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4 Divergence

The document discusses vector analysis, focusing on the gradient, divergence, and curl of vector functions. It explains how the gradient transforms under rotations, introduces the del operator, and provides definitions and geometrical interpretations for divergence and curl. Additionally, it includes examples and problems for calculating divergences and curls of specific vector functions.

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27 views3 pages

4 Divergence

The document discusses vector analysis, focusing on the gradient, divergence, and curl of vector functions. It explains how the gradient transforms under rotations, introduces the del operator, and provides definitions and geometrical interpretations for divergence and curl. Additionally, it includes examples and problems for calculating divergences and curls of specific vector functions.

Uploaded by

gmanya255
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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16 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

! Problem 1.14 Suppose that f is a function of two variables (y and z) only.


Show that the gradient ∇ f = (∂ f /∂ y)ŷ + (∂ f /∂z)ẑ transforms as a vector un-
der rotations, Eq. 1.29. [Hint: (∂ f /∂ y) = (∂ f /∂ y)(∂ y/∂ y) + (∂ f /∂z)(∂z/∂ y),
and the analogous formula for ∂ f /∂z. We know that y = y cos φ + z sin φ and
z = −y sin φ + z cos φ; “solve” these equations for y and z (as functions of y
and z), and compute the needed derivatives ∂ y/∂ y, ∂z/∂ y, etc.]

1.2.3 The Del Operator


The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, ∇, “multiplying” a scalar T :
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇T = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ T. (1.38)
∂x ∂y ∂z
(For once, I write the unit vectors to the left, just so no one will think this means
∂ x̂/∂ x, and so on—which would be zero, since x̂ is constant.) The term in paren-
theses is called del:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ . (1.39)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Of course, del is not a vector, in the usual sense. Indeed, it doesn’t mean much
until we provide it with a function to act upon. Furthermore, it does not “multiply”
T ; rather, it is an instruction to differentiate what follows. To be precise, then, we
say that ∇ is a vector operator that acts upon T , not a vector that multiplies T .
With this qualification, though, ∇ mimics the behavior of an ordinary vector in
virtually every way; almost anything that can be done with other vectors can also
be done with ∇, if we merely translate “multiply” by “act upon.” So by all means
take the vector appearance of ∇ seriously: it is a marvelous piece of notational
simplification, as you will appreciate if you ever consult Maxwell’s original work
on electromagnetism, written without the benefit of ∇.
Now, an ordinary vector A can multiply in three ways:

1. By a scalar a : Aa;
2. By a vector B, via the dot product: A · B;
3. By a vector B via the cross product: A × B.

Correspondingly, there are three ways the operator ∇ can act:

1. On a scalar function T : ∇T (the gradient);


2. On a vector function v, via the dot product: ∇ · v (the divergence);
3. On a vector function v, via the cross product: ∇ × v (the curl).
1.2 Differential Calculus 17

We have already discussed the gradient. In the following sections we examine the
other two vector derivatives: divergence and curl.

1.2.4 The Divergence


From the definition of ∇ we construct the divergence:
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · v = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ · (vx x̂ + v y ŷ + vz ẑ)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vx ∂v y ∂vz
= + + . (1.40)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Observe that the divergence of a vector function6 v is itself a scalar ∇ · v.


Geometrical Interpretation: The name divergence is well chosen, for ∇ · v
is a measure of how much the vector v spreads out (diverges) from the point in
question. For example, the vector function in Fig. 1.18a has a large (positive)
divergence (if the arrows pointed in, it would be a negative divergence), the func-
tion in Fig. 1.18b has zero divergence, and the function in Fig. 1.18c again has a
positive divergence. (Please understand that v here is a function—there’s a differ-
ent vector associated with every point in space. In the diagrams, of course, I can
only draw the arrows at a few representative locations.)
Imagine standing at the edge of a pond. Sprinkle some sawdust or pine needles
on the surface. If the material spreads out, then you dropped it at a point of positive
divergence; if it collects together, you dropped it at a point of negative divergence.
(The vector function v in this model is the velocity of the water at the surface—
this is a two-dimensional example, but it helps give one a “feel” for what the
divergence means. A point of positive divergence is a source, or “faucet”; a point
of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain.”)

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.18

6 A vector function v(x, y, z) = v (x, y, z) x̂ + v (x, y, z) ŷ + v (x, y, z) ẑ is really three functions—


x y z
one for each component. There’s no such thing as the divergence of a scalar.
18 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

Example 1.4. Suppose the functions in Fig. 1.18 are va = r = x x̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ,


vb = ẑ, and vc = z ẑ. Calculate their divergences.
Solution
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · va = (x) + (y) + (z) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
∂x ∂y ∂z
As anticipated, this function has a positive divergence.

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · vb = (0) + (0) + (1) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0,
∂x ∂y ∂z
as expected.
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · vc = (0) + (0) + (z) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1.
∂x ∂y ∂z

Problem 1.15 Calculate the divergence of the following vector functions:


(a) va = x 2 x̂ + 3x z 2 ŷ − 2x z ẑ.

(b) vb = x y x̂ + 2yz ŷ + 3zx ẑ.


(c) vc = y 2 x̂ + (2x y + z 2 ) ŷ + 2yz ẑ.

• Problem 1.16 Sketch the vector function


r̂
v= ,
r2
and compute its divergence. The answer may surprise you. . . can you explain it?

! Problem 1.17 In two dimensions, show that the divergence transforms as a scalar
under rotations. [Hint: Use Eq. 1.29 to determine v y and v z , and the method of
Prob. 1.14 to calculate the derivatives. Your aim is to show that ∂v y /∂ y + ∂v z /∂z =
∂v y /∂ y + ∂vz /∂z.]

1.2.5 The Curl


From the definition of ∇ we construct the curl:
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 

∇ × v =  ∂/∂ x ∂/∂ y ∂/∂z 
 vx vy vz 
     
∂vz ∂v y ∂vx ∂vz ∂v y ∂vx
= x̂ − + ŷ − + ẑ − . (1.41)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

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