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ENG 462: TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG

LEARNERS
Unit One: Learning, Development and Language Learning
1.1. Active Learning: ‘constructivism’
Active learning is a process that has student learning at its center. Active learning focuses on how
students learn, not just on what they learn. Students are encouraged to „think hard‟, rather than passively
receive information from the teacher. Research shows us that it is not possible to transmit understanding
to students by simply telling them what they need to know. Instead, teachers need to make sure that they
challenge their students‟ thinking. With active learning, students play an important part in their own
learning process. They build knowledge and understanding in response to opportunities provided by their
teacher.
Active learning is primarily based on a theory called constructivism. Constructivism emphasizes the fact
that learners construct or build their own understanding. Constructivists argue that learning is a process
of 'making meaning'. Learners develop their existing knowledge and understanding in order to achieve
deeper levels of understanding. This means that learners are more able to analyze, evaluate and
synthesize ideas (thus achieving the higher order skills of Bloom‟s Taxonomy). Skilled teachers make
these deeper levels of understanding more possible by providing learning environments, opportunities,
interactions, tasks and instruction that foster deep learning.

Benefits of active learning:

Active learning helps students to become 'lifelong learners'

In an active learning approach, learning is not only about the content, but is also about the process.
Active learning develops students‟ autonomy and their ability to learn. Active learning gives students
greater involvement and control over their learning. This means that students are better able to continue
learning once they have left school and college.

Active learning encourages success

Most examinations do not simply test recall of knowledge. Successful candidates draw on their
understanding in order to evaluate and synthesize ideas. Therefore, most language courses or programs
can be best taught using an active learning approach. Encouraging active learning helps students to
achieve higher grades, based on their enhanced skills and understanding.

Because active learning encourages students to take a central role in their own learning, it prepares them
better for both higher education and for the workplace. Analytical skills also help students to be better at
problem solving and applying their knowledge. Universities and employers value this.

Active learning is engaging and intellectually exciting

An active learning approach encourages all students to stay focused on their learning, which will often
give them greater enthusiasm for their studies. Teachers also find that they enjoy the level of academic
discussion with their students which an active learning approach encourages.

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1.2. The role of interaction: ‘social constructivism’

According to the theory of social constructivism, social worlds develop out of individuals‟ interactions
with their culture and society. Knowledge evolves through the process of social negotiation and
evaluation of the viability of individual understanding. Basically, every conversation or encounter
between two or more people presents an opportunity for new knowledge to be obtained, or present
knowledge expanded. The exchange of ideas that goes along with human contact is at play here.

In order to apply social constructivism theories in the education arena, teachers and school leaders need
to shift and reshape their perspectives. Both must move from being “people who teach” to being
“facilitators of learning.” A good constructivist teacher is one who questions students‟ answers, without
regard to whether they are right or wrong, to make sure the student has a good grasp of the concept.
Additionally, instructors should have their students explain the answers they give and not allow students
to use words or equations without explanations. They should also encourage students to reflect on their
answers.

Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result of social interaction and language
use, and is therefore a shared, rather than an individual, experience. Knowledge is additionally not a
result of observing the world; it results from many social processes and interactions. We therefore find
that constructivist learning attaches as much meaning to the process of learning as it does to the
acquisition of new knowledge. In other words, the journey is just as important as the destination.

The process of learning requires that the learner actively participate in creative activities and self-
organization. Teachers should allow their students to come up with their own questions, make their own
theories, and test them for viability. Moreover, those who practice constructivist theory find that
imbalance facilitates learning, in the sense that contradictions between the learner‟s current
understanding and experiences create an imbalance, which leads the learner to inquire into his or her
own beliefs and then try out new ideas. Instructors should therefore encourage errors resulting from the
learners‟ ideas, instead of minimizing or avoiding them.

Students should also be challenged by their instructors to perform open-ended investigations, working to
solve problems with realistic and meaningful contexts. This activity enables the learner to explore, and
come up with either supporting or conflicting possibilities. Contradictions need to be investigated,
clarified, and discussed.

Through the process of reflecting on the collected data,, learning is given a push. A good example of
allowing reflection is through journal writing, which usually facilitates reflective thoughts. Dialogue
within a community stimulates new ideas. All school stakeholders should view the classroom as a
community for discussion and exchange of ideas. Students in the classroom are responsible for the
defense, proof, justification, and communication of their ideas to the community. These ideas can only
be accepted as truth if they can make sense to the community. If they do, they become shared
knowledge. In summary, learning occurs not through hearing or seeing, but primarily through
interpretation. Interpretation is shaped by what‟s already known, and is further developed through
discussion or interaction

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Importance of social constructivism in the teaching/learning process

Social constructivism has significance to teaching/learning process in the following ways:

1. Encourages active participation of students.

2. Encourages active participation and interaction among learners, the teacher and other components of
the teaching learning process.
3. Encourages the development of skill.
4. Encourages students to develop and use their own initiatives.
5. Discourages rote learning and passivity on the part of students.
6. Stimulates interest and aids retention.
7. Develops critical thinking and problem solving capacity.
8. Promotes individual and cooperative learning in the classroom.
9. Promotes team spirit among students as the work in groups.
10. Triggers curiosity on the part of learners through the use of activity based teaching methods
employed by the teacher.
11. Promotes high self-esteem on the part of students based on their trust in self-approach to learning.
The teacher guides the students to trust, believe in themselves and demonstrate that they can
accomplish given task.
12. Facilitates active construction of knowledge where students are encouraged to explore and interact
with the resources available.
13. Concretizes learning and knowledge in the sense that students are more likely to retain the facts
that they discover and construct by themselves than those they are told or given by the teacher.
14. Helps in developing episodic memory. This refers to the ability to reminisce or recall past event
based on particular episodes or encounter that surrounded it. These episodes act as bench marks or
memory prompts that facilitate retention and recall which are necessary for effective learning
(Kanno, 2018).

Difference between Constructivism and Social Constructivism

Constructivism and social constructivism are two learning theories between which some differences
can be identified. Along with the development of the social sciences, psychologists and sociologists were
interested in comprehending how people acquire knowledge and generate meaning. Constructivism and
social constructivism as theories emerged in such a backdrop. Simple, constructivism can be introduced
as a learning theory that describes how humans learn and acquire knowledge. Since this theory aimed at
unraveling the relationship between human experience and the creation of knowledge, it had a
tremendous impact on various disciplines such as psychology, sociology, education, etc. On the other
hand, Social Constructivism is a learning theory that highlights the significance of social interactions and
the role of culture in creating knowledge. The key difference between the two theories stems from the
emphasis that each theory lays on experiences and social interactions. In constructivism, the emphasis is
on personal experiences in constructing knowledge, but in social constructivism the emphasis is on
social interactions and culture.

What is Constructivism?

Constructivism can be understood as a learning theory that describes how humans learn and acquire
knowledge. This theory highlights that people construct knowledge through the experiences that they
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gain in real life and also generate meaning. Jean Piaget is often known as the founder of constructivism,
although there are other individuals who are also considered as key figures. Some of these key
individuals are John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Richard Rorty and Giambattista Vico.

Constructivism emphasizes that learning is an active process in which the human being functions as a
constructor of knowledge. According to this theory, the knowledge that people have, are not merely
acquired but constructed. Even in the case of an objective reality, the interpretations that people give to
the situation is often subjective. This subjective representation of knowledge is a result of past
experiences of the individual.

What is Social Constructivism?

Social constructivism is also another learning theory that highlights the significance of social
interactions and the role of culture in creating knowledge. Lev Vygotsky is considered a key figure in
social constructivism. Unlike in constructivism that highlights on personal experiences, this theory
highlights on social factors. It explains that social interaction is the key to constructing knowledge.

Some of the key assumptions of social constructivism are that the reality is created by human interaction,
knowledge is also a social production, and the process of learning is social. In this sense as people
interact with others in society their knowledge changes and broadens. For example, a person who has a
specific understanding of a group of individuals, or ideology can change their opinion as a result of
social interaction.

1.3 Children as unique learners

Every child is unique. He or she has unique personality traits, interests, preferences, values, attitudes,
strengths, and weaknesses. Based on the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, it is believed that every child
is unique and has own temperaments and learning styles .The child brings this uniqueness into each new
experience and takes an active role in the process of learning though their engagement in these
experiences .

Children have their own unique learning style, or a type of learning that is most effective for them.
Educators and psychologists have identified three main learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.

 Visual learners process information most effectively when it‟s presented in writing or in
images. They‟re very observant, have excellent memories, and often enjoy art.
 Auditory learners like to hear information. They‟re good listeners, follow directions well, and
often have verbal strengths and/or musical aptitude.
 Kinesthetic learners are physical, often excelling at sports or dance. They learn best through
movement and touch. They may count on their fingers or use frequent hand gestures.

Many children show ability in all three of these areas, but one is likely stronger than the others. If you
can find a child‟s strength, you can help him learn in the way that he finds most comfortable and
enjoyable. The educational curriculum must be able to help every child find his or her unique place in
the world in alignment with the uniqueness that he or she has.

When I repeatedly say that “Every child is a genius”, I aim at each and every potential that a child might
have within him or her. A student can be good at Math because he loves to work with numbers. That
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same student may not be good at English as that is not a native language at his place. It doesn‟t mean
that we as educators need to keep pressurizing him to keep learning English, all we need to do is give
him some time to grasp the language.

Similarly there can be a child who is not good at any of the subjects, but can be a fantastic dancer! So be
it, let him be the best of what he can be – encourage him, support and help him overcome his weakness
by supporting his strength. No one knows that tomorrow he/she may launch his own dance academy or
may start his own dance school.

As an educator there can be a time where you come across students who are very fussy about learning
and are hyperactive about all other activities like dancing ,playing and making fun all the time ,what you
need to do at this time is help them to channelize their energy in the right direction. Every student needs
a mentor, be a mentor, a guide, a friend and bring out the best in every child. Be an inspiration to them,
as nurturing a spark of genius begins with inspiration. “Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by
its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.”

1.4 Learning the first language at home and at school

Process of language learning
Language learning in children is a complicated, yet natural process involving a number of factors and
influences. During a child‟s earliest years, they pick up skills and make associations between sounds and
objects via interactions with their environments and those around them. In large part, it is simply a
natural progression that takes place over time, using repetition and being immersed in specific
linguistics, but there is much more to language learning than simply being around it.

Children acquire language through interaction - not only with their parents and other adults, but also with
other children. All normal children who grow up in normal households, surrounded by conversation, will
acquire the language that is being used around them. And it is just as easy for a child to acquire two or
more languages at the same time, as long as they are regularly interacting with speakers of those
languages.

The special way in which many adults speak to small children also helps them to acquire language.
Studies show that the 'baby talk' that adults naturally use with infants and toddlers tends to always be just
a bit ahead of the level of the child's own language development, as though pulling the child along. This
'baby talk' has simpler vocabulary and sentence structure than adult language, exaggerated intonation and
sounds, and lots of repetition and questions. All of these features help the child to sort out the meanings,
sounds, and sentence patterns of his or her language.

Learning the first language

Mother tongue can often be referred to as your first language or native language. It is the language that
you most commonly speak. However, mother tongue is always referencing the language that the child
has used from birth and in important and impacting times in the child‟s life. Mother tongue in education
refers to when a school or educational institution integrates the language a child is most familiar with
(their mother tongue) into the classroom lesson along with the school‟s lesson (such as English). This is
normally the language that the child speaks at home with their family.

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Learning the first language at home and at school is very important because when children develop their
mother tongue, they are simultaneously fostering a whole host of other essential skills, such as critical
thinking and literacy skills. It is these skills that they take with them into formal education, and research
tells us that any skills and concepts gained in the learner‟s home language don‟t have to be re-taught
when they transfer to a second language.

There are many benefits to a child learning in their first language:

 Mother tongue makes it easier for children to pick up and learn other languages.
 Mother tongue develops a child‟s personal, social and cultural identity.
 Using mother tongue helps a child develop their critical thinking and literacy skills.
 Research shows that children learning in mother tongue adopt a better understanding of the
curriculum.
 Skills learnt in mother tongue do not have to be re-taught when the child transfers to a second
language.
 Children learning in mother tongue enjoy school more and learn faster due to feeling
comfortable in their environment.
 Self-esteem is higher for children learning in mother tongue.
 Parent child interaction increases as the parent can assist with homework.
 Studies show that children that capitalize on learning through multilingualism enjoy a higher
socioeconomic status earn higher earnings.

School and first language learning

Research findings consistently show that learners benefit from using their home language in
education in early grade years (ahead of a late primary transition stage). Yet, many schools in many
developing countries continue to use other languages for teaching in their schools. Using the mother
tongue in early education leads to a better understanding of the curriculum content and to a more
positive attitude towards school. There are a number of reasons for this.

First, learning does not begin in school. Learning starts at home in the learners‟ home language.
Although the start of school is a continuation of this learning, it also presents significant changes in
the mode of education. On starting school, children find themselves in a new physical environment.
The classroom is new, most of the classmates are strangers, the center of authority (the teacher) is a
stranger too. The structured way of learning is also new. If, in addition to these things, there is an
abrupt change in the language of interaction, then the situation can get quite complicated. Indeed, it
can negatively affect a child‟s progress. However, by using the learners‟ home language, schools can
help children navigate the new environment and bridge their learning at school with the experience
they bring from home.

Second, by using the learners‟ home language, learners are more likely to engage in the learning
process. The interactive learner-centered approach – recommended by all educationalists – thrives in
an environment where learners are sufficiently proficient in the language of instruction. It allows
learners to make suggestions, ask questions, answer questions and create and communicate new
knowledge with enthusiasm. It gives learners confidence and helps to affirm their cultural identity.
This in turn has a positive impact on the way learners see the relevance of school to their lives.

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But when learners start school in a language that is still new to them, it leads to a teacher-centered
approach and reinforces passiveness and silence in classrooms. This in turn suppresses young
learners‟ potential and liberty to express themselves freely. It dulls the enthusiasm of young minds,
inhibits their creativity, and makes the learning experience unpleasant. All of which is bound to have
a negative effect on learning outcomes.

When learners speak or understand the language used to instruct them, they develop reading and
writing skills faster and in a more meaningful way. Introducing reading and writing to learners in a
language they speak and understand leads to great excitement when they discover that they can make
sense of written texts and can write the names of people and things in their environment. Research in
Early Grade Reading (EGRA) has shown that pupils who develop reading skills early have a head-
start in education.

Starting school in the learners‟ mother tongue does not delay education but leads to faster acquisition
of the skills and attitudes needed for success in formal education. Use of the learners‟ home
language at the start of school also lessens the burden on teachers, especially where the teacher
speaks the local language well. When teaching starts in the teachers‟ and learners‟ home language,
the experience is more natural and less stressful for all. As a result, the teacher can be more creative
and innovative in designing teaching/learning materials and approaches, leading to improved
learning outcomes.

In summary, the use of learners‟ home language in the classroom promotes a smooth transition
between home and school. It means learners get more involved in the learning process and speeds up
the development of basic literacy skills. It also enables more flexibility, innovation and creativity in
teacher preparation. Using learners‟ home language is also more likely to get the support of the
general community in the teaching/learning process and creates an emotional stability which
translates to cognitive stability. In short, it leads to a better educational outcome.

1.5. Learning second/third language at home and at school

Early bilingualism
Bilingualism is having or using two languages especially as spoken with the fluency characteristic
of a native speaker. It is to possess a minimal competence in only one of the four language skills in a
language other than the mother tongue. Being a bilingual is having the ability to speak a second
language while following the concepts and structures of it rather than paraphrasing your mother
tongue.

There are many pros as well as cons of bilingualism or bilingual education as given below:

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Code-mixing and Code-switching are common practices in bilingualism. Code-mixing refers to the
cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence. The
first two years is the phase of mixing the languages. Switching from one language to the other
according to appropriate changes in speech situation is code-switching. On the age of three, they
start to separate the two languages and to address people in different languages depending on their
relevant language background.

Early Bilingualism: Early bilingualism is a simultaneous acquisition of two languages at the early
age. A 'simultaneous acquisition' is the process of the earliest chance of learning two languages or
more. It starts at birth. Bilingual children generally appear to develop more slowly in linguistic
terms. However, bilingual children are more aware to language systems as bilingualism helps in
Meta-linguistic awareness, the ability to reflect on and manipulate the structural features of
language. They are also more conscious of language structures and patterns and learn to reflect on
these earlier. They may say their first words a little later and learn fewer words and grammatical
structures.

Advantages of early bilingualism

There are arguably many social benefits to raising a child as bilingual or multilingual. Firstly, the
child maintains a strong connection to the culture of the language they have been raised in,
particularly if one or both parents are fluent or native speakers. In terms of wider social interaction,
bilingual children have an ability to make friends from a larger and more diverse social background.
We can infer that those multilingual children are better equipped to deal with general social

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interactions from an earlier age than their monolingual peers are and are also therefore likely to be
more confident in themselves and more in tune with the wants and needs of others.

Children raised as bilingual or in a multilingual environment have been shown to develop an earlier
understanding of theory of mind and are able to differentiate between different spoken languages
from a much earlier age than monolingual children, as well as possessing a slightly greater aptitude
for memorization, a skill that carries on to later life. Having ‘trained’ their brain from a young age, it
is also unsurprising that children raised as bilingual or multilingual are far more likely to be able to
learn another language (or languages) at a later stage, often having a greater understanding of
grammatical structures and an enhanced vocabulary.

One other obvious benefit to raising a child as bilingual is that they will have a greater access to a
larger and more impressive cultural sphere. A multilingual child will be able to experience a more
diverse selection of cultural artifacts, such as films, music, and literature. Similarly, raising a child as
a bilingual or multilingual speaker may also provide job opportunities with higher wages, as well as
the ability to travel and work in other countries.

To some extent, the ability of bilingualism and multilingualism can also contribute in later life to a
better quality of ageing and brain health. Some scientific studies have found that lifelong bilingual
and multilingual speakers consistently stimulate areas of their brain that could protect them from
dementia and Alzheimer‟s disease.

Disadvantages of early bilingualism

Despite many advantages to being a bilingual child, it is still important to consider some of the
challenges that may arise throughout a child‟s development and language learning journey. It is
worth noting that each child is different, therefore their response to bilingualism may vary.

One disadvantage of being bilingual is that bilingual and multilingual speakers have a smaller
vocabulary in the languages they speak than monolingual speakers. In addition to this, the time taken
for bilingual speakers to retrieve words when thinking is slower than for a monolingual speaker.
Some argue that being bilingual or multilingual can cause a child to be confused and mix up words
from the different languages they speak. This confusion is referred to as code mixing. Similarly,
reading and writing in both could arise as a different challenge.

On the other, the early bilingualism might result only into the receptive bilingualism. The term
receptive bilingualism refers to an individual who has a solid understanding of a certain dialect
through the means of excessive exposure; however they are unable to communicate in it.

It is unfortunate that bilingualism may not be as celebrated as it should be. Some children may not
have grasped an understanding of cultural and ethnic variations which could possibly result in
uncompassionate and thoughtless assumptions being made about people. In such situations, a
bilingual child may be the victim of prejudices or discrimination with the potential of bullying and
isolation.

In some rare and extreme cases, some parents are unhappy with their children learning another
language. It has been found that a small minority of adults believe this to be an attack on their
culture. In such a case a bilingual child may face cultural bias in the family.

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Even when challenges occur which may hinder the child‟s abilities, it is important to note there are
strategic ways to overcome these obstacles. Possessing the ability to speak two languages to a
proficient level could pay dividends to future generations: opening doors to new prospects along
with a seasoned understanding of cultural and ethnic diversity.

The effect of age and critical period hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis says that there is a period of growth in which full native competence is
possible when acquiring a language. Some researchers have found that language acquisition occurs
primarily, possibly exclusively, during childhood as the brain loses plasticity after a certain age. It
then becomes rigid and fixed, and loses the ability for adaptation and reorganization, rendering
language (re-)learning difficult.

In terms of language acquisition, it is suggested that children who start acquiring younger than 11-12
years of age have a plenty of input and interaction in the second language environment. For example;
older learners rarely achieve a near-native accent. Many people suggest this is due to them being
beyond the critical period.

Younger Vs older learners

Children are sensitive to the sounds and the rhythm of new languages. They enjoy copying new
sounds and patterns of intonation. Younger learners are less anxious and less inhibited and they can
spend more time devoted to the language compared with those who start later.

On the other hand, older learners use more efficient strategies, have more mature conceptual world
to rely on, have a clearer sense of discourse and have a clearer sense of why they are learning a new
language. Older learners are more analytical and give attention to detail.

Summing up, to claim that learners in one group are better than others, does not, unfortunately, help
teachers to support their students more effectively. Nevertheless, an awareness of the relationship
between age and language learning can help them have realistic expectations about their learners‟
progress.

A useful principle is that it is never too early or too late to learn a language. The view that adults are
less efficient learners may discourage them from putting in more effort to improve their language
skills. Similarly, parents who believe that children are too young to learn a language may deprive
them of exposure to a new target language.

Rather than thinking of age as the only or most important factor, teachers can think about language
needs and learning goals of different age groups. For example, young children learning English as an
additional language may focus on basic literacy skills as well as on fun. Some retired people may
decide to learn a new language for leisure and this would involve different language development
expectations compared to those of pre-university English courses.

Learning English as a foreign language

English as a foreign language, otherwise known as EFL, is the study of English by non-native
speakers who live in a country where English is not the official language (or, the official second

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language). Because English is the world‟s “Lingua Franca” (a common language that‟s used to
bridge together speakers of other languages), non-native speakers are learning English as a foreign
language in order to take advantage of the benefits which come with it.

Young children are natural language acquirers; they are self-motivated to pick up language without
conscious learning, unlike adolescents and adults. They have the ability to imitate pronunciation and
work out the rules for themselves. Any idea that learning to talk in English is difficult does not occur
to them unless it‟s suggested by adults, who themselves probably learned English academically at a
later age through grammar-based text books.

The advantages of beginning early

 Young children are still using their individual, innate language-learning strategies to acquire
their home language and soon find they can also use these strategies to pick up English.
 Young children have time to learn through play-like activities. They pick up language by
taking part in an activity shared with an adult. They firstly make sense of the activity and
then get meaning from the adult‟s shared language.
 Young children have more time to fit English into the daily program. School programs tend
to be informal and children‟s minds are not yet cluttered with facts to be stored and tested.
They may have little or no homework and are less stressed by having to achieve set
standards.
 Children who have the opportunity to pick up a second language while they are still young
appear to use the same innate language-learning strategies throughout life when learning
other languages. Picking up third, fourth, or even more languages is easier than picking up a
second.
 Young children who acquire language rather than consciously learn it, as older children and
adults have to, are more likely to have better pronunciation and feel for the language and
culture. When monolingual children reach puberty and become more self-conscious, their
ability to pick up language diminishes and they feel they have to consciously study English
through grammar-based programs. The age at which this change occurs depends greatly on
the individual child‟s developmental levels as well as the expectations of their society.

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