BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING

Definition of a Computer Network

A computer network refers to a group of two or more computers or other hardware devices
connected/linked together for purposes of sharing resources, such as files, programs, printers
etc. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
Computers on a network use protocols which define a common set of rules and signals to
communicate.
NB/ Computers that are not connected to one another are known as stand-alone computers.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

i) Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and
easily via e-mail, chat rooms, telephony, video telephone calls, and videoconferencing.
ii) Sharing resources and reducing costs. In a networked environment, each computer on a
network can access and use hardware and software on the network. If several computers and
a printer are connected to a network, each user can access the printer on the network, as they
need it instead of buying as many printers. Other resources include files, applications and
disk storage.
Network resources include:
 Printers and other peripherals
 Files, data and information
 Applications/programs
 Disk Storage

iii) It enables distributed processing which allows a user at one computer to use a program on
another computer as a “back end” to process and store the information. The user’s computer
is the “front end,” performing the data entry.
iv) Centralized data administration and support. Data from all the user systems can be stored
on one machine where it can be managed in an easy and more secure way.
v) Users can store more information, because they can now store data on other computers on
the network.
vi) They allow users to use programs that would otherwise be too large for their computer to run
by itself.
 DISADVANTAGES
i. The cost of hardware, software and cabling might be quite high
ii. Complexity of many LANs means that it is often necessary to employ someone to look
after the network and solve problems relating to the system.
iii. Security of data may be a problem if adequate procedures are not adopted.
iv. Any failure in the system often means that it becomes impossible for users to work.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Categorization can be based on the following criteria:
• Based on transmission media: Wired (Guided media) and Wireless (Unguided medium)
For guided media, there is a physical path such as a cable for signal propagation, while in
unguided media; the electromagnetic wave is transmitted through air.
• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and MAN)
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server
• Based on topology (layout): Bus, Star, Ring …

Networks based Size

i) Local Area Networks (LANs)
 The smallest and simplest networks are called local area networks (LANs), which
extend over only a small area, typically within a single office, building or a part thereof.
In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled,
and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain
connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.
A home network is a type of LAN that is contained within a user's residence.
ii) Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Wide area networks (WANs) can extend over a large geographic area e.g. across
metropolitan, regional, national or continental boundaries and are connected via the
telephone network or radio waves. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of
LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the
router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet)
are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed
ownership and management.
iii) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) / Campus Area Network (CAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to serve a town or city, and a campus
area network is designed to serve a university, military base or an educational institution.
A metropolitan area spans a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN,
such as a city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.
iv) Intranet
An intranet is a private network within an organization that uses the same
communications protocols as the Internet (internet protocol). It is sometimes
contrasted to extranets. An Intranet is used strictly within the confines of a company,
university, or organization and is based on the internet standards (HTML, HTTP &
TCP/IP protocols). An intranet's Web sites look and acts just like any other Web sites, but
the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access.
v) Extranet
This is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for specific
business or educational purposes. It uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or operations
with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An extranet requires
security and privacy. These can include firewall server management, the issuance and
use of digital certificates or similar means of user authentication, encryption of messages,
and the use of virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)?
 A virtual private network (VPN) is a network that uses a public telecommunication
infrastructure, such as the Internet, to provide remote offices or individual users with
secure access to their organization's network. A virtual private network can be contrasted
with an expensive system of owned or leased lines that can only be used by one
organization. The goal of a VPN is to provide the organization with the same capabilities,
but at a much lower cost
vi) internet/internetwork
An internet (spelt with a lower case i) is a network that is composed of a number of
smaller computer networks.
vii) The Internet
The Internet (spelled with an upper case I) is the world-wide network of interconnected
internets that operates using a standardized set of communications protocols called
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol), or the Internet protocol suite.
This ultimate internet is vastly larger than any other internet and connects thousands of
networks and hundreds of millions of computers throughout the world. The Internet is,
therefore, an internet.

TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted,

addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. From lowest to
highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication technologies for a single
network segment (link), the internet layer, connecting hosts across independent
networks, thus establishing internetworking, the transport layer handling host-to-host
communication, and the application layer, which provides process-to-process
application data exchange e.g. HTTP, SMTP, FTP.

Types of Networks based on management method:

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS
Peer-to-peer networks are also called workgroups and there exists no hierarchy among
computers; all computers are equal. No administrator is usually responsible for the network.
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate for small, simple, and inexpensive networks. This type of
network is appropriate where:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
 Advantages of peer-to-peer networks/workgroups

• Low cost of implementation

• Simple to configure
• User has full access to computer resources

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks

• May have duplication in resources

• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading – unequal distribution of tasks among the workstations

SERVER-BASED NETWORKS (CLIENT/SERVER MODEL)

A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub to
which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected.
The clients run programs and access data that are stored on the server. Network Clients
(Workstations) computers request network resources or services while the network Servers
provide network resources and services to clients.
A server usually has more processing power, memory and hard disk space than clients and run
Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but also users, groups, security,
and applications on the network. Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its
performance and reliability.
Server-based networks use a dedicated, centralized server. All administrative functions and
resource sharing are performed from this point. This makes it easier to share resources,
perform backups, and support an almost unlimited number of users. It also offers better
security. However, it does need more hardware than that used by the typical workstation/server
computer in a peer-to-peer resource model.
A good example of a server based network is a domain which refers to a group
of computers and devices on a network that are administered as a unit with common rules and
procedures. Domain-based networks are composed of any number of computers and at least one
Domain Controller (DC). The workstations could be used by employees and users in the
organization, while the Domain Controller, known as a Server, is capable of managing the user
workstations in many different respects.
 Peer-to-Peer Networks vs Client/Server Networks
Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks
1. Easy to set up More difficult to set up
2. Less expensive to install More expensive to install
3. Can be implemented on a wide A variety of OSs can be supported on the client
range of operating systems machines, but the server needs to run an
Operating System that supports networking i.e
NOS.
4. More time consuming to maintain Less time consuming to maintain the software
the software being used (as being used (as most of the maintenance is
computers must be managed managed from the server)
individually)
5. Very low levels of security High levels of security are supported, all of
supported or none at all. which are controlled from the server including
access to individual workstations. Such
measures prevent the deletion of essential
system files or changing of settings.
6. Ideal for networks with less than No limit to the number of computers that can
10 computers be supported by the network

7. Does not require a server Requires a server running a network operating

system
8. Demands a moderate level of Demands that the network administrator has a
skill to administer the network high level of IT skills with a good working
knowledge of a server operating system
NETWORK COMPONENTS
(a) Networking Cables
The two most popular types of network cabling are the 10BaseT (also known as twisted
pair or Cat5), 10Base5 (also known as Thicknet) and thin coax (also known as 10Base2
or Thinnet). The “10” in 10Base5 stands for the 10 Mbps transmission rates while the “5”
stands for the maximum distance of 500 meters to carry transmissions. The pairs are
twisted together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources
10BaseT cabling looks like ordinary telephone wire, except that it has 8 wires inside
instead of 4, transmits at 10Mbps, with a maximum distance of 100 meters and physical
star topology with a logical bus topology. There are basically two types of twisted-pair
cabling: unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). UTP is
simply twisted-pair cabling that is unshielded. In STP cables, each of the pair or
collection of pair of wires that are twisted together are coated with an insulating coating
that functions as a ground for the wires which protects the transmission line
from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable.

Thin coax looks like the copper coaxial cabling that's often used to connect an aerial
antenna to a TV set. The 10baseT/Cat5 cables have connectors that resemble a phone
cord connector, only larger. These are called RJ-45 connectors. Coaxial cables are
connected using BNC connectors.

10Base5 Cable and BNC Connector

 10BaseT cable, RJ45 Connectors and their ports

Fiber Optic Cables– signals are converted to light form and fired by laser or LEDs in bursts
through insulated, thin glass or plastic fiber. Light bounces back and forth along the core. The
pulses of light represent the ‘on’ state in electronic data representation. An optical fiber consists
of a core (denser material) and a cladding (less dense material).

It provides transmission speeds from 100Mbps up to 1Gbps and a maximum distance of several
miles. A small fiber-optic cable can support large amounts of voice conversation at the same
time.

Fiber Optic cable

Advantages of Fiber
 Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket.
 Less signal attenuation ― a signal can run for miles without regeneration (currently, the
lowest measured loss is about 4% or 0.16dB per km).
 Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come from the signal
generation/reception technology, not the fiber itself.
 Completely immune from wiretapping.
Disadvantages
 Cost - Optical fibers are expensive.
 Installation/maintenance - any crack in the core will degrade the signal, and all
connections must be perfectly aligned.

Wireless Technology
i. Microwave Communications
Information is converted to a microwave signal, sent through the air to a receiver, and
recovered. They use line-of-sight devices which must be placed in relatively high
locations. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves which are "small" compared to waves
used in typical radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths.

ii. Satellite Transmission

Communications satellites are relay stations that receive signals from one earth station
and rebroadcast them to another
They use microwave signals

iii. Infrared transmission

Involves sending signals through the air via light waves and requires line-of-sight and
short distances (a few hundred yards). It is used to connect various computing devices.
Infrared waves are electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those
of visible light.
iv. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a specification (IEEE 802.15.1) for the use of low-power radio
communications to link phones, computers and other network devices over short
distances without wires.

Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless networking of

personal consumer devices and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless
headsets. Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up
to 30 feet (10 meters). Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps.

(b) Hub
The central connecting device is called a hub. A hub is a box that is used to gather groups
of PCs together at a central location using cables. A hub simply passes all the information
it receives so that all the devices connected to its ports receive the information. Hubs are
mostly used in a small network (usually less than 30 hosts). Hubs connect LANs of
similar technology or to extend the distance of one LAN. They can be called repeaters or
amplifiers.
 Advantages of using Hubs
i. They are inexpensive
ii. Easy to install
iii. Can connect different media
iv. Very little delay
Disadvantages
i. Limited distance between devices
ii. No protocol or rate conversion
iii. No error detection
iv. Does not filter packets

(c) SWITCH
The Switch is a more advanced unit over the basic hub. Unlike a hub, a switch will
forward information/packets to the appropriate machine or port according to the address
information on a particular packet. Switches are used on large networks in order to cut
down the amount of unnecessary traffic being generated. They can use the same or
different types of cable.
Advantages
i. Can convert protocols
ii. They enhance network performance
iii. Can be configured
iv. Enhances security- only destined device receives the packet.
Disadvantages
i. More expensive than hubs
ii. Higher maintenance demands
iii. It does filter packets
iv. Does error detection

(d) Router
 Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and
determine the best path for sending data. They can route packets across multiple
networks and use routing tables to store network addresses to determine the best
destination.

They can segment large networks and can filter out noise. However, they are a bit slow
because they are intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing
packet-forwarding delays. Because of this intelligence, they are also more expensive.

Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another. Typically, when a WAN is
set up, there will be at least two routers used.

Routing moves data on a hop-by-hop basis, what is often called 'hot potato' routing. If a
set of routers ends up passing the data around in a circle, without reaching the
destination, it's called a ‘routing loop'. Packets get tossed around the loop until they die
of old age: their 'Time To Live' counter in the IP datagram is decremented as it passes
through each router and eventually it reaches zero and is discarded.

(e) Network Adapter Card

A computer is connected to the network through a network interface card, (also called a
"NIC", "nick", or network adapter). Network cards convert the binary data generated by
the computer into electrical voltages or optical signals in the case of fiber optic NICs and
converts received signals to binary data for use by the computer.

(f) Servers
A sever is a computer system that provides essential services across a network, to private
users inside a large organization or to public users in the internet. They typically are
configured with additional processing, memory and storage capacity to handle the load of
servicing clients.
 Servers offer networks the capability of centralizing the control of resources and can thus
reduce administrative difficulties. Servers perform several tasks. For example, servers
that provide files to the users on the network are called file servers. Likewise, servers that
host printing services for users are called print servers.
Servers can be multi-purpose or single-purpose. If they are multi-purpose, they can be,
for example, both a file server and a print server at the same time. If the server is a single-
purpose server, it is a file server only or print server only.
Another distinction we use in categorizing in categorizing servers is whether they are
dedicated or non-dedicated. Dedicated Servers are assigned to provide specific
applications or services for the network, and nothing else. Non-dedicated Servers are
assigned to provide one or more network services and local access.

(g) Network Operating Systems (NOSs)

PCs use a disk operating system that controls the file system and how the applications
communicate with the hard disk. Networks use a network operating system (NOS) to
control the communication with resources and the flow of data across the network. The
NOS runs on the server. Some of the more popular network operating systems at this time
include Unix, Novell’s NetWare, and Microsoft’s Windows NT Server (or Windows
2000).

(h) Gateways: A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols.
Broadly, a gateway is any connection point or node on a network that provides access to
a larger one and therefore a router is a gateway. They translate one network protocol and
data formats to another. They can translate from network-to-network, system-to-network
and system-to-system. Another example of gateway is a bridge.
(i) Workstations or Client Computers
Workstations are the computers that the users on a network do their work on, performing
activities such as word processing, database design, graphic design, e-mail, and other
office or personal tasks. Workstations are basically nothing more than an everyday
computer, except for the fact that they are connected to a network that offers additional
resources. Workstations can range from a diskless computer system to a desktop system.
In network terms, workstations are also known as client computers.

(j)Terminal
This is the hardware, usually made up of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc, used to
enter, retrieve and display electronic data from a computer/server through a
network.

(k) Repeaters
 These are network devices used to regenerate or replicate a signal distorted by
transmission loss. They allow a cabling system to extend beyond its maximum allowed
length by amplifying the network voltages so they travel farther. Repeaters are amplifiers
and, as such, are inexpensive. Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between
similar network segments.
(l) Bridges
A bridge is a hardware device for linking two networks that work with the same protocol.
Unlike a repeater, which works at the physical level, a bridge works at both the physical
and the logical levels (on layer 2 in the OSI model), which means that it can filter frames
so that it only lets past data whose destination address corresponds to a machine located
on the other side of the bridge.

How to configure a computer to work in a network.

1. First attach the RJ-45 connector to the Ethernet network port on your PC.
2. Go to Start Button, Control Panel, Network and Internet and then Network and Sharing
Center.
3. Click on Change Adapter Settings on the left panel which will display several network
connection icons e.g. Local Area Connection or Wireless Network Connection
4. Right click on the appropriate adapter, choose Properties to display Connection Properties
window.
5. For most LANs, select the Internet Protocol 4 (TCP/IPv4). Highlight the protocol and
choose Properties.
6. Select Obtain IP address and Obtain DNS Server Address both Automatically or enter
the settings manually by clicking the radio button for Use the Following IP Address and
enter the IP Address, Subnet Mask, and Default Gateway settings. You will also need to enter
in your DNS server addresses as well.
7. Click on Ok button to apply the settings.
NOTE: Internet protocol 6 (TCP/IPv6) is also available in Windows Vista/7.

Internet Protocol address (IP Addresses)

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.,
computer, printer, router) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. IP addresses are binary numbers, but they are usually stored in text files and
displayed in human-readable dotted decimal notations, such as 172.16.254.1
An IP address has two components, the network address and the host address. For example,
consider the IP address 150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first
two numbers (150.215) represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers
(017.009) identify a particular host/device on this network.
Subnetting
Organizations have multiple networks which are independently managed and each is allocate a
separate network address. Therefore, the host number portion of an IP address is split into a
subnet number and a (smaller) host number. This result is a 3-layer hierarchy

network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

BASIC NETWORK COMMANDS

1. Ping:
Ping sends an ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host responds, you get an
ICMP packet back which means the machine is up and connected to the network. You can
“ping” an IP address to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something
is wrong. E.g.
C:\>ping xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx e.g. ping 192.168.1.10
Allows you to ping another computer (the x's represent the IP address of the computer you are
attempting to ping). If this is not able to complete, this should relay back an unsuccessful
message, which could be an indication of cable issues, network card issues, hub issue, etc
C:\>ping localhost
Pings the local host, this will allow you to see if the computer is able to send information out and
receive the information back. Note that this does not send information over a network but may
allow you to see if the card is being seen.
2. IPCONFIG
Ipconfig displays the network settings currently assigned and given by a network such as IP
address, subnet mask and default gateway for each adapter bound to TCP/IP. This command can
be utilized to verify a network connection as well as to verify your network settings.
To get all local network information for your computer use the /all switch as shown below,
followed by the results that would be seen when using this command.
C:\>ipconfig /all
3. Pathping/Tracert
Pathping is designed for environments in which one or more routers exist between hosts. It sends
a series of packets to each router that’s in the path to the destination host in an effort to
determine whether the router is performing slowly or dropping packets.
E.g. pathping 192.168.1.10

Example Results might be:

1 3ms 1ms 1ms 192.168.0.1 (to the router)
2 4ms 1ms 1ms 192.168.1.10 (to the proxy server)

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The devices on a network are referred to as nodes. Nodes can be connected using any of the
various types of media, including twisted pair copper wire cable, optical fiber cable, coaxial
cable and radio waves. The nodes in a network can be arranged according to several basic
topologies (i.e., layouts).
A network topology can be physical or logical. Physical Topology is the actual layout of a
network and its connections. Logical Topology is the way in which data accesses the medium
and packets are transmitted/ travel.

Physical Topologies
There are several physical network topologies:
Star Topology

The most commonly used topology in LANs is the star topology. All the nodes in a star topology
are connected to a central device like a hub, a switch or a router with a point-to-point connection.
The hub acts as a signal repeater. The hub or switch manages and controls all functions of the
network. Star topologies can be implemented at home, offices or even in a building.

Advantages
 The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement.
 The failure of a node or cable in a star network will not take down the entire
network as compared to the Bus topology.
  Signals do not get transmitted to all the workstations if a switch is used and
therefore better performance.
 It is also easier to monitor due to the centralized management. Centralization
allows inspection of the traffic through the network which makes detection of
suspicious behaviour on the network easy.
 It is very easy to add additional nodes.
 It is easy to troubleshoot (detect faults) and to remove parts.
 Data is safer as the packets only move through three points; originator-central
device-destination.
Disadvantages
 The network is highly dependent on the central connecting device. If the central
connecting device such as a hub, a switch or a router fails due to any reason, then
ultimately the whole network can come down or collapse.
 As compared to the bus topology, a star network requires more devices & cables
to complete a network.
 The performance as well as the number of nodes that can be added in such a
topology depends on the capacity of the central device.

Physical Bus Topology

 Bus topology uses a common backbone/trunk to connect all the network devices in a
network in a linear layout. A single cable functions as the shared communication medium
for all the devices attached to this cable with an interface connector or T-connector. The
device, which wants to communicate, sends the message/signal to all the devices attached
to the shared cable but only the intended recipient actually accepts the message. A
terminator is added at both ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals.
10Base-2 and 10BaseT are two popular types of the Ethernet cables used in the Bus
topology.

Advantages
 Bus topologies are easy to implement
 It is easy to extend the network
 They are inexpensive to install and do not require much cabling.
Disadvantages
 Bus networks work with very limited devices. Performance issues are likely to
occur in the Bus topology if more than 12-15 computers are added in a Bus
Network.
 Dependency on the central cable is risky. If the Backbone cable fails then the
whole network becomes useless and communication fails among all the
computers.
 It is difficult to detect faults at individual station and addition of new devices can
be difficult
 Data can be transmitted only in one direction and is then destroyed when it
reaches the end of the line else it will lead to repetition.
 Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal.
 Because the bus network is just a collection of cable, connectors, and terminators,
there is no amplification of the signal as it travels on the wire. This means that the
size of the network will be limited by the maximum distance the cable type can
actually move the signal that holds the data.

Physical Tree Topology

Tree topologies are comprised of multiple star topologies on a bus i.e. it is a bus/star hybrid
topology. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the tree bus and each hub functions
as the root of a tree for the network devices. The concentrator hub is a communications
device that multiplexes (combines) several signals for transmission over a single medium.
Advantages
 This bus/star hybrid combination supports future expandability of the computer
networks, much better than a bus or star.
 The fact that the network is divided into segments makes the network more
manageable hence easier fault identification and isolation (maintenance).
 If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
 The hybrid system overcomes the limitations of both the star and the bus topology. It
doesn’t have the limitation of hub connection points that a star has and also does not
have the limitations of the broadcast traffic and overall dependency on a single bus of
the bus topology.
Disadvantages
 Maintenance and management of the network may be an issue when the network
spans a great area.
 Since it is a variation of the bus topology, if the backbone fails, the various star
networks will not be able to communicate
Mesh Topology
This is a type of network in which devices are connected with many redundant
interconnections between network nodes such as computers, routers and switches. Every
node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes i.e. must
collaborate to propagate the data in the network. Mesh topologies work on the concept of
routes. The message sent to the destination can take any possible, shortest, easiest route
to reach its destination. Mesh networks are typically wireless.
Routers work in finding the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their
destinations. The topology in which every device connects to every other device is called
a full Mesh topology unlike in a hybrid/partial mesh in which some nodes are
connected to all the others, but some of the nodes are connected only to those other nodes
with which they exchange the most data.
Advantages
 A mesh network is reliable and offers redundancy. If one node can no longer
operate, all the rest can still communicate with each other, directly or through one
or more intermediate nodes.
 The network can withstand high traffic and data can be transmitted from different
devices simultaneously.
 Expansion and modification can be done without disrupting existing nodes.
 Point-to-point connections make identification and isolation of faults easy.
 Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient and
therefore privacy and security are thus enhanced.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive to implement due to the amount of cabling and the number of
hardware ports it will require in order to ensure the redundancy. It is therefore
mostly used in wireless networks.
 Setup and maintenance is very difficult.

Physical Ring Topology

 In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected to each other in such a way that they make
a closed loop/ring. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side
and it communicates with these two adjacent neighbours. Data travels around the network
in one direction and sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of a Token. A
token contains a piece of information which is sent along with the data by the source
computer. Once a node receives a packet, it sends a confirmation to the source machine.
Each node gets to send data when it receives an empty token.
NB: Token Ring Networks

Advantages
 The topology is very organized and eliminates chances of collision since only one
token is usually in circulation.
 Additional nodes on the network do not affect the performance of the network.
 Each computer has equal access to network resources.
 It is easy to add devices to the network due to the point-to-point line
configuration.
 It is easy to identify and isolate faults due to the point-to-point line configuration.
Disadvantages
 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination. It is therefore slower than a star topology.
 If one workstation goes down, the entire network gets affected.
Logical Topologies
There are three logical topologies (bus, ring, and switching) which are usually implemented as a
physical star.

Logical Bus Topology

Modern Ethernet networks are Star Topologies (physically) but logically they are bus topologies.
The Hub is at the centre, and defines a Star Topology.
In any network, computers communicate by sending information across the media as a series of
signals. In a logical bus topology, the signals travel along the length of the cable in all directions
until they weaken enough so as not to be detectable or until they encounter a device that absorbs
them. This traveling across the medium is called signal propagation

When a computer has data to send, it addresses that data, breaks it into manageable chunks, and
sends it across the network as electronic signals
 All computers on a logical bus receive them
 Only the destination computer accepts the data
 All users must share the available amount of transmission time, implying network
performance is reduced
 Collisions are bound to occur since all nodes are sharing same bus.

Logical Ring Topology

Data in a logical ring topology travels from one computer to the next computer until the data
reaches its destination. Token passing is one method for sending data around a ring
Token is a small packet which passes around the ring to each computer in turn.
If a computer (sender) has packets to send, it modifies the token, adds address and data, and
sends it around the ring. The receiver returns an acknowledgement packet to the sender.
Upon receiving the acknowledgement packet, the sender releases the token and sends it around
the ring for another sender to use.
Logical ring can be implemented on a physical star. Modern logical ring topologies use smart
hubs that recognize a computer‘s failure and remove the computer from the ring automatically.
One advantage of the ring topology lies in its capability to share network resources fairly.

Switching
A switch takes a signal coming from a device connected and builds a circuit on the fly to
forward the signal to the intended destination computer
Switching is superior to other logical topologies because unlike bus and ring, multiple computers
can communicate simultaneously without affecting each other. Switching is the dominant logical
topology in LAN design.

NB: Advantages and disadvantages of a certain topology depend on the following factors:
Ease of management, Performance, Troubleshooting (maintenance), ease of design and
implementation, safety of data, cost , expandability and robustness.
NB: The BASE is for baseband operation. Baseband is an adjective that describes signals and
systems whose range of frequencies is measured from close to 0 hertz to a cut-off frequency (a
maximum bandwidth or highest signal frequency); it is sometimes used as a noun for a band of
frequencies starting close to zero.

INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the Internet
b) Explain the applications of the Internet
c) Explain the challenges in the use of the Internet in the business environment
d) Explain the need for Internet security
e) Open the browser
f) Surf the net
g) Create e-mail accounts
h) Use e-mail
i) Use search engines
j) Print documents

Task 1 Defining the Internet and applications

Definition of the Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks
that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of
local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most
notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support electronic mail.

History of the Internet

In the 1960s, one of MIT’s projects Mac was funded by ARPA (Advanced Research Projects
Agency) of the department of defense. During one of its conferences, ARPA rolled out the
blueprints for networking the main computers of about a dozen ARPA-funded universities
institutions. They were to be connected with communication lines at then-stunning 56 Kbps.
Shortly after the conference, ARPA proceeded to implement the ARPAnet, the predecessor of
today’s Internet.

Things worked out differently from what was originally planned. Rather than the primary benefit
of researchers sharing each other’s computer, it rapidly became clear that enabling the
researchers to communicate among themselves via electronic mail (e-mail) was the key benefit
of ARPAnet. One of the primary goals for ARPAnet was to allow multiple users to send and
receive information simultaneously over the same communication paths. The network operated
with a technique called packet switching, in which digital data was sent in small packages called
packets. The packets contained data addresses, error control and sequencing information. The
address information allowed packets to be routed to destinations. The sequencing information
helped reassemble the packets into their original order for presentation to the recipient since they
could arrive out of order.
The protocols for communicating over the ARPAnet became known as TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol). TCP ensured that messages were properly routed from sender to receiver and
that those messages arrived intact. As the internet evolved, organizations worldwide were
implementing their own networks for both intra-organization and inter-organization
communications. A wide variety of networking hardware and software appeared. One challenge
was to get these networks to communicate. ARPA accomplished this with the development of IP
– the Internetworking Protocol, truly creating a network of networks, the current architecture of
the Internet. The combined set of protocols is now referred to as TCP/IP.

The history of the TCP/IP protocol suite can be traced back to one of the first WANs consisting
of computers from different manufacturers running different operating systems. Before
ARPAnet, most computer networks were homogeneous, consisting of computers from the same
hardware manufacturer running the same operating system.

The ARPAnet’s popularity became apparent, and in 1975, it was converted from an experimental
research network into a fully operational network. Research into network protocols continued
and the Internet Protocol Suite resulted. The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military
Standards in 1983, and all computers connected to the ARPAnet were required to adopt the new
protocol. The ARPAnet was then split into two networks: the MILNET, used for military
communications, and the new, much smaller ARPAnet, used for further research. MILnet and
ARPAnet together became known as the Internet. Initially, Internet use was limited to the
universities, research institutions and the military, but eventually with time Internet has
incorporated commercial applications.

The term internet (notice the lower case i) is now used to refer to any collection of physically
separate networks that share the same communication protocols (not necessarily TCP/IP) to
appear as a single logical network. The term Internet (notice the upper case I) is used to refer to
the worldwide collection of interconnected computer networks that run the TCP/IP protocols.

Internetworking evolved as a solution to three key problems which are as follows:

i) Isolated LANs
It made electronic communication between different offices or departments impossible.
ii) Duplication of Resources
The same hardware and software had to be supplied to each office or department, as did
separate support staff.
iii) Lack of Network Management
No centralized method of managing and troubleshooting networks existed.

Web related terminologies

• Web browsers
Web browsers are software applications that are used to retrieve web pages from the Internet
onto your PC. They let you surf (or browse) through information on the Web. Information on the
Web is structured into pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to locate and access
information on that page.
The three browsers that particularly dominate the Internet market are:
- Microsoft’s Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Netscape’s Navigator

• Modem (Modulator / Demodulator)

On the Internet, computers exchange information via telephone lines. A modem is a device that
enables you to connect to the Internet and access information. As a transmitting modem, it
translates computer information into a form that can transmit over telephone lines (this is the
process of modulation).
As a receiving modem, it translates the information in a form that your computer can understand
(this is the process of demodulation).
A fast modem is essential. It will reduce the amount of time spent waiting for web pages, files, or
messages from the Internet. Modem speeds are quoted in ‘bps’ (bits per second).
Typical speeds are 9600 bps, 4.4 Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8
Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.

• Internet Service Provider (ISP)

This is a commercial organization that provides Internet connections, along with a set of support
services for a fee.
Most people and organizations get a connection to the Internet over a telephone line through an
ISP, though some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own internet
connections.

An ISP will usually have a number of host computers. These hosts will typically provide storage
space for electronic mail messages for their users, users’ own web sites and a set of related
facilities such as advice, support software and appropriate security.
Examples of local ISPs include Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya and Inter-
Connect. When you open an account with an ISP you will be provided with a user name and a
password:
Username - Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on the
Internet.
Password - This is needed for security purposes. This ensures that your Internet account is
secure.
NB: ISPs charge for the services rendered.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3. The Web is a part of the
Internet.
The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked web pages published on the Internet. This huge
collection of documents is stored on computers, called hosts, around the world. The documents
may contain text, pictures, sounds, small programs or forms to be completed by a user.

Web Page
Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals interested in putting
themselves on the Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.
Each web page has an address on the Internet. This address is called a Uniform Resource Locator
(URL). Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language.

Web Site
A collection of web pages belonging to an organization or individual is called a website. These
organizations or individuals maintain the website.

Hyperlinks
All web pages have hyperlinks. These links connect:
1: One web page to another part of the same web page. This is useful if it is a really large
page.
2: One web page to another website somewhere on the Web.
3: A page to a file, such as a sound clip, video, a spreadsheet or a Word document.

These links to other pages can be links to objects stored anywhere on the Internet. Hypertext
links are indicated by underlined text highlighted in blue (usually).
Hyperlinks are also represented by buttons, graphics or pictures.
An example of hyperlinks
To find hyperlinks on a page, move your mouse pointer over the page and where there is a
hyperlink the mouse pointer will change into a hand with a pointing finger.
As you surf around the web, Internet Explorer stores the sites and pages that you visit. You will
notice that the hyperlinks you previously selected are colored differently. Internet Explorer does
this to remind you that you have already visited the page identified by this link.

Web Hosting
A World Wide Web server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents
from clients (browsers) over the Internet. Files containing web sites are placed on these servers
also known as host computers. A host computer is any computer connected to the Internet and
has stored information that has been made available to the Web.

Home Page
The Home page is the web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started i.e. when you
access the Web. You can set any web page as your home page.
The home page is also the first page of a company or an individual’s website on the Web.
Note: Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the websites you visit. Your home
page is set through Internet Explorer.
The home page of a website is the introductory page for the site.
If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a web page, you will jump to the website’s home page,
not yours.
To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.

Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator (URL))

Each web page has a unique address or location, called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
You can instantly display any Web page if you know its URL. For example,
http://www.compaq.com
You can include wildcards in a URL in cases when you may not know the full path. For
example:
http://www.mars.superlink.net/~zorro/humor.com
The wild card (~) is used to represent character(s). In the above example, sites that have Azorro,
Thezorro etc instead of ~Zorro will be displayed.
A wrongly entered character can result in an invalid URL, e.g. a comma instead of a full stop or
a dash instead of an underscore.

Search Engines/Search Services.

A search engine is software that helps you locate information in the Web. There are several
search engines such as Google search engine, Yahoo, Infoseek, Lycos, Web Crawler, and Excite
that offer different kinds of searching capabilities.

Spam
Unwanted internet mail and ads.

Applications of the Internet

Once you’re connected to the Internet, there are limitless possibilities. You can send messages to
users in other countries, join a chat group, or try out new games. Some of the services offered on
the Internet include the following:
1. Electronic Mail (e-mail)
Email is a system for transmitting messages between computers. Exchanging electronic
mail is the most popular feature on the Internet. With Internet email you can send
messages to people all over the world including friends, customers and even people you
meet on the Internet. Electronic mail is faster than ordinary mail, easy to manage,
inexpensive and saves paper.
2. Information
The Internet gives you information on virtually any subject. This is because of the World
Wide Web. The World Wide Web (www) is a global system of linked web pages
containing information - text, pictures, sound and video.
You can review newspapers, magazines, academic papers and much more. Governments,
colleges, universities, companies and individuals all offer free information on the
Internet. For example, you can inquire about universities in Britain or America.

3. Programs
 Thousands of programs are available on the Internet. These programs include word
processors, spreadsheets, electronic cards and much more. You can look for the latest
software over the Internet. For example, you can get the latest Anti-Virus software
available and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.

4. Entertainment
Hundreds of simple games are available on the Internet, including racing cars, chess,
poker, football and much more. The Internet also lets you review current movies and hear
television theme songs.

5. Discussion Groups (Chat groups/Rooms)

You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with
similar interests. IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is a chatting system on the Internet that lets
you chat privately or in groups. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read
interesting stories. There are many discussion groups on various topics.

6. Online Shopping/trading and advertising

You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. For
example, you can view a catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in
an online order form.

7. Newsgroups
These are discussions on a range of topics from recreational activities to scientific
research. Any Internet surfer can access some of these newsgroups, while others will
need subscription. You can read any articles or write articles and post them.
8. Social Networking
By far the most popular and fastest growing communication method made possible by
broadband Internet service, social networking started out as a way for people to find old
friends, stay in touch with current ones, and meet new ones. It has now grown into a
prolific communication tool for both personal and business use. You can organize groups,
notify people of events, send mass email messages, chat, and so much more. Facebook,
Twitter, and MySpace are currently the most popular social networking sites, and have
attracted billions of users. Many businesses have used social networking for advertising
and marketing purposes and seen great results.
9. As a research tool
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer
opinions.