disaster
management museum, and a disaster management library that can be used by children as well as
adults. A Disaster Management Handbook that contains instructions on how the public should prepare
for emergencies lists what to do during emergencies, and other emergency information is essential in
public information. This handbook should be distributed to the residents and other community
organizations.
 Lesson 4

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock and rock
masses; compared to geology, it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and
rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment.
Rock mechanics forms part of the much broader subject of geo-mechanics, which is concerned with
the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils. Rock mechanics, as applied
in engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and civil engineering practice, is concerned with the
application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of the rock structures generated by
mining, drilling, reservoir production, or civil construction activity such as tunnels, mining shafts,
underground excavations, open pit mines, oil and gas wells, geothermal energy systems, road cuts,
waste repositories, and other structures built in or of rock. It also includes the design of reinforcement
systems, such as rock bolting patterns.
Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock and rock
masses; it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the
force fields of their physical environment. Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of the
principles of engineering mechanics to the design of structures built in or of rock. The structure could
include-but not limited to- a drill hole, a mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a repository component,
or a building. Rock mechanics is used in many engineering disciplines, but primarily used in Mining,
Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering.

The study of deformation resulting from the strain of rocks in response to stresses is called rock
mechanics. When the scale of the deformation is extended to large geologic structures in the crust of
the Earth, the field of study is known as geo-tectonics.
The mechanisms and character of the deformation of rocks and Earth materials can be investigated
through laboratory experiments, development of theoretical models based on the properties of
materials, and study of deformed rocks and structures in the field. In the laboratory, one can simulate—
either directly or by appropriate scaling of experimental parameters—several conditions. Two types of
pressure may be simulated: confining (hydrostatic), due to burial under rock overburden, and internal
(pore), due to pressure exerted by pore fluids contained in void space in the rock. Directed applied
stress, such as compression, tension, and shear, is studied, as are the effects of
increased temperature introduced with depth in the Earth’s crust. The effects of the duration of time and
the rate of applying stress (i.e.,loading) as a function of time are examined. Also, the role of fluids,
particularly if they are chemically active, is investigated.

Some simple apparatuses for deforming rocks are designed for biaxial stress application: a directed
(uniaxial) compression is applied while a confining pressure is exerted (by pressurized fluid) around the
cylindrical specimen. This simulates deformation at depth within the Earth. An independent internal
pore-fluid pressure also can be exerted. The rock specimen can be jacketed with a thin, impermeable
sleeve (e.g., rubber or copper) to separate the external pressure medium from the internal pore fluids
(if any). The specimen is typically a few centimetres in dimension.

Another apparatus for exerting high pressure on a sample was designed in 1968 by Akira Sawaoka,
Naoto Kawai, and Robert Carmichael to give hydrostatic confining pressures up to 12 kilobars (1.2
gigapascal), additional directed stress, and temperatures up to a few hundred degrees Celsius. The
specimen is positioned on the baseplate; the pressure is applied by driving in pistons with a hydraulic
press. The end caps can be locked down to hold the pressure for time experiments and to make the
device portable.
Apparatuses have been developed, typically using multianvil designs, which extend the range of static
experimental conditions—at least for small specimens and limited times—to pressures as high as about
1,700 kilobars and temperatures of about 2,000° C. Such work has been pioneered by researchers
such as Peter M. Bell and Ho-Kwang Mao, who conducted studies at the Geophysical Laboratory of the
Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. Using dynamic techniques (i.e., shock from explosive impact
generated by gun-type designs), even higher pressures up to 7,000 kilobars (700 gigapascal)—which
is nearly twice the pressure at the centre of the Earth and seven million times greater than
the atmospheric pressure at the Earth’s surface—can be produced for very short times. A leading figure
in such ultrapressure work is A. Sawaoka at the Tokyo Institute of Technology.
In the upper crust of the Earth, hydrostatic pressure increases at the rate of about 320 bars per
kilometre, and temperature increases at a typical rate of 20°–40° C per kilometre, depending on recent
 crustal geologic history. Additional directed stress, as can be generated by large-scale crustal
deformation (tectonism), can range up to 1 to 2 kilobars. This is approximately equal to the ultimate
strength (before fracture) of solid crystalline rock at surface temperature and pressure (see below). The
stress released in a single major earthquake—a shift on a fault plane—is about 50–150 bars.
In studying the deformation of rocks one can start with the assumption of ideal behaviour: elastic strain
and homogeneous and isotropic stress and strain. In reality, on a microscopic scale there are grains
and pores in sediments and a fabric of crystals in igneous and metamorphic rocks. On a large scale,
rock bodies exhibit physical and chemical variations and structural features. Furthermore, conditions
such as extended length of time, confining pressure, and subsurface fluids affect the rates of change
of deformation. Figure 7 shows the generalized transition from brittle fracture through faulting to plastic-
flow deformation in response to applied compressional stress and the progressive increase of confining
pressure.

Rock-mechanics investigation

The young field of rock mechanics was beginning, early in the 1970s, to develop a rational basis of
design for projects in rock; much is already developed for projects in soil by the older field of soil
mechanics. Initially, the discipline had been stimulated by such complex projects as arch dams and
underground chambers and then increasingly with similar problems with tunnels, rock slopes, and
building foundations. In treating the rock mass with its defects as an engineering material, the science
of rock mechanics utilizes numerous techniques such as theoretical analysis, laboratory testing, field
testing on-site, and instrumentation to monitor performance during construction and operation. Since
rock mechanics is a discipline in itself, only the most common field tests are briefly outlined below to
give some concept of its role in design, particularly for a rock-chamber project.
Geostress, which can be a significant factor in choice of chamber orientation, shape, and support
design, is usually determined in exploratory drifts. Two methods are common, although each is still in
the development stage. One is an “overcoring” method (developed in Sweden and South Africa) used
for ranges up to about 100 feet out from the drift and employing a cylindrical instrument known as
a borehole deformeter. A small hole is drilled into the rock and the deformeter inserted. Diameter
changes of the borehole are measured and recorded by the deformeter as the geostress is relieved by
overcoring (cutting a circular core around the small hole) with a six-inch bit. Measurements at several

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

depths in at least three borings at different orientations furnish the data needed for computing the
existing geostress. When measurement is desired only at the surface of the drift, the so-called
French flat-jack method is preferred. In this, a slot is cut at the surface, and its closure is measured as
the geostress is relieved by the slot. Next, a flat hydraulic jack is inserted in the rock. The jack pressure
necessary to restore closure of the slot (to the condition before its cutting) is considered to equal the
original geostress. As these methods require a long drift or shaft for access to the area of measurement,
development is under way (particularly in the United States) to extend the range of depth to a few
thousand feet. Such will aid in comparing geostress at alternate sites and hopefully avoid locations with
high geostress, which has proved very troublesome in several past chamber projects.

Shear strength of a joint, fault, or other rock defect is a controlling factor in appraising strength of the
rock mass in terms of its resistance to sliding along the defect. Although partly determinable in the
laboratory, it is best investigated in the field by a direct shear test at the work site. While this test has
long been used for soil and soft rock, itsadaptation to hard rock is due largely to work performed in
Portugal. Shear strength is important in all problems of sliding; at Morrow Point Dam, in Colorado, for
example, a large rock wedge between two faults started to move into the underground powerhouse and
was stabilized by large tendons anchored back in a drainage tunnel plus strut action provided by the
concrete structure that supported the generator machinery. The modulus of deformation (that is, the
stiffness of the rock) is significant in problems involving movement under stress and in sharing of load
between rock and structure, as in a tunnel lining, embedded steel penstock, or foundation of a dam or
heavy building. The simplest field test is the plate-jacking method, in which the rock in a test drift is
loaded by hydraulic jacks acting on a plate two to three feet in diameter. Larger areas can be tested
either by radially loading the internal surface of a test tunnel or by pressurizing a membrane-lined
chamber.

Analysis methods in rock mechanics have helped in appraising stress conditions around openings—as
at Churchill Falls—to identify and then correct zones of tension and stress concentration. Related work
with rock block models is contributing to understanding the failure mechanism of the rock mass, notable
work being under way in Austria, Yugoslavia, and the United States.
 Lesson 5

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

 A rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles.
 The performance of the rock under a particular condition depends upon physical and
mechanical properties of rock materials.
 The Physical Properties may be known as Index Properties, which describes the rock materials
and helps in classifying them.
 The Mechanical Properties may be known as Strength Properties, and they will give an
information about the performance of the rock materials, when subjected to a particular loading
system.
 Rocks exhibit a brittle type behavior when unconfined, but become more plastic as the level of
confinement increases.
 Conditions in the field are primary compressive and vary from unconfined near the opening
walls to confined at some distance from the opening.
 The strength of a rock is affected not only by factors that relate to its physical and chemical
composition such as its mineralogy, porosity, cementation, degree of alteration and weathering,
and water content, but also by the methods of testing, including such factors as sample size,
geometry, test procedure and loading rate.

List of some physical and mechanical properties of rocks

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

The physical properties of rocks affecting design and construction in rocks are;

 Mineralogical composition, structure and texture

 Specific Gravity, G
 Unit Weight
 Density
 Void Ratio, e
 Porosity, n
 Moisture content, w
 Degree of saturation, S
 Coefficient of Permeability, k
 Electrical and Thermal Properties
 Swelling
 Anisotropy
 Durability

Density, unit weight, specific gravity and water content Density of the rock is the mass
of rock per unit volume where as unit weight of the rock is the weight per unit volume.
Highly porous rocks and relatively poor arrangement of grains (less packing) usually
have relatively less densities and vice versa. The bulk unit weight considers the bulk
(total) volume of rocks where as the solid unit weight considers volume excluding the
pores, fissures. Obviously, for porous rocks the unit weight of solid would be relatively
higher than the bulk unit weight as the value in the denominator is relatively lower due
to exclusion of pores and micro fractures. Bulk unit weight depends on the type of rock,
its porosity and geological processes that take place in it. Bulk unit weight of a rock
may vary from region to region, some times in one location to another within the same
geological formation.

Average bulk unit weight for some common rocks

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

The water content of rock specimen can be calculated directly by dividing mass of pore water
to mass of sample. For the determination of porosity and density saturation and calliper
technique, saturation and buoyancy, mercury displacement and grain specific gravity technique
are usually followed.

Saturation and Buoyancy technique

Applicable only to non-friable coherent rocks that can be machined and rocks that do not swell
or disintegrate when they are oven dried or when immersed in water. Atleast three specimens
selected such that minimum size should be of mass 50g or minimum dimension should be ten
times greater than maximum grain size whichever is greater. Apparatus required: Oven,
Desiccator, Vernier, Vacuum saturation equipment, Sample container, Balance, Immersion
bath and Wire basket
 Porosity

Rocks contain voids in the form of pores, joints (fissures) etc. The voids may be inter connected
or separated from one another. If they are inter connected and pressure gradient exists – rock
can conduct fluids or gases. Porosity is an intrinsic property and is the ratio of the volume of
openings (voids) to the total volume of material.

Porosity represents the storage capacity of the geologic material. The primary porosity of a
sediment or rock consists of the spaces between the grains that make up that material. The
more tightly packed the grains are, the lower the porosity. Using a box of marbles as an
example, the internal dimensions of the box would represent the volume of the sample. The
space surrounding each of the spherical marbles represents the void space. The porosity of
the box of marbles would be determined by dividing the total void space by the total volume of
the sample and expressed as a percentage. The primary porosity of unconsolidated sediments
is determined by the shape of the grains and the range of grain sizes present. In poorly sorted
sediments, those with a larger range of grain sizes, the finer grains tend to fill the spaces
between the larger grains, resulting in lower porosity. Primary porosity can range from less than
one percent in crystalline rocks like granite to over 55% in some soils. The porosity of some
rock is increased through fractures or solution of the material itself. This is known as secondary
porosity.

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering

Visual representation of a porous rock

Usually igneous or metamorphic rocks will have very low porosity (0-2%) whereas sedimentary
rocks like sandstones will have very high porosity (up to 40%). Many factors which affect
porosity like, grain size distribution, grain shape and arrangement, degree of cementation of
grains, applied pressure etc. Porosity decreases with increase of pressure and therefore, deep
seated deposit with large overlying pressure may tend to have relatively low porosity compare
to surface depositions.

Porosity may be represented with void index which can be found using quick absorption
technique. Void index defined as the mass of water contained in a rock sample after one-hour
period of immersion, as a percentage of its initial dry mass. The index is correlated with porosity
and also with such properties as degree of weathering or alteration. The test should only be
used for rocks that do not appreciably disintegrate when immersed in water. The void index is
evaluated from the ratio of difference between the saturated and dry weight of rock to dry weight
of rock expressed in terms of percentage .
 ACTIVITY 1. To be given after the Lesson through Google Classroom and Messenger Group Chat.

References

Britannica Illustrated Science Library Britannica Illustrated Science Library. 2008 .Rocks and Minerals.

Jaeger, Cook, and Zimmerman (2008). Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics. Blackwell

Publishing. ISBN 9780632057597.
Editorial Sol 90. (www.britannica.com)

P.C. Varghese, “Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers”, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2011

Satya Prakash1, Satyam Kumar Singh1, Prashant Ankur Jain2, Naveen Dwivedi3, Shubha Dwivedi3,
Ved Kumar Mishra3 and Vivek Singh Pundir1.(2015). Importance of geology in construction and prevent
the hazards. www.pelagiaresearchlibrary.com

https://nitsri.ac.in/Department/Civil%20Engineering/Lecture2rock.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_mechanics

http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/visualgeology/geology101/Geology101Labs/structureLab9.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/technology/tunnel/Underground-excavations-and-structures#ref593617

Catanduanes State University | College of Engineering