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Predicates

The document discusses propositional functions and predicates, including their definitions and examples. It covers universal and existential quantifiers, their meanings, and how they relate to propositions. Additionally, it explains the concept of equivalence of propositional statements and the use of counterexamples in disproving universal statements.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
6 views

Predicates

The document discusses propositional functions and predicates, including their definitions and examples. It covers universal and existential quantifiers, their meanings, and how they relate to propositions. Additionally, it explains the concept of equivalence of propositional statements and the use of counterexamples in disproving universal statements.

Uploaded by

sanaul.zihad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 32

Summary, Sections 1.1, 1.

2
Proposition
 Statement, Truth value,
 Proposition, Propositional symbol, Open proposition
Operators
 Define by truth tables
 Composite propositions
 Tautology and contradiction
Equivalence of propositional statements
 Definition
 Proving equivalence (by truth table or equivalence
laws)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 49


Propositional Functions & Predicates
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.
Let us call this propositional function P(x), where P
is the predicate and x is the variable.
What is the truth value of P(2) ? false
What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
When a variable is given a value, it is said to be
instantiated
Truth value depends on the value of the variable

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 50


Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.
Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the
variables.
What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true
What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
A propositional function (predicate) becomes a
proposition when all its variables are instantiated.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 51


Propositional Functions
Other examples of propositional functions
Person(x), which is true if x is a person
Person(Socrates) = T
Person(Rose) = F
CSCourse(x), which is true if x is a
computer science course
CSCourse(CSE173) = T
CSCourse(MATH155) = F
How do we say
All humans are mortal
Some CS courses are interesting
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 52
Universal Quantification

Let P(x) be a predicate (propositional function).

Universally quantified sentence:


For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier :


x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a


proposition, not a propositional function.)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 53


Universal Quantification
Example: Let the universe of discourse be all people
S(x): x is a NSU student.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?
“If x is a NSU student, then x is a genius.” or
“All NSU students are geniuses.”
If the universe of discourse is all NSU students, then
the same statement can be written as
x G(x) = G(1)  G(2)  ……

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 54


Universal Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x) be the x.1 = x
What does x Q(x) mean ?
“For every x, x.1 = x”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? yes

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 55


Universal Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x.0 = x
What does x P(x) mean ?
“For every x, x.0 = x”

Is it true? No (x = 1)

Is it true for the natural numbers? No (x = 1)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 56


Universal Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the integers’ set.
Let Q(x) be the x is an even integer
Let R(x) be the x2 is a multiple of 4
What does x [Q(x)  R(x)] mean ?
“For every x, if x is an even integer then x2 is
multiple of 4 and if x2 is multiple of 4 then x is even”

Is it true? yes

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 57


Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse for
which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :


x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”
“For some x P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a


proposition, but not propositional function.)
x P(x) = P(1)  P(2) …..
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 58
Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a NSU student.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a NSU student and x is


a genius.”
or
“At least one NSU student is a genius.”
“Some NSU students are genius.”

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 59


Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x) be the x.1 = x
What does x Q(x) mean ?
“There exists a value of x such that, x.1 = x”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? yes

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 60


Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x.0 = x
What does x P(x) mean ?
“There exists a value of x such that x, x.0 = x”

Is it true? Yes (x = 0)

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 61


Existential Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x) be the x2 ≥ 0
Let Q(x) be the 3.x > 10

x P(x) is it true? yes


x P(x) is it true? yes
x Q(x) is it true? No (x = 2)
x Q(x) is it true? yes
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 62
Quantification

Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? No (x = 400)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 63


Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let P(x,y) be x > y
What does xy P(x, y) mean?
“We can find a value of x such that no matter what
the value of y, we have x >y”

Is it true? No (x = 2, y = 3)
What does yx P(x, y) mean?
“For all y there is an x such that x > y”
Is it true? Yes ( x = y+1)
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 64
Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse set of integers.

What does xy (x.y = 0) mean ?

“There exists a x such that for all values of y, we


have x . y = 0”

Is it true? Yes (x = 0)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 65


Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse set of integers.

What does xy (x.y = 15) mean ?

“There is some value of x and some value of y such


that such that x . y = 15”

Is it true? Yes (x = 3, y = 5)

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 66


Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
Let Q(x, y, z) be x + y = z
What does:
xyzQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? no
xyzQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? yes
zxyQ(x, y, z) mean?
Is it true? no
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 67
Disproof by Counterexample

A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so that


P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be


disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”


Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 68


Negation

What does (x P(x)) means?

It is not the case that for all value of x, P(x) is true

That means for some value of x, P(x) is false

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 69


Negation
Let the universe of discourse be the integers.
Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 1
What does xQ(x) mean ?
“For every x, x2 > 1.”

Is it true? No (x = 0, or 1)

~xQ(x) is equivalent to x (Q(x)).

x (Q(x))  “For some x, x2 ≤ 1.”


Is it true? Yes (x = 0)
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 70
Negation
What does (x P(x)) means?

It is not the case that for some x, P(x) is true

That means for all value of x, P(x) is false

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 71


Negation
Let the universe of discourse be the integers.
Let Q(x) be the predicate 2x is odd
What does xQ(x) mean ?
“For some value of x, 2x is odd”

Is it true? no

~ xQ(x) is equivalent to x (Q(x)).


“It is not the case that for some value of x, 2x is odd”
“For all values of x, 2x is not odd”
Is it true? yes
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 72
Negation Summary
(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

Let universe of discourse all real numbers


Let P(x, y) be the predicate x.y = 1
xyP(x, y) means:
For all x there is some y such that x.y = 1
Is it true or false?
False (think about x = 0)
xyP(x, y) is equivalent to xy(P(x, y) )
For some x, no matter what value of y is x.y ≠ 1
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 73
Negation
More Examples
Not all roses are red
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))

Nobody is perfect
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 74


Equivalency
Let universe of discourse be set of integers
E(X) be the predicate x is even
O(x) be the predicate x is odd
x[E(x)  O(x)] is true
xE(x)  xO(x) is also true

Thus x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are equivalent

But x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are not equivalent


Example:
x[E(x)  O(x)] and xE(x)  xO(x) are not equivalent

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 75


Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 ≤ 0

P(x) be the predicate “ x is an even prime “

x Q (x)  x P(x) is True

[Letting x = 0 for Q(x) and x = 2 for P(x)]

x [Q (x)  P(x)] is False

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 76


Equivalency
Let universe of discourse be set of integers

E(X) be the predicate x is even


O(x) be the predicate x is odd
x[E(x)  O(x)] is true
xE(x)  xO(x) is false

Thus x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are not equivalent

But x[P(x)  Q(x)] and xP(x)  xQ(x) are equivalent

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 77


Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 0

P(x) be the predicate x < 2

x[Q (x)  P(x)] is true

xQ (x)  xP(x) is False

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 78


Equivalency
Let universe of discourse set of integers

Let Q(x) be the predicate x2 > 0

P(x) be the predicate x.1 = x

x[Q (x)  P(x)] is true

xQ (x)  xP(x) is also true

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 79


Summary, Sections 1.3
 Propositional functions (predicates)
 Universal and existential quantifiers, and the
duality of the two
 When predicates become propositions
 All of its variables are instantiated
 All of its variables are quantified
 Nested quantifiers
 Quantifiers with negation
 Logical expressions formed by predicates,
operators, and quantifiers

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 80

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