Name: LYDIAH RUKWARO REG NO: DTEE/451J/2023

CLASS: DEPE4B UNIT: MICROPROCESSOR

SUBJECT: ASSIGNMENT LECTURER: MR KING’OO LAB

1. Describe the architecture of the Microprocessor

Core Structure and Programmability: The microprocessor is a programmable
semiconductor device that integrates all the logic circuitry needed to process data. It
reads instructions from memory and performs operations based on its internal
instruction set. This design enables its operation to be altered by simply changing the
software (programs stored in RAM or ROM), rather than by modifying the hardware.
Key Components:

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is where all the arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and logical (AND, OR, XOR) operations occur. It uses an 8-bit
accumulator (also known as register A) to store intermediate and final results. The
ALU also works with a set of flags (Zero, Carry, Sign, Parity, and Auxiliary Carry) that
indicate the outcome of these operations and are used for decision-making in
subsequent instructions.

 Register Unit: In addition to the accumulator, the microprocessor contains several

general-purpose registers (such as B, C, D, E, H, and L). These registers temporarily
store data during program execution and can be paired (e.g., BC, DE, HL) for
operations requiring 16-bit data handling.

 Control Unit: The control unit orchestrates the overall operation of the
microprocessor. It generates the necessary timing and control signals that manage
the sequence of instruction fetch, decode, and execute cycles. This unit also handles
external control signals like RESET and INTERRUPT.

 Program Counter (PC) and Stack Pointer (SP): The PC is a 16-bit register that keeps
track of the address of the next instruction to be executed, ensuring the proper
sequencing of operations. The SP, also a 16-bit register, points to the top of the stack
—a designated area in memory used for temporary data storage during subroutine
calls and other operations.

Communication Mechanism – The Bus System:

The microprocessor communicates with memory and peripherals using a system bus, which
is divided into three sets of lines:

 Data Bus: Transfers binary data between the microprocessor, memory, and I/O
devices.

 Address Bus: Carries the addresses of memory locations that the microprocessor
accesses.
  Control Bus: Conveys timing and control signals to synchronize operations among the
microprocessor and external devices.

Operational Flow:
The microprocessor follows a simple yet effective execution cycle:

 Fetch: It retrieves an instruction from memory via the system bus.

 Decode: The control unit interprets the instruction using the microprocessor’s
internal logic.

 Execute: The ALU performs the required arithmetic or logical operations, while
registers and flags help manage and store temporary data and results.

 Communicate: Depending on the instruction, data may be stored back in memory or

sent to output devices.

2. Explain the principal operation of a Microprocessor

Instruction Fetch: The microprocessor begins by reading (fetching) an instruction from

memory. The Program Counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction, ensuring that
instructions are executed in the correct order.

Instruction Decode: Once fetched, the control unit decodes the instruction. It determines
which operation is required and activates the appropriate internal components (like the ALU
or registers).

Execution: The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) operates, whether it’s arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, etc.) or logical (AND, OR, XOR) on the data. Intermediate and final results are
stored in registers such as the 8-bit accumulator (register A). The ALU also updates flags
(Zero, Carry, Sign, Parity, Auxiliary Carry) based on the outcome, which later influences
decision-making within the program.

Data Transfer: If needed, the microprocessor reads additional data from memory or writes
results back, using the system bus (which includes data, address, and control buses) to
communicate with memory and peripheral devices. External signals like RESET or INTERRUPT
can also alter this process, allowing the microprocessor to respond to immediate external
events.

Cycle Continuation: After executing the instruction, the Program Counter is updated to
fetch the next instruction. This repetitive fetch-decode-execute cycle continues until a
termination instruction (like a STOP command) is encountered.

3. State practical applications of Microprocessor

 Personal Computers and Microcomputers: Microprocessors serve as the central

processing unit (CPU) in microcomputers, handling instruction execution and data
processing in systems such as desktops, laptops, and single-board computers.
  Embedded Systems: Their flexibility—changing operations by updating software
rather than hardware—makes microprocessors ideal for embedded systems. These
systems are found in everyday appliances (like washing machines and microwaves),
automobiles, and consumer electronics (such as digital cameras and smart TVs).

 Industrial and Process Control: In industrial settings, microprocessors are used to

control processes and automate tasks. They communicate with sensors, memory, and
output devices to manage production lines and other automated systems.

 Communication Devices: Microprocessors manage data flow in devices like modems,

routers, and other telecommunication equipment by processing binary instructions
and interacting with memory and peripheral interfaces.

4. List the advantages and disadvantages of Microprocessor

Advantages

 Programmability and Flexibility: Since the microprocessor’s operation is defined by

the instructions stored in memory, you can change its behaviour by updating
software (in RAM or ROM) without altering the hardware.

 High Integration and Compact Design: All the necessary logic circuitry—including the
ALU, control unit, and registers—is integrated into a single chip. This integration leads
to a smaller, more efficient, and cost-effective design.

 Versatility: The microprocessor can perform a wide range of operations (arithmetic,

logical, data transfer) and can interact with various peripherals. This makes it suitable
for applications in personal computers, embedded systems, and industrial controls.

 Simplified System Architecture: With components such as the program counter,

stack pointer, and bus system coordinating data transfer and instruction sequencing,
the overall system design is streamlined.

Disadvantages

 Limited Internal Accessibility: The internal logic of the microprocessor is not

externally accessible. This means that while the microprocessor is highly integrated,
debugging or modifying its internal operations is not possible without changing the
chip itself.

 Dependency on External Components: A microprocessor needs external memory

and input/output devices to function as a complete system. This dependency can add
complexity and requires careful system-level design.

 Fixed Instruction Set: The microprocessor operates on a predefined set of

instructions. Although this set is versatile for many tasks, it also limits the operations
that can be directly performed by the hardware.
  Processing Limitations (in older designs): Especially in earlier models (like the
8085/8080A mentioned in your notes), the processing speed and power may be
limited compared to multi-chip or more modern multi-core systems.

5. Compare and contrast a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller

Definition & Integration:

 Microprocessor: Essentially the CPU on a single chip (e.g., the 8085/8080A MPU). It
contains the ALU, registers (including the accumulator), control unit, and bus
interfaces. Requires external components—such as separate memory (RAM/ROM)
and I/O devices—to form a complete system.

 Microcontroller: Often referred to as a microcomputer, it integrates the

microprocessor (or MPU) with built-in memory and peripheral interfaces on a single
chip. Includes internal RAM/ROM, I/O ports, timers, and sometimes even
communication interfaces, making it a self-contained system for specific applications.

System Design & Complexity:

 Microprocessor: Designed for complex, general-purpose computing. Offers higher

flexibility and performance, but at the cost of increased external circuitry and overall
system design complexity.

 Microcontroller: Tailored for embedded applications where the computing needs are
more dedicated and limited. It simplifies system design by reducing the need for
extra external components, often leading to a more compact and cost-effective
solution.

Applications:

 Microprocessor: Found in personal computers, workstations, and other systems that

require significant processing power and versatility.

 Microcontroller: Used in embedded systems such as appliances, automobiles,

consumer electronics, and industrial control systems where specific, dedicated tasks
need to be managed efficiently.

Programming & Flexibility:

 Microprocessor: Its operation is defined by the software loaded into external

memory, allowing broad programmability and flexibility.

 Microcontroller: Although programmable, it is typically optimized for a specific set of

control functions, which can limit flexibility but streamline development for targeted
tasks.