Meaning of Fallacy: A fallacy is like a mistake or a problem in an argument.

It's not just about having wrong facts

but also about how the argument is put together. So, even if the facts are correct, the way they're used might still
be wrong.

4 Criteria of a Good Argument:

1. Relevance: The things you're saying should relate to what you're trying to prove.
2. Acceptability: The things you're saying should make sense and be logical.
3. Sufficiency: You need enough good reasons to prove your point.
4. Rebuttability: You should be ready to defend your argument against possible objections or challenges.

Ways Fallacies Happen: Fallacies usually happen because of mistakes in how we think or how we put arguments
together. Sometimes, it's because the reasoning is off, and other times, it's because the argument looks better
than it is because of some trick.

Types of Arguments:

• Deductive: These are like proofs in math. If the premises (starting points) are true, the conclusion has to be
true.
• Inductive: These are like making guesses based on evidence. Even if the evidence is good, the conclusion
might still be wrong.

Relation between Fallacies and Arguments: If an argument has a fallacy, it's not a good argument. It might not be
true or convincing. And if an argument isn't true or convincing, it probably has a fallacy in it somewhere.

Formal Fallacies:
• These are like mistakes in the structure or setup of an argument.
• You can spot them just by looking at how the argument is put together, kind of like seeing a crack in a wall.
• They only happen in certain types of arguments, specifically deductive ones, which are like logical proofs.

Informal Fallacies:
• These are more about mistakes in the content or meaning of an argument.
• You can't always see them just by looking at how the argument is arranged; you have to dig into what's
being said and how it's being said.
• They can happen in any kind of argument, whether it's about logic or just trying to make a point.

So, think of it like this: if a formal fallacy is like spotting a hole in the road just by looking at it, an informal fallacy is
like realizing the road might lead to the wrong place after you've been driving on it for a while and paying attention
to the signs.

FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

1. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum):

Example: "You better agree with me or else you'll regret it."
Explanation: This is when someone threatens harm if you don't agree with them. The threat doesn't have anything
to do with the argument itself.

2. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam):

Example: "Please give me an A on the test. If I fail, I'll lose my scholarship."
Explanation: This is when someone tries to get sympathy to win an argument, even though the sympathy doesn't
prove their point.

3. Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum):

Example: "Everyone's doing it, so it must be right."
Explanation: This is when someone tries to convince you to agree with them by saying everyone else does. It
doesn't prove anything about whether it's right or wrong.

• Example for Bandwagon Fallacy: "Everyone's buying the new phone, so you should too."
• Example for Appeal to Vanity: "If you use this perfume, you'll be as popular as the celebrity who wears it."
• Example for Appeal to Snobbery: "Only elite people use this brand of handbags. You'll stand out as
sophisticated if you have one."

4. Argument against the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem):

Example: "You're wrong because you're stupid."
Explanation: Instead of addressing the argument itself, this attacks the person making the argument.

• Example for Ad Hominem Abusive Fallacy: "You're just a loser, so your opinion doesn't count."
• Example for Ad Hominem Circumstantial Fallacy: "Of course, you'd say that you work for the company."
• Example for Tu Quoque Fallacy: "You're telling me not to smoke, but I've seen you smoke before."

5. Accident:
Example: "It's wrong to speed, but I was rushing my pregnant wife to the hospital."
Explanation: This is when a general rule is applied to a specific situation where it wasn't meant to apply.

6. Straw Man:
Example: "Opponent: We should invest more in education. Arguer: No, my opponent wants to bankrupt the
country with unnecessary spending."
Explanation: This is when someone misrepresents the opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.

7. Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi):

Example: "Premise: All humans need oxygen to survive. Conclusion: Therefore, we should ban plastic bags."
Explanation: The conclusion doesn't follow from the premise; it misses the point entirely.

8. Red Herring:
Example: "I know I didn't finish my homework but look how clean my room is!"
Explanation: This is when someone brings up a different topic to distract from the main issue.

FALLACIES OF WEAK INDUCTION

9. Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam):

Example: "My favorite actor says this product is great, so it must be true."
Explanation: This happens when someone tries to convince you of something by using an authority figure, like a
celebrity, even if that person isn't an expert on the subject.

10. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam):

Example: "No one has proven aliens don't exist, so they must be real."
Explanation: This occurs when someone says something must be true because it hasn't been proven false, or vice
versa.

11. Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident):

Example: "I met two rude people from France, so all French people must be rude."
Explanation: This happens when someone generalizes a whole group based on a small sample that isn't
representative.

12. False Cause Fallacy:

Example: "I wore my lucky socks to the game, and we won. Therefore, my lucky socks made us win."
Explanation: This is when someone wrongly assumes that one thing caused another just because they happened
together.

13. Slippery Slope Fallacy:

Example: "If we allow students to retake one test, they'll want to retake every test, and then the whole education
system will collapse."
Explanation: This occurs when someone argues that one event will lead to a series of increasingly bad events
without enough evidence.

14. Weak Analogy:

Example: "Cars have wheels, and bicycles have wheels, so cars and bicycles are the same."
Explanation: This is when someone tries to make a comparison between two things, but the comparison isn't
strong enough to support the conclusion.

15. Begging the Question (Petitio Principii):

Example: "The Bible is true because it says so in the Bible."
Explanation: This happens when someone assumes something is true without providing evidence for it.

16. Complex Question:

Example: "Have you stopped cheating on tests?"
Explanation: This occurs when someone asks a question that assumes something hasn't been proven and traps
the respondent into admitting guilt.

17. False Dichotomy:

Example: "You're either with us or against us."
Explanation: This happens when someone presents only two options when there are more available.

18. Suppressed Evidence:

Example: "The company says their product is the best, but they're hiding all the bad reviews."
Explanation: This occurs when someone leaves out important information that could change the conclusion.

FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY

19. Equivocation:
Example: "All banks are beside rivers. The bank where I keep my money is a bank. Therefore, the place where I
keep my money is beside a river."
Explanation: Here, "bank" is used in two different senses: one as a financial institution and the other as the edge of
a river. The argument depends on this shift in meaning to draw a false conclusion.

20. Amphiboly:
Example: "She saw the man with the telescope."
Explanation: This sentence can be interpreted in two ways: either the woman saw the man who had a telescope, or
the woman saw the man through a telescope. Depending on the interpretation, the conclusion could be different.
 FALLACIES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALOGY

21. Composition:
Example: "Each brick in the wall is small and light. Therefore, the wall made of bricks is small and light."
Explanation: This fallacy assumes that because the individual parts of something have a certain attribute, the
whole thing must also have that attribute, which is not necessarily true.

22. Division:
Example: "The team won the championship, so each player on the team must be a champion."
Explanation: This fallacy assumes that because the whole has a certain attribute, each part must also have that
attribute. Just because the team won doesn't mean every player is individually a champion.

In both cases, the fallacies occur because of misinterpretations or shifts in meaning, either due to ambiguity or
faulty linguistic structure.