ULTRASONIC TESTING (MODULE-

IV)
INTRODUCTION
 Ultrasonic testing(UT) is the one of the popular
flaw detection on-destructive testing methods.
 In ultrasonic testing high frequency sound energy
is used to identify surface and sub-surface
discontinuities.
 Ultrasonic testing is completely safe method of
NDT and it is extensively used in many basic
manufacturing and service industries.Especially
in applications of inspecting welds and structural
metals.
 Because of its high penetration
capacity,inspection of extremely thicksections are
possible using Ultrasonic testing.
 In this testing we can detect internal flaws, sub
surface discontinuity,measure thickness of
components, grain size & grain boundary study.
 High operating frequency

 Inspection of incoming raw material & quality

control
 The defect may be due to raw
material,fabrication,heat treatment process,
during service time for creep,fatigue,corrosion
etc.
 In this method a high frequency sound waves
are introduced into material to be inspected.
 Pulse echo system require one sided access to the
object being inspected.
 Through transmission-access to both side of
object.
 The sound energy is introduced & propagates
through materials in form of waves.
 When there is discontinuity in the wave
path,part of energy is reflected back from flaw
surface.
 The reflected wave signal is transferred into
electrical signal by the transducer.
ULTRASONIC WAVE GENERATION
v- velocity of wave
f- frequency
λ- wave length
 We know v= fλ

 f= v/λ

 Frequency depends on two parameters-

Minimum size of defect

Medium in which defect exist
 All types of mechanical vibrations are generated
by transducers.
 The transducers transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy & viceversa.
 Piezoelectric transducers are used to generate
ultrasonic waves.
 For NDT frequency of vibration is high with low
amplitude of vibration.
 Ultrasonic test donot affect the component under
test ( due to low amplitude of vibration).
MATERIAL FOR ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER
 Quartz transducer
Natural
Highly stable
Chemical inertness
Withstand high temperature
Barium titanate-
Man made
Most effective
Produce lower voltage by loadig
 PZT ( Lead zirconate titanate)
Man made
Transducer of many shape can be made
Withstand temperature upto 100 deg centigrade
Produce high voltage
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
 Acoustic impedance (Z)
Z = Ρv
Where Ρ is density of medium
V is velocity of sound in the medium
For two medium ratio of amplitude
A2 / A1 = 2 Ρ 1v 1 / Ρ 1v 1+ Ρ 2v 2 = 2Z1 / Z1 +Z2
For full transmission
A2 = A1
Ρ 1 v 1+ Ρ 2 v 2 = 2 Ρ 1 v 1
So Ρ 1v 1 = Ρ 2v 2
Acoustic impedance of the medium should be equal
 Acoustic impedance is an important parameter
to decide wheater or not good transmission of
ultrasonic energy shall take place from one
medium to another medium.
 Couplants are medium which provide easy path
for transmission.
 Ultrasonic wave from transducer to material or
viceversa
SNELL’S LAW
Θ1 is angle of incidence beam
Θ2 is angle of refracted beam
VL1 is velocity in material-1
VL2 is velocity in material-2
µ1 & µ2 are refractive index of mat-1 & mat-2
respectively
C is velocity of light
µ2 / µ1 =Sin Θ1 / Sin Θ2
Sin Θ1 / Sin Θ2 = C / VL2 / C/ VL1
Sin Θ1 / Sin Θ2 = VL1 / VL2
So Sin Θ1 / VL1 = Sin Θ2 / VL2

PHYSICS OF ULTRASOUND
 All sound waves are mechanical vibrations
involving movement of the medium in which they
are travelling.
 Because of the relative movement of the particles
in the medium the physical properties of the
particles in the medium have to be taken into
consideration .
 Ultrasonic waves are classified on the basis of the
mode of vibration of the particles of the medium
w.r.t. the direction of propagation of the waves.
 In solids, sound waves can propagate in four
principal modes that are based on the way the
particles oscillate.
 Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes
of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic
testing.
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
 In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in
the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave
propagation.
 Since compression and expansion forces are
active in these waves, they are also called
pressure or compression waves.
 Compression waves can be generated in gases,
liquids, as well as solids because the energy
travels through the atomic structure by a series
of compressions and expansion movements.
TRANSVERSE WAVES
 In the transverse or shear waves, particles
oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the
direction of propagation.
 They require an acoustically solid material for
effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as
liquids or gasses.
 Shear waves are relatively weak when compared
to longitudinal waves.
METHOD OF ULTRASONIC TESTING-PULSE
ECHO METHOD
 Ultrasonic signal unit- generates electric pulses
which applied to ultrasonic transducer,which can
provide ultrasonic signal.
 Ultrasonic transducer convert ultrasonic signal
to electrical signal,so that it can be given to
oscilloscope unit.
 Pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can
produce high voltage electrical pulses.
 Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates
high frequency ultrasonic energy.
 The sound energy is introduced and propagates
through the materials in the form of waves.
 When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack)
in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface.
 The reflected wave signal is transformed into an
electrical signal by the transducer and is
displayed on a screen .
 Couplants are used to connect between
transducer & test material.
 In contact type method transducer is in direct
contact with test material.
 In pulse-echo technique a simple ultrasonic
transducer acts as transmitter as well as
receiver,which can send and receive ultrasonic
signals.
 The wave of ultrasonic energy is applied to test
material.
 The reflected wave is sensed by ultrasonic
transducer ,which convert it to electrical signal.
 Then displayed on the screen of oscilloscope.

 If any defect is found in the material,sound wave

gets reflected back from that point,which results
loss of energy.
-The reflected wave ( defect zone) is observed on the
screen of oscilloscope is known as defect echo.
- If the reflecting ultrasonic wave is in rear surface or
back wall of test material,reflected signal observed on
screen of oscilloscope is called back wall echo.
- For defect free areas only initial pulse & back wall
echo are observed on screen ( fig3).
- If areas contain defect ,a defect echo is situated
between initial pulse & back wall echo.
THROUGH TRANSMISSION METHOD
 In this method a transmitter trasducer is placed
in contact with material surface using a liquid
coupler.
-Receiver transducer is placed on opposite side of
material.
- If there is no defect in the material then certain
strength of signal will reach the receiver.
- - If a defect is present,there will be reduction of
strength of received signal & sound wave is
reflected back from that point.
THROUGH TRASMISSION ( 2T & 2R)
DETECTION OF DEFECT
DEFECT OTHER THAN PLANE DEFECT
LAMINATION IN THIN PLATE
PULSE ECHO METHOD(IMMERSION
TESTING )
 In contact scanning inspection prove is held in
contact with material through thin film of liquid
couplant.
 In immersion testing the transducer or prove is
placed in water,above the test piece.
 It is suitable for examination of part processed or
finished part in production plant.
 Between initial pulse & backwell peaks there
will be an additional peak caused by sound wave
going from water to test material.
 This additional peak is called front wall peak or
top surface echo.
 Some energy is lost when the waves hit the test
material,so front wall peak is slightly less than
peak of initial pulse.
 For a large number of closely spaced defects
individual defect echos get superimposed &
individual defect resolution is lost in pulse echo
technique.
 So Immersion type is used for thin section &
grossely distributed defect.
APPLICATION
 To test welds in pressure vessels, structures,
bridges, aircrafts, marines etc.
 Ferrous and non ferrous pipes, rods, bars are also
tested.
 Inspection of large castings and forgings.

 Inspection of rails, rolled steel sections.

 Fatigue detection in welds and boilers

 Detection of corrosion in various petroleum and

gas supply lines.
 Determining thickness of pipings, tubings, fins
etc.
 Detection of slags, blow holes, inclusions, porosity
ADVANTAGES
 Sensitive to small discontinuity both surface &
internal.
 Depth of penetration for flaw detection or
measurement is superior to other method.
 Only single sided access is needed when pulse-
echo technique is used.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous
result.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated
system.
LIMITATION
 Surface must be accessible to transmit
ultrasound.
 Skill & training is more extensive than other
method.
 Material that are rough,irregular in shape,very
thin or not homoginious are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron & other coarse grained materials are
difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission
& high signal noise.