MATH 433

Applied Algebra
Lecture 27:
Subgroups.
Cyclic groups.
Subgroups
Definition. A group H is a called a subgroup of a group G if
H is a subset of G and the group operation on H is obtained
by restricting the group operation on G . Notation: H ≤ G .

Proposition If H is a subgroup of G then (i) the identity

element in H is the same as the identity element in G ;
(ii) for any g ∈ H the inverse g −1 taken in H is the same as
the inverse taken in G .
Proof. Let eG be the identity element of G and eH be the
identity element of H. Then eG eH = eH in G . Further,
eH eH = eH in H (but also in G ). Hence eG eH = eH eH in G .
By right cancellation in G , eG = eH .
Now take any g ∈ H. Let g ′ be the inverse of g in G and g ′′
be the inverse of g in H. Then g ′g = eG in G and
g ′′ g = eH = eG in H (but also in G ). Hence g ′g = g ′′ g in
G . By right cancellation in G , g ′ = g ′′ .
Examples of subgroups: • (Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +).
• (Q \ {0}, ×) is a subgroup of (R \ {0}, ×).
• The alternating group A(n) is a subgroup of the symmetric
group S(n).
• If V0 is a subspace of a vector space V , then it is also a
subgroup of the additive group V .
• Any group G is a subgroup of itself.
• If e is the identity element of a group G , then {e} is the
trivial subgroup of G .

Counterexamples: • (R \ {0}, ×) is not a subgroup of

(R, +) since the operations do not agree.
• (Zn , +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +) since Zn is not a
subset of Z (although every element of Zn is a subset of Z).
• (Z \ {0}, ×) is not a subgroup of (R \ {0}, ×) since
(Z \ {0}, ×) is not a group (it is a subsemigroup).
Theorem Let H be a subset of a group G and define an
operation on H by restricting the group operation of G .
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) H is a subgroup of G ;
(ii) H contains e and is closed under the operation and under
taking the inverse, that is, g , h ∈ H =⇒ gh ∈ H and
g ∈ H =⇒ g −1 ∈ H;
(iii) H is nonempty and g , h ∈ H =⇒ gh−1 ∈ H.

Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) If H is a subgroup of G , then

g , h ∈ H =⇒ gh ∈ H since the operations agree and H
satisfies the closure axiom. Further, e ∈ H since e is also the
identity element in H and g ∈ H =⇒ g −1 ∈ H since g −1 is
also the inverse of g in H.
(ii) =⇒ (i) By construction, H is a subgroup of G as soon as
it is a group. (ii) implies the closure axiom, existence of the
identity and the inverse. Associativity is inherited from G .
Theorem Let H be a subset of a group G and define an
operation on H by restricting the group operation of G .
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) H is a subgroup of G ;
(ii) H contains e and is closed under the operation and under
taking the inverse, that is, g , h ∈ H =⇒ gh ∈ H and
g ∈ H =⇒ g −1 ∈ H;
(iii) H is nonempty and g , h ∈ H =⇒ gh−1 ∈ H.

Proof. (ii) =⇒ (iii) is obvious.

(iii) =⇒ (ii) Take any h ∈ H. Then e = hh−1 ∈ H and
h−1 = eh−1 ∈ H. Further, for any g ∈ H we have
gh = g (h−1 )−1 ∈ H.
Intersection of subgroups

Theorem 1 Let H1 and H2 be subgroups of a

group G . Then the intersection H1 ∩ H2 is also a
subgroup of G .
Proof: The identity element e of G belongs to every
subgroup. Hence e ∈ H1 ∩ H2 . In particular, the intersection
is nonempty. Now for any elements g and h of the group G ,
g , h ∈ H1 ∩ H2 =⇒ g , h ∈ H1 and g , h ∈ H2
=⇒ gh−1 ∈ H1 and gh−1 ∈ H2 =⇒ gh−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2 .

Theorem 2 Let Hα , α ∈ A be a nonempty

collection of subgroups of the same group G
(where the indexTset A may be infinite). Then
the intersection α Hα is also a subgroup of G .
Generators of a group
Let S be a set (or a list) of some elements of a group G .
The group generated by S, denoted hSi, is the smallest
subgroup of G that contains the set S. The elements of the
set S are called generators of the group hSi.
Theorem 1 The group hSi is well defined. Indeed, it is the
intersection of all subgroups of G that contain S.
Note that we have at least one subgroup of G containing S,
namely, G itself. If it is the only one, i.e., hSi = G , then S is
called a generating set for the group G .
Theorem 2 If S is nonempty, then the group hSi consists of
all elements of the form g1 g2 . . . gk , where each gi is either a
generator s ∈ S or the inverse s −1 of a generator.
Example. Suppose S = {a, b, c}. Let g = abc −1 a and
h = bcba−1 . Then gh = abc −1 abcba−1 , hg = bcb2 c −1 a,
g 2 = abc −1 a2 bc −1 a, g −1 = a−1 cb−1 a−1 .
Cyclic groups

A cyclic group is a group generated by a single element.

Cyclic group: hg i = {g n : n ∈ Z} (in multiplicative notation)
or hg i = {ng : n ∈ Z} (in additive notation).
Any cyclic group is Abelian since g n g m = g n+m = g m g n for
all m, n ∈ Z.
If g has finite order n, then the cyclic group hg i consists of n
elements g , g 2, . . . , g n−1 , g n = e.
If g is of infinite order, then hg i is infinite.
Examples of cyclic groups: Z, 3Z, Z5 , G7 , S(2), A(3).
Examples of noncyclic groups: any uncountable group, any
non-Abelian group, G8 with multiplication, Q with addition,
Q \ {0} with multiplication.
Subgroups of a cyclic group

Theorem Every subgroup of a cyclic group is

cyclic as well.
Proof: Suppose that G is a cyclic group and H is a subgroup
of G . Let g be the generator of G , G = {g n : n ∈ Z}.
Denote by k the smallest positive integer such that g k ∈ H
(if there is no such integer then H = {e}, which is a cyclic
group). We are going to show that H = hg k i.
Since g k ∈ H, it follows that hg k i ⊂ H. Let us show that
H ⊂ hg k i. Take any h ∈ H. Then h = g n for some n ∈ Z.
We have n = kq + r , where q is the quotient and r is the
remainder after division of n by k (0 ≤ r < k). It follows that
g r = g n−kq = g n g −kq = h(g k )−q ∈ H. By the choice of k,
we obtain that r = 0. Thus h = g n = g kq = (g k )q ∈ hg k i.
Examples
• Integers Z with addition.
The group is cyclic, Z = h1i = h−1i. The proper cyclic
subgroups of Z are: the trivial subgroup {0} = h0i and, for
any integer m ≥ 2, the group mZ = hmi = h−mi. These
are all subgroups of Z.

• Z5 with addition.
The group is cyclic, Z5 = h[1]i = h[−1]i = h[2]i = h[−2]i.
The only proper subgroup is the trivial subgroup {[0]} = h[0]i.

• G7 with multiplication.
The group is cyclic, G7 = h[3]7 i. Indeed, [3]2 = [9] = [2],
[3]3 = [6], [3]4 = [4], [3]5 = [5], and [3]6 = [1]. Also,
G7 = h[3]−1 i = h[5]i. Proper subgroups are {[1], [2], [4]},
{[1], [6]}, and {[1]}.