Unit-1

HARDWARE AND NETWORK ESSENTIALS

Basics of Computer System:
computer is an electronic device that can receive, store, process, and output data. It is a machine that
can perform a variety of tasks and operations, ranging from simple calculations to complex simulations
and artificial intelligence.
Computers consist of hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage
devices, input/output devices, and peripherals, as well as software components such as the operating
system and applications.
The history of computers can be traced back to the 19th century when mechanical devices such as the
Analytical Engine and tabulating machines were developed. However, modern computers as we know
them today were developed in the mid-20th century with the invention of the transistor and the
development of integrated circuits.
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input according
to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output quickly. A Computer can
perform the following set of functions:
 Accept data
 Store data
 Process data as desired
 Retrieve the stored data as and when required
 Print the result in desired format.
Data and Information: Data: It is the term used for raw facts and figures fed into the computer and
along with the set of instructions which enables the computer to convert this raw data into the refined
and useful information. Information: Data represented in useful and meaningful form is information.

Data and information are related concepts, but they have different meanings. Data refers to raw facts and
figures that are unorganized and have no meaning on their own. Information, on the other hand, is data
that has been processed, organized, and given context to make it meaningful and useful.
Data can take many forms, such as numbers, words, images, or sounds. For example, a list of sales
figures for a company is data. However, this data by itself does not provide any useful information. It
needs to be processed and analyzed to be turned into information that can be used for decision-making.
Information is data that has been processed and organized in a meaningful way to convey a message or
answer a question. For example, using the sales figures from the earlier example, an analyst could create
a graph or chart that shows the sales trends over time, providing meaningful information about the
company’s performance.
These devices are used for performing the specific functions and are connected to the computer
externally. These peripheral devices enable the computer to operate according to the user requirements
by feeding data in and out of the computer. Peripheral devices are as follows:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Light Pen
 Optical/magnetic Scanner
 Touch Screen
 Microphone for voice as input
 Track Ball
 Monitor (Visual Display Unit)
 Printers
 Plotter
 Speaker

MOTHERBOARD:
A computer is an electronic device that processes the data with respect to the user’s requirements
using IO devices. The data processing takes place in a processor, an important component. The
processor is situated in a hardware circuit board called the motherboard or printed circuit board (PCB).
It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other parts. It also
connects expansion cards directly or via cables.
How Does a Motherboard Work?
The power supply transfers electricity to the motherboard so that the computer can use it when you turn
on the computer. Data buses are used to transfer information between the southbridge and
northbridge component of motherboard.
The northbridge motherboard component is used to make the data connections to the CPU, RAM, or
PCIe. The RAM starts feeding the CPU inputs. Depending on the type of card which you have, after
being written to the PCIe the data is either copied or relocated to the expansion card.
The southbridge motherboard component controls the data connection to the BIOS, the universal serial
bus (USB), the serial advanced technology attachment (SATA), and the PCI bus. now your computer
starts because signals sent to BIOS.
The left components interact via an electrical signal. A microchip’s northbridge or southbridge elements
pass through data buses. The data will be encoded into a programming language (1 and 0). When a
signal is transfer to a motherboard, the motherboard will start processing and translate information into a
language the other component can comprehend.
COMPONENTS OF MOTHERBOARD:
1. Each motherboard is designed to support specific components, such as CPUs and memory. They can
accommodate most types of hard drives and peripherals.

Motherboards include the following primary components:

 CPU with its logic circuitry that processes the instructions from programs, the operating system and
other computer components;
 memory where instructions and data are temporarily stored and executed;
 storage interface for solid-state or hard disk drive for persistent data and application storage;
 ROM BIOS providing non-volatile memory that stores firmware, such as the basic input/output
system or BIOS;
 Northbridge chipset that connects CPU, memory, storage and other components;
 Southbridge chipset that connects peripheral elements to the motherboard and connects to the
Northbridge;
 cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating temperature;
 peripheral connector slots for plugin peripheral cards, such as graphics and communications
adapters;
 connectors for peripheral devices such as USB ports and other connectors for external devices;
 the backup battery that ensures key system configuration data is maintained when main power is
unavailable;
 the power connector, connecting to an external power source.
 CMOS Battery helps the bios chip settings stored when you turn off and on the system. It helps keep a
record of the date and time when the computer is switched off

Networking Cards
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated
network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter, or
LAN adapter.
Types of NIC Cards
NIC cards are of two types −
Internal Network Cards

In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card where it can be inserted. It requires
network cables to provide network access. Internal network cards are of two types. The first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA).

External Network Cards

In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external NICs are used. External network cards
are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the
motherboard, however no network cable is required to connect to the network. They are useful while
traveling or accessing a wireless signal.

Graphics Card :
Graphics card is a hardware which is used to increase the video memory of a computer, and make its
display quality more high-definition. It makes the computer more powerful and gives it the capacity to
do more high-level works. The quality of the image depends on the quality of the graphics card. It is
very much important for gaming and video editing on a PC. Every game needs a graphics memory to
start and it depends on the type of the game, and the requirements are mentioned on the game
box. Example :
 Acer predator – Nvidia GTX 1050 4GB Graphics Card.
 Alienware 17 – Nvidia Geforce GTX 1070 8GB Graphics Card.
Types of Graphics Card :
1. Integrated – The graphics which are built into the motherboard are known as Integrated, are
generally used in most laptops, the cannot be easily upgraded.
2. Discrete – It is an external graphics card which is a hardware and added on a motherboard as an
extra component. Most people may not need an external graphics card for their work on PC. Basic
work like creating files, doing office work, watching movies, listing songs, etc may not need a
graphics card. But for the users playing high resolutions games and video editing may need an
external component i.e graphics card for their purpose.

Processors:
The processor also known as CPU is a piece of hardware. It is often referred to as the “Brain of a PC”
because all the computations and processing are carried out directly or indirectly by the processor
containing millions of transistors. It is a single chip that is capable of processing data. In fact, the
performance, capability, and pricing of a computer system are largely determined by the processor to
present in it. It controls all the components in a PC. The primary functions of a processor are –
1. Fetch –
Every instruction has its own address and is stored in the main memory. The CPU fetches the address
of the instruction which is to be executed from the program counter in the memory and performs the
instruction.
2. Decode –
The instruction that is to be executed is converted into binary code so that the computer can easily
understand it and perform the required function. The process of conversion is known as decoding.
3. Execute –
The process of performing the required task specified in the instruction is known as execution The
execution of the instruction takes place in the CPU.
4. Write back –
After performing the instruction the CPU store the result in the memory that process is known as a
store or Write back.
Below is the diagram of the Processor

What is a Hard Disk Drive?

A hard disk is a memory storage device that looks like this:
The disk is divided into tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors. The point to be noted here is
that outer tracks are bigger in size than the inner tracks but they contain the same number of sectors and
have equal storage capacity. This is because the storage density is high in sectors of the inner tracks
whereas the bits are sparsely arranged in sectors of the outer tracks. Some space of every sector is used
for formatting. So, the actual capacity of a sector is less than the given capacity.

Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write head that performs all
the read and writes operations on the disk and hence, the position of the R-W head is a major concern.
To perform a read or write operation on a memory location, we need to place the R-W head over that
position.
USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals like pointing devices, keyboards, digital
images and video cameras. But some devices such as printers, portable media players, disk drives, and
network adaptors to personal computers used USB to communicate and to supply electric power. It is
commonplace to many devices and has largely replaced interfaces such as serial ports and parallel ports.
USB connectors have replaced other types of battery chargers for portable devices with themselves.
What is a Universal Serial Bus(USB)?
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for connectors, cables,
and protocols for communication, connection, and power supply between personal computers and
their peripheral devices. There have been 3 generations of USB specifications:
 USB 1.x
 USB 2.0
 USB 3.x
The first USB was formulated in the mid-1990s. USB 1.1 was announced in 1995 and released in 1996.
It was too popular and grab the market till about the year 2000. In the duration of USB 1.1 Intel
announced a USB host controller and Philips announced USB audio for isochronous communication
with consumer electronics devices.
MONITOR PORTS:
A monitor port is a port used to establish the connection between the monitor and computer in order to
display the computer's output.

The connection can be either analog or digital.

Most computers, laptops and other portable devices have built-in hardware, modules and monitor sockets
to support monitor ports

Common Types of Monitor Ports

High-definition multimedia interface (HDMI)

Provides both audio and video signals and is pretty much the standard interface for connecting PC
monitors, recorders, and TVs.
 It was established in 2002 and has quickly become a ubiquitous digital audio/video interface for home
electronics, gaming consoles, digital cameras, and smartphones as well.

Newer versions of HDMI support higher resolutions and refresh rates – up to 10K resolution at 120Hz for
HDMI 2.1.

Digital visual interface (DVI)

Introduced in 1999, the DVI interface was the last market standard for monitor connection before the
introduction of HDMI.

Today, it is mostly used for older systems or for higher frequencies (144hz). It can support multiple modes,
such as:

 DVI-D (digital only)

 DVI-A (analog only)
 and DVI-I (digital and analog)
Video graphics array (VGA)

The 15-pin VGA connector is an old type of interface that was used in the past as the past standard before
DVI became mainstream.

Both in its standard and mini-VGA port for, it was provided on most computers, TV sets, projectors, and
monitors, but is now used only in legacy systems.

It only supports video signals, with no audio. For a long time, it coexisted with DVI and DisplayPort
interface connectors.

DisplayPort

DisplayPort was first commercialized in 2006 in the attempt of replacing the VGA and DVI interfaces.

However, despite the fact that it was royalty-free and that it could transmit high-quality audio and video
signals, DisplayPort couldn’t surpass HDMI.

DisplayPort 1.4 can pass uncompressed 7.1, 192Hz/24-bit audio and transmit up to 8K at 60Hz and HDR.

DisplayPort is supported by some of the best, top-tier gaming PC monitors.

Newer Types of Connectors

USB Type-C

Mostly used for smartphones and laptops.

Network Device Interface (NDI)

Used to send video and audio via ethernet networks

 TYPES OF SERVER
Web Server:
Web servers are computers that deliver (serves up) Web pages. Every Web server has an IP address
and possibly a domain name. For example, if you enter the URL
http://www.webopedia.com/index.html in your browser, this sends a request to the Web server
whose domain name is webopedia.com. The server then fetches the page named index.html and
sends it to your browser.
Any computer can be turned into a Web server by installing server software and connecting the
machine to the Internet. There are many Web server software applications, including public domain
software and commercial packages.
Functions of web server:
 The web server accepts the requests from the web browser.
 The user request is processed by the web server
 The web server responds to the users by providing the services which they demand for over
the web browsers.
 The web servers serve the web based applications
 The DNS translate the domain names into the IP addresses
 The server verifies for the given address, finds the necessary files, runs appropriate scripts,
exchange cookies if necessary and returns back to the browser
 Some servers actively participate in session handling techniques.

Examples of web servers: Apache web server, IIS web server

Apache web server IIS web server

Apache web server is useful on both Unix based IIS web server is used on Windows Platform
systems and on Windows platform

It is an open source product that provides It is vendor specific product and can be used on
reliability and efficiency windows product only

The Apache web server can be controlled by For IIS web server, the behaviour is controlled
editing the configuration file httpd.conf by modifying the window based management
programs called IIS snap-in. We can access IIS
snap-in through the Control -Panel -
>Administrative Tools

It is also called a free web server named as It is currently owned by Microsoft, and was
LAMP : (Linux/Apache/MySQL/PHP) designed with .NET frameworks.
 Database Server:
Database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can be easily accessed, managed
and updated. Data is organised into rows, columns and tables and it is indexed to make it easier to
find relevant information. Data gets updated, expanded and deleted as new information is added.
Database Management is a piece of software that manages databases and lets you create, edit and
delete databases.
DBMS examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access, SQL Server, FileMaker, Oracle,
RDBMS, dBase, Clipper, and FoxPro.
What is a database server?
It is similar to data warehouse where the website store or maintain their data and information. A
Database Server is a computer in a LAN that is dedicated to database storage and retrieval. The
database server holds the Database Management System (DBMS) and the databases. Upon requests
from the client machines, it searches the database for selected records and passes them back over
the network.
A database server can be defined as a server dedicated to providing database services. Such a server
runs the database software. A database server can typically be seen in a client-server environment
where it provides information sought by the client systems.
A database server is useful for organizations that have a lot of data to deal with on a regular basis. If
you have client-server architecture where the clients need process data too frequently, it is better to
work with a database server. Some organizations use the file server to store and process data. A
database server is much more efficient than a file server.
In Database Network the client execute SQL requests to the database server. The Network Database
Server Process the client database request and the executed answers of SQL command are come
back over the network computer. In the whole concept Database server serves its own power to
process the request or search the requested result. The Database server some time also known as
SQL engine.
All database functions are controlled by the database server. Any type of computer can be used as
database server. It may be microcomputer, minicomputer or mainframe computer. In large
organization networks, the mainframe computers are used as server. Some people refer to the
central DBMS functions as the back-end functions, whereas the application programs on the client
computer as front-end programs. You can say that client is the application, which is used to
interface with the DBMS, while database server is a DBMS.
The Database server manages the recovery security services of the DBMS. It enforces the
constraints that are specified inside the DBMS. It controls and manages all the clients that are
connected to it. It handles all database access and control functions. It provides concurrent access
control. It provides better security and server hides the DBMS from clients. It provides the multi-
user environment. Several users can access the database simultaneously. All the data is stored on the
data server therefore, the DBA can easily create the backup of the database.
 Web Server Database Server
Web server makes use of the languages like The database server has its own specific
PHP , ASP, JSP. It makes use of the protocols program language or query language.
such as FTP and HTTP
Web server is used to save the static and Database server deals with the storing and
dynamic contents and pages of website managing the data of a computer or computer
programs
Web server only performs web based services Database server can manage the web based,
enterprise based services at the same time
Apache HTTP server, Microsoft Internet Oracle , SAP, MySQL and DB2 are some
Information Services (IIS), Google Web common examples of database server.
Server(GWS) and Sun Java Systems web
server are examples of web server

COMMUNICATION MEDIUM:
In computer networking and mechanism of data communication flow. Transmission media is defined as
the total path through which data goes from sender to receiver. All the physical channels and cables that
help data to go from one point to another point are transmission media.
In other words, when data is transmitted via electromagnetic waves Transmission media acts as a
medium to transfer information from one part to the other and is defined as the communication channel
to carry the data in a process. For better transmission media, there are some factors that should be taken
care of as the bandwidth of the transmission media should be greater in order to have a stronger
transmission media. The other factor is Interference whenever data communication flow takes place then
chances of unwanted noise signals are there so to disrupt those signals interference is used.
In the OSI model, the transmission media is available in the lowest layer (Physical layer). The quality of
data flow in transmission media depends on the medium and the signal (Bandwidth).
There are two types of Transmission media:
 Wired communication media (Also Known as Guided media)
 Wireless communication media (Also Known as Unguided media)
What is Wired Communication Media?

Wired communication media are also known as Guided media and are a type of Transmission media.
This type of communication is the most stable which is why it is considered better than wireless. These
connections are less prone to other outer interferences. In wired communication media, wire is used to
transfer data from source to destination. Wired communication media is not better for public use but can
be used for professional purposes as it more relies on wires and ports which is not the case with wireless
networks, data can be accessed from anywhere. Also, the connection speed of wired media is more as
compared to wireless. The whole setup of wired media is also expensive as the larger the distances more
no. of cables and ports would be required and fiber optic cables are usually expensive.
The diagram given below shows the transmission media its types and its subtypes.

Twisted pair cable

As the name suggests these are two twisted pairs of cables or wires made up of insulated copper. These
are twisted together in such a way that they run parallelly one wire is used for the transmission of data
and the other wire is used for ground. Usually, these wires or cables are 1mm in diameter. The twisted-
pair cable is made up of 2 copper wires (insulated) arranged in a spiral pattern. Noise interference is
more often the problem in these cables but it can be handled by increasing the number of turns per foot
of twisted pair cable.
Working of twisted-pair cables: The twisted-pair cable has an outer jacket that keeps the wires
together, a shield for the protection of the cable, color-coded plastic insulation to uniquely identify each
conductor, and twisting of wires to cancel the electromagnetic waves that create noise interferences
during the transmission of data. When current flows through the cable then a small circular magnetic
field is created around the wire. For the connection between two devices connectors are needed at both
ends like RJ45 for computer connection.

Types of Twisted pair cables are:-

 Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
UTP cables are the most common twisted pair cables that are used in computer networks as well as in
telecommunication. These cables are made up of 4 color-coded copper wires twisted together to cancel
the disturbances from outer sources and electromagnetic interference. There are different categories of
UTP cables used for telecommunication and other purposes. For example, some are used for telephone
line services with good speed and some offer 4mbps to 16mbps speed some provide 20mbps speed and it
is enough for communication for longer distances.
Merits
 These cables are cheaper.
 The maintenance cost is low.
 It doesn’t require any ground wire.
Demerits
 The transmission rate of data is slow.
 Noise is high in these cables.
Shielded Twisted pair cables (STP)
In comparison, UTP’s Shielded twisted pair cables are costlier and consist of metal foil sometimes made
up of insulated conductors. Metal foils help to improve the quality of the wire which otherwise will be
affected by noise. These cables are used to reduce crosstalk and the interference caused due to
electromagnetic waves. The company that first introduced these STP cables was IBM. These cables are
used for both Analog and digital transmissions.
Merits
 The transmission rate of data is fast.
 Noise is slow in these cables.
Demerits
 These cables are costlier.
 The maintenance cost is higher.
 It requires ground wire.
Applications
Some applications of Twisted pair cables:
1. Telephone systems: To provide voice and data channels.
2. LANs use twisted-pair cables.
3. The DSL lines used by telephone companies also use unshielded twisted pair cables to provide
extremely high data rate connections.
Co-axial cable

The most common type of transmission media that is used in various applications like tv wires and
ethernet connection setup also. This is a form of transmission media that consists of two conductors kept
parallel to each other. It has a central core conductor of a solid copper wire enclosed in an insulating
sheet and the middle core conductor is made up of copper mesh and lastly an outer metallic wrap that
helps in noise cancellation. The whole cable is covered and protected by a plastic cover.
It is considered better than twisted-pair cables because of the higher frequency range. Coaxial cables are
best suited for shorter distances as there are higher chances of data loss in more distances for fiber optic
cables are best as fibers are capable of higher data transfer and with greater speed as compared to coaxial
cables. Cost and maintenance are also less, unlike fiber optic cables

Working of Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables are made up of copper wires for carrying higher frequency
signals this wire is covered with an insulated foil cover whenever current flows it maintains a constant
distance between the conductor and the next layer and then a shielded wire that prevents the interference
of noise in between the transmission and at last the plastic cover that protects the whole cable from any
outer disturbances. Hence, a coaxial cable carries a signal in a way that when the current enters the
center copper wire as well as the metal shield. The metal conductors at that point generate a magnetic
field. The insulators help the signals not to come in contact with each other, they also the signal from
outside magnetic fields. In this way, the signal is carried over larger distances without much loss.
Application
Some applications of Coaxial cables:
1. Digital telephone networks
2. Analog telephone networks
3. Cable TV networks
4. Ethernet LANs
Merits
 The cost of coaxial cables is less as compared to fiber optic cables.
 It has a higher data transmission rate.
 It can be used in both analog and digital transmissions.
 Higher-frequency applications can use coaxial cables for better performance.
Demerits
 For long distances, the cost of these cables will be higher.
 The size of these cables is usually bulky because of various layers of metal as well as copper and
plastic.
 The data transmission over long distances is poor.
Fiber-optic cables

Fiber optic cables carry information via light so at the transmitting side the light source is first encoded
with data or information and then the data starts flowing in the core of the fiber optic cable in a
completely bouncing manner with a complete internal reflection then there is cladding that helps the
light to remain inside the cable after reaching the receiver side the data is then decoded like the original.
So basically fiber optic is a form of transmission media for the transfer of data via light with higher
bandwidth and a higher rate of transmission.
It consists of five major parts named core, Cladding, Coating, Strengthening, and Outer jacket.
Here, the Core is a thin part of the glass of the optic fiber cable and cladding is the insulation around the
core coating is the protective layer for the optical fiber the strengthening part allows protection to the
core and at last outer jacket for the whole optic fiber tube.

Application
Some applications of Fibre-optic cables.
 One of the most popular and important uses of Fibre -optic cables is the INTERNET.
 Television broadcasting These cables are very much suitable for transmitting signals for high-
definition televisions because of their greater bandwidth and speed.
 In surgical operations in medicine, these cables are used in various fields of medicine and research
purposes as their cost is low as compared to other cables.
 It is used in industries and in defense services also these cables are of great use.
Merits
 Long durability: These have long durability of almost 100 years.
 Low cost: Due to the cheaper cost these cables are in high demand usually of more use.
 Greater bandwidth and speed: Higher speed and great bandwidth help in faster and even smoother
data transmission.
 Light signals: In the same fiber cable light signals of one fiber and the other do not interfere with
each other which is not the case with other cables.
Demerits
 Delicacy: Fibre-optic cables are more delicate as compared with copper wires. If bent too much these
cables can be damaged easily.
 Installation Cost: The installation process is cost-effective as it requires machines and a specialist
team for the setup of the fiber cables.
 Low power: Since data flows via light in these cables power supply is limited, and for high-power
emitters cost would be more.
Types of Wireless Transmission Media
When we talk about a Headset or Earphones, there are wired regular earphones that we
physically connect to our phones, and there are wireless Bluetooth headsets that we
connect via Bluetooth. Transmission via Bluetooth is one of the simplest and most
prominent examples of wireless transmission media.

Wireless data transmission is also called "Unguided Transmission" or "Unbounded

Transmission" because of the absence of physical boundaries. When we turn on
the Bluetooth on our phone and connect a headset, our phone and the device
communicate with each other using ultra high-frequency Radio waves-one of the
wireless transmission media.

This tutorial explains about three major wireless transmission media in details with
examples around us.

1. Infrared Transmission
IR or Infrared radiation is a part of electromagnetic radiation. These rays have
a wavelength greater than visible light, making them invisible to the human eye. We
cannot see Infrared light but feel the rays in the form of heat. Frequency range: 300
GHz to 400 THz

When we look at a fire, we can feel the heat from it and see it because it emits visible
light and Infrared energy. The human body also emits heat but only in the form of Infrared
light. Instruments such as night-vision goggles and Infrared cameras can capture
Infrared light.

Sun is the biggest source of Infrared radiation. Hence, it causes a lot of interference
in Infrared communication. One most important point about Infrared rays is that these
rays cannot penetrate through walls. Hence, the applications of Infrared rays lie within
a contained space.

So, how does the data transfer take place using this Infrared light?

Let us apply for Infrared data transfer and see how it is happening. The most used
application is the "TV Remote control". When we press a button on the remote, how is it
changing the channel on the TV?

An Infrared Light emitting diode is embedded into the TV remote and an IR detector
is inserted into the TV. This detector converts the Infrared light signal from the remote
and converts it into an electrical signal. Hence, the remote acts as a transmitter and
the TV as a receiver.

All the buttons on a TV remote are connected to a microprocessor which generates

a unique binary code for each button pressed. All these codes will be of the same
length. The LED flashes on and off according to the generated pattern of the pressed
button.

The detector on the TV will be pre-programmed to interpret the binary codes and
perform the requested actions. These binary codes vary from company to company
and device to device, which is why we can't control a TV with a remote that doesn't
belong to it. Although, a universal remote has all the codes programmed into it, which is
why it can control any TV.

If there is some object between your remote and the TV, the detector on the TV might not
be able to get the Infrared rays from the remote as these rays can't penetrate through
objects. New technology led to various changes in Remote control, like using Radio
waves instead of Infrared, mobile apps, voice control, etc.

Other Applications of Infrared transmissions:

1. Laptops to printers
2. Development of high-speed LANs
3. Cordless microphones, headsets
4. LASER communications
5. Modems, robot control systems, etc.

Advantages of Infrared communication:

1. Large bandwidth
2. Simple and inexpensive to implement
3. The best medium for short-range communication
4. Secure transmission
5. Risks of interception and interference are low
6. Power usage is efficient

Disadvantages of Infrared communication:

 1. Due to its Line of sight propagation, the transmitter needs to be aligned with the receiver
to transmit the data.
2. Only short-range communication is supported.
3. It can't propagate through obstructions like walls, wood, and other opaque objects.
4. Some receivers might respond to other transmitters breaking the security policy.
5. High interference rate due to sunlight and other large Infrared sources.

2. Radio waves
Like Infrared radiation, Radio waves are also a part of electromagnetic radiation. These
waves have the longest wavelengths, from 1mm to 100km in the spectrum. The name
itself has Radio. A Radio is one of the thousands of wireless technologies that use Radio
waves for communication.

A Radio is the simplest example of Radio wave communication. Other examples

include RADAR, Satellite communications, Bluetooth headsets, TV Broadcasts, GPS
Signals, etc. Frequency range: 300GHz to 3kHz.

Like in Infrared communication, there will be a Radio wave transmitter and a

receiver. All the Radios today use continuous sine waves to transmit information, as
almost every single person on the planet uses these waves in one form or another. The
information can be from audio, video, sound, and textual data. Suppose a person is
using Radio, sine waves are transmitted from it, and if another person uses a TV, it also
broadcasts sine waves. How are these signals separated and identified? Every single
Radio signal will have a different frequency for the sine waves.

A Radio station is an equipment installation with one or more transmitters or

receivers.

This is the flow:

Transmitter (Sender's side):

1. Information -> Sine waves -> Radio waves -> Antenna

The information in any form is encoded into sine waves and is transmitted into the air by
radiating the waves through an Antenna.

Receiver (Destination):

1. Antenna -> Radio waves -> Sine waves

The Antenna on the receiver's side captures the Radio waves and decodes the
information from the sine waves.

To transmit Radio signals, there is a need for a transmitting antenna on the transmitter's
side and a receiving antenna at the receiver's side.

There is a concept to understand here:

1. The frequency of a wave is inversely proportional to wavelength, and the length of

the Antenna is directly proportional to the wavelength of the wave.
Let us take an example of a sound wave. The frequency range a human ear can sense is
20Hz to 20kHz. If we try to transmit the Radio wave at the same frequency as the sound
waves, the length of the antennas required will be in kilometers. It is not feasible.

Here comes the concept of Modulation.

We need the antenna height to be low, which means we need the Radio wave with high
frequency. Hence, a signal with high frequency is taken, and its characteristics (amplitude
or frequency, phase or pulse) are altered to store the information.

After the modulation process, we'll get a high-frequency wave with all the data encoded
into the wave. This wave is transmitted to the receiver Radio station, and demodulation is
done to extract the blended data.

Observe that there are FM Radios, AM Radios, and PM Radios based on the type of
Modulation the Radio wave is going through to carry the information.

Here is an example of Frequency Modulation:

The first wave is the message the Transmitter wants to send. The next wave is a new
signal with high frequency with no data in it. Now, the carrier signal is modified in terms of
its frequency to carry the data in the message signal like a Morse code. This data will be
demodulated to get back the message at the receiver's side.

Advantages:

1. Radio waves are the best choice for large-distance communications.

2. These waves can also penetrate through obstacles.
3. These waves are Omnidirectional which means they can be transmitted in all directions.
4. Low cost.

Disadvantages:

1. Not very secure due to the large distances

2. Interference with other Radio signals
3. Not very effective in bad weather conditions.

3. Microwaves
These waves are also a part of electromagnetic radiation. The micro indicates that
these waves have short wavelengths from 1 meter to 1 millimeter. These are high-
frequency waves-> Frequency range: 300MHz to 300GHz. These waves fall between
Radio waves and Infrared waves.

These waves are used for point-to-point communication as it only transmits data in
one direction. These can transmit all kinds of data, from audio to video. These waves can
be used to transmit thermal energy too.

Communication using Microwaves can be done only if the transmitting and receiving
antennas are properly aligned- Line of sight transmission.
Applications:

1. Cooking food in Microwave ovens, Popcorn machines.

2. TV distributions
3. Capturing the speed of the vehicle
4. Phone channels to a mobile phone
5. RADAR, Satellite communications

Advantages:

1. The speed of transmission is very fast

2. We can reduce antenna size due to high frequency
3. Lower power consumption
4. Supports larger bandwidth
5. Can easily pass through the Ionosphere.

Disadvantages:

1. Expensive
2. Not effective in bad weather conditions
3. Occupies more space
4. Interference
5. Harmful radiation
1. FUNDAMENTALS COMPUTER NETWORKS

Communication means to convey a message, a picture, speech or an idea that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is conveyed. Network is a set of devices
connected by media links. The link connecting the devices is often called communication channels.
Computer networking consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources,
exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked
through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. Data
communication consists of five elements. They are sender, receiver, message, transmission medium
and protocol.
 Sender : Sender machine creates data and send it to the receiver machine.
 Receiver: Receive data and information from sender
 Message : The message is the information or data, that is to be communicated. It may
consist of text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination devices.
 Protocol: A set of rules that defines how data is formatted and processed on a network.
 Transmission media: It is a path between sender and receiver .Message is transmitted
through this medium.

Point – to – Point link : In data communication, the point to point is commonly used to establish a
direct connection between two networking devices. Point – to – point networks provide a dedicated
link between any two stations. The data packets are sent from source station to the destination.

Multi-point link : Multi-point communication means one to many i.e. one source machine
communicate with multiple receiver machine.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

a. Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

b.Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases
where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same time. The entire capacity of
the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- Talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the
directions.

c. Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other
direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

2.TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer Networks can be categorized depending on their size, distance and the structure
namely: LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN (Wide Area
Network).

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LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering a small Networks
geographical area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school Network. It is used
to connect the computers and other network devices so that the devices can communicate with
each other to share the resources. The resources to be shared can be a hardware device like
printer, software like an application program or data. The size of LAN is usually small.

Characteristics of LAN: Advantages of LAN:

 Easy resource sharing  Availability to share hardware and
 Data transfer rate are high software resources
 Small area covered by LAN  Support for heterogeneous forms of
 Cost of setting up the network is usually hardware and software
low  Access to other LANs and WANs
 Flexibility, low error rate, reliability of  Private ownership
operation and simple maintenance  Secure transfers at high speed with low
error rates

MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number of types of networks. A MAN
is a relatively new class of network. MAN is larger than a local area network and as its name
implies, covers the area of a single city. MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently
comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission media.A MAN can be created
as a single network such as Cable TV Network, covering the entire city or a group of several
Local Area Networks (LANs). It this way resource can be shared from LAN to LAN and from
computer to computer also. MANs are usually owned by large organizations to interconnect its
various branches across a city.

The two most important components of MANs are security and standardization. Security is
important because information is being shared between dissimilar systems. Standardization is
necessary to ensure reliable data communication.

A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources (similar to a
large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a
link to a WAN. MAN provides the transfer rates from 34 to 150 Mbps.

WAN (Wide Area Networks)

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A wide area network is simply a
LAN of LANs or Network of Networks. WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of
a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are characterized by the slowest data
communication rates and the largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN
and Global WAN.

WANs (wide area networks) generally utilize different and much more expensive networking
equipment than do LANs (Local Area Networks). Key technologies often found in WANs (wide
area networks) include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM. Each node in a WAN is a router that
accepts an input packet, examines the destination address, and forwards the packet on to a
particular telecommunication line. A router must select the one transmission line that will
provide a path to the destination and in an optimal manner.
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In a WAN, when the packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate routers, the
packets is received at each intermediate routers in its entirety. This packet is stored in that router until the
required output line is free. WAN uses hierarchical addressing because they facilitate routing. Addressing
is required to identify which network input is to be connected to which network output

Topologies
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals:
 Mesh
 Star
 Ring
 Bus
 Hybrid

a) Mesh Topology
Key Characteristics:
 Fully connected
 Robust – Highly reliable
 Not flexible
 Poor expandability
Media used for the connection (links) can be twisted pair, co-axial cable or optical fiber.. Mesh
Topology is not flexible and has a poor expandability as to add a new node „ n‟links have to be laid
because that new node has to be connected to each of the existing nodes via dedicated link, for the
same reason the cost of cabling will be very high for a larger area.

b) Star Topology
 Each machine is connected to a central hub or switch.
 It allows each machine on the network to have a point to point connection to the central hub.
 All of the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub.
 The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the signal to travel greater
distances.
 Most widely implemented, Hub is the single point of failure

Advantages Disadvantages

Easily expanded without disruption to the Requires more cable

network
Cable failure affects only a single user A central connecting device allows for a
single point of failure
Easy to troubleshoot and isolate More expensive than bus topologies
problems. because of the cost of the hubs

c) Ring Topology
 Each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring.
 Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification purposes.
 The signal passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction.
 Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the
network. Ring technique is based on the use of a small frame called a token that circulates
when all the stations are idle. Whenever a station wishes to send a frame it waits until it
receives a token. Since ring topologies use token passing to control access to the network,
the token is returned to sender with the acknowledgement.
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  Ring speeds are 4Mbps, 16 Mbps and 100 Mbps and uses twisted pair and fibre optic cable.
 By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit on the network at a time.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cable faults are easily located, making Expansion to the network can cause
troubleshooting easier network disruption
Ring networks are moderately easy to A single break in the cable can disrupt the
install entire network.

d) Bus Topology
 Each machine is connected to a single cable.
 Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of
connector.
 A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus
cable until it finds the address on the network that is the intended recipient.
 If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine
ignores the data.
 Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap and easy to implement Network disruption when computers are
added or removed
Require less cable High cost of managing the network
Single point of failure.
Does not use any specialized network A break in the cable will prevent all
equipment systems from accessing the network.
Difficult to troubleshoot.

THE OSI MODEL 25

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to
ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO stands for
International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System
Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system. They are:
1. Application 5. Network Layer
Layer 6. Datalink Layer
2. Presentation 7. Physical Layer
Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer

Below we have the complete representation of the OSI model, showcasing all the layers and how
they communicate with each other.

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Feature of OSI Model
1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.
Principles of OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not
become unwieldly.
Functions of Different Layers
Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an
introduction, we will cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.

Layer 1: The Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by
this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.

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Layer 3: The Network Layer
1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and
are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail
services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application
layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
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 2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

3. TCP/IP MODEL:
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. This model is
based on a five layer model for networking: Physical layer, Datalink layer, network layer,
transport layer and application layer. The TCP/IP protocol stack is open. The TCP/IP protocol
stack models a series of protocol layers for networks and systems that allows communication
between any types of devices.
TCP breaks messages into packets, hands them off to IP software for delivery, and then orders
and reassembles the packets at their destinations. IP stands for the Internet Protocol. It deals
with the routing of packets through the maze of interconnected networks to their final
destination. At the physical and Datalink layers, the TCP/IP protocols do not define any
standards.

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Datalink layer
Physical Layer

Fig: TCP/IP Protocol suite

Functions of TCP/IP Layers:

1. Application Layers: Application layer includes all process and services that uses the
transport layer to deliver the data. The original TCP/IP Specification described a number of
different applications that fit into the top layer of the protocol stack. These applications include
Telnet, FTP, SMTP and DNS. TELNET is the Network Terminal Protocol, which provides
remote login over the network. FTP is used for interactive file transfer. SMTP delivers
electronic mail.

2. Transport Layer: This layer provides communication session management between host
computers. It also defines the level of services and status of the connection used when
transporting data. It also manages connection oriented steams, flow control, reliable transport
and multiple transmission. Application programs send the data to the transport layer protocols
TCP and UDP. An application is designed to choose either TCP/UDP based on the services it
needs. The transport layer provides peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on
a conversation. Data may be user data or control data. Two modes are available- full duplex and
half duplex. In full-duplex operation ,both sides can transmit and receive data simultaneously,
whereas in half-duplex, a side can only send or receive at one time.

3. Network or Internet Layers : Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source and
destination address information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across
networks. It performs routing of IP datagrams.

29
 The internet/network level protocol (IP,ARP, ICMP) handles machine to machine
communication. The primary protocol used to move data is the IP which provides fragmentation
and addressing services. IP provides a connectionless method of delivering data from one host
to another. It does not guarantee delivery and does not provide sequencing of datagrams. It
attaches a header to datagram that includes source address and destination address, both of
which are unique Internet Addresses.

4.Network Interface Layer: It contains two sub layers : DataLink Layer and Physical Layer.
This layer is also called as host to network layer. This layer cannot define any protocol. It is
responsible for accepting and transmitting IP datagrams. This layer may consists of a device
driver in the operating systems and the corresponding network interface card in the machine. It
specifies details of how data is sent physically sent through the network including how the bits
are electrically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network medium,
such as coaxial cable, optical fiber or twisted pair copper wire.

Addressing:

An Internet employing TCP/IP protocols uses four level of addresses :

Physical Address: It is the lowest address and is also referred to as link address. The physical
address of the node is defined by its LAN or WAN. The physical address is included in the
frame by the data link layer.

Logical Address: Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications. It is a 32-bit
address which uniquely defines host connected to Internet.

Port Address: In TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called Port address. In
TCP/IP the port address is of 16 bit.

Specific Address: They get changed to corresponding port and logical addresses by the station
or the host who sends it.

Difference between TCP and IP

TCP IP
TCP is used to transfer packet data IP is responsible for logical addressing
TCP guarantees transfer of packet on a IP obtains that particular address
particular address
TCP breaks messages to packets and hands IP deals with the routing of packets through
them off to the IP for software delivery, orders the maze of interconnected networks to their
and then reassemble the packets at their final destination.
destinations
TCP is connection oriented protocol Connectionless protocol

Reliable Not Reliable

NETWORK LAYER:
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The main objective of the network layer is to allow end systems, connected to different networks, to
exchange information through intermediate systems called router. The unit of information in the
network layer is called a packet. It is responsible for addressing messages and data so that they are
sent to the correct destination, and for translating logical addresses and names into physical
addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding the path through the network to the destination
computer. Lowest layer that deals with host-to-host communication, call this end-to-end
communication.

Functions of Network Layer:

a) Logical Addressing- Data link layer implements physical addressing. When a packet passes
network boundary, an addressing system is needed to distinguish source and destination,
network layer performs these functions.
b)Routing- Network layer route or switch the packets to its final destinations in an internetwork.
c)Frame Fragmentation- If it determines that a downstream router‘s Maximum Transmission
Unit(MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and
re-assemble at the destination station.

Principle of network Layer:

Each network layer entity is identified by a network layer address. This address is independent
of the data link layer addresses that it may use. The network layer is conceptually divided into
:Data plane and the control Plane. The data plane consists of protocols and mechanisms that
allow hosts and routers to exchange packets carrying user data. The control plane contains the
protocols and mechanisms that enable routers to efficiently learn how to forward packets
towards their final destination.Datagram is used to provide a connectionless service while a
virtual circuit is used in networks that provide a connection oriented service. Datagram is a type
of packet that happens to be sent in a connectionless manner over the network. Every datagram
carries enough information to let the network forward the packet to its correct destination. The
network layer limits the maximum packet size.

Computer Network Components

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Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type
of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the
wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC

o NIC stands for network interface card.

o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network

o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.

o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by
the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).
There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with wired
NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network.
For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub

A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer
requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will
broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them
or not. If not, the request will be dropped.

The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication.
Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components
such as Switches, Routers.

Switch

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A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains
more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is
transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address
present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the
Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch
provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

Router

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is
used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages Of Router:

o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but the
only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks
are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24
workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the
network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the
traffic load by half.

Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing
telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on
the motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the
telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following
categories:
o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem
o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

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