OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AGO-IWOYE

MAT 101: General Mathematics I

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Dr. O. S. Odetunde – Subject Expert

Dr. M.A. Usman – Course Reviewer

Prof. Taofik Azeez – Language Editor

Prof. Oyesoji Aremu – ODL Expert

Mr. Moyosola Ayodele – Instructional Designer

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Vice Chancellor’s Message

It is with great pleasure that I welcome you as learners to the Olabisi Onabanjo University
Open and Distance Learning Centre.
Massive and Democratisation of higher education via Open and Distance Learning as
advocated globally has since been one of the goals of Olabisi Onabanjo University
Management, hence, Open and Distance Learning constitutes one of the areas of focus since
my assumption of duty. Through the efforts of the University Governing Council and Senate,
the establishment of the Open and Distance Learning Centre was approved in July, 2016.

Open and Distance Learning is a mode of study that affords tertiary education opportunities
to all and sundry regardless of age, gender, location, space and other limiting factors.

Quite a large number of qualified applicants for tertiary education are denied admission
yearly, there are also several others who wish to advance educationally but could not, because
of their job which is their means of livelihood.

Olabisi Onabanjo University via its Open and Distance Learning Centre offers quality,
technology driven, flexible, self-directed and cost effective tertiary education. It is a viable
option for learners who wish to study online from their location and at desired time.

This course material provides learners with vital information relevant to our programme and
schedules. I advise learners to make judicious use of it. I congratulate our Open and Distance
Learning Centre Staff, Department and Faculty for their effort towards the production of this
handbook.

I hope your learning experience with the Olabisi Onabanjo University Open and Distance
Learning Centre is memorable and exciting.

Prof Ganiyu Olatunji Olatunde

Vice Chancellor OOU

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Course Study Guide

Introduction

MAT 101 titled General Mathematics I is a 3-unit course for students studying towards
acquiring a Bachelor of Science in Accounting. The course is divided into 13 study sessions.
The course will introduce you to the basic mathematics concept in solving practical problems.
The course study guide therefore gives you an overview of what MAT 101 is all about, the
textbooks and other materials to be referenced, what you are expected to know in each unit
and how to work through the course materials. Define a set and identify various notations of
sets. Explain the two ways of describing sets. Identify and define various types of set
operations with their applications. State the difference between union and intersection of a
set. Define the difference between two sets. Define a singleton set.
Recommended Study Time
This course is a 3unit course divided into 8 study sessions. You are enjoined to spend at least
3 hours in studying the content of each study unit
What you are about to learn in this course
The overall aim of this course, MAT 101 is to introduce you to Set Theory, Venn Diagram,
Number System, Mathematical Induction, Real Sequence and Series, Theory of Quadratic
Equation, The Binomial Theorem, Complex Number, Circle Geometry, Parametric Equation
of a Circle and Trigonometry
Course Aims
This course aims to introduce students to the basic mathematical concept of Set functions,
matrices and different methods of solving simultaneous equations. It is expected that the
knowledge will help the reader to effectively use mathematics principles to solve even life
problems.
Course Objectives
It is important to note that each study session has specific objectives. You should study them
carefully before proceeding to subsequent study sessions. Therefore, it may be useful to refer
to these objectives in the course of your study of the study session to assess your progress.
You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a study session. In this way,
you can be sure that you have done what is required of you by the end of the study session.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
However, the overall objective of MAT 101 is to master basic algebra concepts, ranging from
solving linear equations to working with logarithms.
Working through this course

In order to have a thorough understanding of the course units, you will need to read and
understand the contents, practice the steps by designing and implementing a mini computer
application system for your department and be committed to learning and implementing your
knowledge. This course is designed to cover approximately fifteen weeks and it will require
your devoted attention. You should do the exercises in the Tutor-Marked Assignments and
submit to your tutors via the LMS.

Course Materials
The major components of the course are;
1. Course Guide
2. Printed Lecture materials
3. Text Books
4. Interactive DVD
5. Electronic Lecture materials via LMS
6. Tutor Marked Assignments

Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are tutor marked
assignments and second, the written examinations. Therefore, you are expected to take note
of the facts, information and problem solving gathered during the course. The tutor marked
assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance to the
deadline given. The work submitted will count for 30% of your total course mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination. This
examination will account for 70% of your total score. You will be required to submit some
assignments by uploading them to MAT 101 page on the LMS.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

There are TMAs in this course. You need to submit all the TMAs. The best 10 will therefore
be counted. When you have completed each assignment, send them to your tutor as soon as

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
possible and make certain that it gets to your tutor on or before the stipulated deadline. If for
any reason you cannot complete your assignment on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due to discuss the possibility of extension. Extension will not be granted after
the deadline, unless on extraordinary cases.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for MAT 101 will last for a period not more than 2 hours and has a
value of 70% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which
reflect the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs), In-text Questions (ITQs), some applied
questions and tutor marked assignments that you have previously encountered. Furthermore,
all areas of the course will be examined. It would be better to use the time between finishing
the last unit and sitting for the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it
useful to review your TMAs and comment on them before the examination. The final
examination covers information from all parts of the course. Most examinations will be
conducted via Computer Based Testing (CBT)

Tutors and Tutorials

There are few hours of face-to-face tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of your
tutor as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your
assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must submit your tutor
marked assignment to your tutor well before the due date. At least two working days are
required for this purpose. They will be marked by your tutor and returned as soon as possible
via the same means of submission.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if you need
help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary: contact
your tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise.
 You have questions or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on
an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
You should endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity to have face-to-face
contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the
course tutorials, have some questions handy before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating actively in discussions.
Good luck!

Recommended Texts

The following texts and Internet resource links will be of enormous benefit to you in learning
this course:
1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics, S-S
Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus
7. James Stewart, (1999). Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fourth Edition, McMaster
University, U.S.A.
8. www.mybookezz.com/steward-calculus-fourth-edition/
9. Usman M. A., Odetunde O.S., Ogunwobi Z.O., Hammed F.A. (2016). Mathematics
for University Students, Volume 1

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Table of Contents

Vice Chancellor’s Message 3

Course Study Guide 4
Introduction 4
Table of Contents 8
Study Session 1: Set Theory 14
Introduction 14
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 14
1.1 Definition of Set 15
1.2 Description of Sets 16
1.2.1 Tabular form 16
1.2.2 Set Builder Form 17
1.2.3 Standard Sets 19
1.2.4 The Universal Set 19
1.2.5 Subset 20
1.2.6 Proper Set 20
1.2.8 Equality of Sets 21
1.3 Types of Sets 22
1.3.1 Singleton Set 22
1.3.2 Finite and Infinite Sets 23
1.4 Set Operations 24
1.4.1 Union of a Set 24
1.4.2 Intersection of a Set 25
1.4.3 Complement of a Set 26
1.4.4 Relative Complement of a Set 26
1.4.5 Symmetric Difference 27
Summary of Study Session 1 28
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 29
Glossary of Terms 31
References 32
Study Session 2: The Venn Diagram 33
Introduction 33
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 33
2.1 Set Operations 34
2.1.1 Power Set 35

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2.1.2 Algebra of Set 36
2.1.3 Cardinality of Sets 40
2.2 Application of Set theory 40
Summary of Study Session 2 47
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2 48
Glossary of Terms 50
References 51
Study Session 3: Number System 52
Introduction 52
Learning Outcomes for Study 3 52
3.1 The Real Number System 53
3.2 Properties of Natural Numbers N 54
3.2.1 Addition 54
3.2.2 Multiplication (.) 54
3.2.3 Addition is associative 54
3.2.4 Addition is Commutative 55
3.2.5 Distributivity of Multiplication over Addition 55
Multiplication is Associative 56
3.2.7 Multiplication is commutative. 56
3.2.8 Trichotomy Law 57
3.2.9 Integer 57
3.2.10 Rational Numbers 57
3.2.11 Irrational Numbers 58
3.2.12 Operations on Real Numbers 58
3.2.13 Operation Involving Zero 58
3.2.14 Multiplication by ‘-1’ 58
3.2.15 Operations involving -1 as Index 58
Summary of Study Session 3 60
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3 61
Glossary of Terms 62
References 63
Study Session 4: Mathematical Induction 64
Introduction 64
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4 64
4.1 Definition of Mathematical Induction 65
4.2 Proving Statements with Mathematical Induction 65

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4.2.1 Strong Induction 67
Summary of Study Session 4 69
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4 70
Glossary of Terms 71
References 72
Study Session 5: Real Sequences and Series 73
Introduction 73
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5 73
5.1 Sequence as a Function 74
5.2 Arithmetic Sequence 75
5.2.1 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) 75
5.2.2 Arithmetic Mean 77
5.3 Geometric Sequence 78
5.3.1 Geometric Progression (G.P.) 78
5.3.2 Geometric Mean 81
5.4 Series 82
5.4.1 Sum of an Arithmetic Progression 83
5.4.2 Sum of a Geometric Progression 84
5.4.3 Recurrence 85
Summary of Study Session 5 87
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5 88
Glossary of Terms 90
References 91
Study Session 6: Theory of Quadratic Equation 92
Introduction 92
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6 92
6.1 Methods of Solving Quadratic Equation 93
6.1.1 Solving Quadratic Equation by Factorizing 93
6.1.2 Square Roots Method 94
6.1.3 Completing the Square Method 94
6.1.4 The Quadratic Formula 95
6.2 Operations on the Roots 96
6.2.1 Sum and Products of the Roots 96
6.2.2 Symmetric Functions of the Roots 97
Summary of study Session 6 99
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 6 100

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms 101
References 102
Study Session 7: The Binomial Theorem 103
Introduction 103
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 7 103
7.1 Pascal’s Triangle 104
7.2 Binomial Theorem 105
Summary of study Session 7 108
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 7 109
Glossary of Terms 110
References 111
Study Session 8: Complex Numbers 1 112
Introduction 112
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 8 112
8.1 Definition 113
8.1.1 Classification of Complex Numbers 114
8.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number 115
8.3 Operations in Complex Numbers 116
8.3.1 Addition and Subtraction 116
8.3.2 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers 116
8.3.3 Powers of i 118
8.3.4 Square Roots 118
8.4 The Argand Diagram 120
8.4.1 Graphical Addition of Complex Numbers 120
Summary of study Session 8 122
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 8 123
Glossary of Terms 124
References 125
Study Session 9: Complex Number 2 126
Introduction 126
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 9 126
9.1 Modulus and Argument of Complex Number 127
9.1.1 Modulus (or Absolute Value) of Complex Number 127
9.1.2 Argument of a Complex Number 127
9.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number 129
9.2.1 Multiplication of Complex Numbers in the Polar Form 131

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9.2.2 Division of Numbers in Polar Form 132
9.3 Exponential Form of a Complex Number 132
9.4 Moivre’s Theorem 133
9.4.1 Nth Root of Unity 133
Summary of study Session 9 135
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 9 136
Glossary of Terms 137
References 138
Study Session 10: Circle Geometry 139
Introduction 139
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 10 139
10.1 Equation of a Circle 140
10.2 The General Form of Equation of a Circle 143
10.2.1 Characteristics of an Equation of a Circle 144
10.3 Tangent to a Circle 147
10.3.1 Equation of the Tangent to the General Equation of a Circle 148
10.3.2 Normal to a Circle 149
10.3.3 Equation of the Normal to a Circle 150
10.3.4 Equation of the Normal to the General Equation of a Circle 150
Summary of Study Session 10 152
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10 153
SAQs 153
Glossary of Terms 155
References 156
Study Session 11: Parametric Equations of a Circle 157
Introduction 157
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 11 157
11.1 Parametric Equations of a Circle taken the Centre and Radius 158
Summary of Study Session 11 162
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 11 163
Glossary of Terms 164
References 165
Study Session 12: Trigonometry 166
Introduction 166
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 12 166
12.1 Sine, Cosine and Tangent of Angles 167

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
12.2 Rule of Signs 171
12.3 Elementary Angles (Special Angles) 172
12.4 Degrees and Radians 175
Summary of Study Session 12 178
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 12 179
Glossary of Terms 180
References 181
Study Session 13: Trigonometric Identities 182
Introduction 182
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 13 182
13.1 Some trigonometric identities 183
13.2 Double Angles 187
Summary of Study Session 13 189
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 13 190
Glossary of Terms 191
References 192
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 193
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 1 193
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 2 193
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 3 194
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 4 194
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 5 196
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 6 197
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 7 197
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 8 198
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 9 198
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 10 199
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 11 199
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 12 200
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 13 200

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 1: Set Theory

Introduction

The concept of set theory is one of the most fundamental concepts in Mathematics.
It cuts across every aspect of life. In our activities, we often arrange or group
certain things of the same kind together. This act of putting like things together is
called set theory. For example, we speak of a football team, a pack of cards, a group of
students and so on. These examples are called sets.

We see in the above examples a clear connection of objects of the set, but this does not
necessarily have to be so. For example, we may have a set containing a bag, a cup and a shirt.
The important thing here is that, given any object, we must be able to identify whether or not
the object belongs to a given set.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 Define a set and identify various notations of sets
1.2 Describe a set
1.3 Differentiate between the different types of set
1.4 Solve a set problem involving the various set operations

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.1 Definition of Set

A set is a collection or a class of well-defined objects. Such objects could be living or non-
living. The objects are usually called elements or members of the set.

Case Study 1.1

i. The set of all letters of the alphabet, i.e., {a, b, c, …z}

ii. The set of all integers, i.e., {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
iii. The set of chairmen in all the Local Government Areas of Ogun State
iv. The set of books in the Faculty of Business Administration Library
v. The set of elected presidents and military heads of state of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria.

Sets are usually denoted by capital letters, and the elements or members are denoted by small
letters.
Case Study 1.2

If d is an element of the set S then we write d  S, which reads “d belongs to S” or “d is a

member of S.” If d is not an element of the set S, then we simply write 𝑑 ∉ 𝑆, showing that d
is not a member of the set S.

Now, write the following in symbolic form:

a is an element of set A

b is not a member of set B

Solution

You see, it is very easy and short using symbols to show any member of a set. So, if you have
written the above in symbolic form, your answer should look like the following:

(i) 𝑎∈𝐴 (ii) 𝑏∉𝐵

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In-Text Question

Given a set E = {set of prime numbers} such that 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸, Which of the following is NOT true
about set E?
A. 2 ∈ 𝐸 B. 4 ∈ 𝐸 C. 11 ∈ 𝐸 D. 3 ∈ 𝐸

In-Text Answer
B

1.2 Description of Sets

There are two ways of describing a set. These are (i) tabular form and (ii) set builder form.

1.2.1 Tabular form

This involves the listing of elements which make up the set, with each element separated by a
comma before writing another element, then enclosing the elements within braces. For
instance, if C is a set consisting of the first five positive integers, then we can write:
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} or C = {1, 2, …, 5}.

Case Study 1.3

Q = {a, b, c, d}

Here, Q is the set with elements a, b, c, d.

Now, you can write the following in tabular form using any letter of your choice to denote the
set.

The set of positive odd integers

The set of elected presidents or military heads of state of the Federal Republic of Nigeria till
2013.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Solution

All you need do is to list the elements of the set and enclose them in curly brackets or braces
which we believe you must have done successfully; but you may check your answers with the
following:

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, …}. The dots show that set A is an infinite set and the elements still continue
indefinitely.

P = {Dr.Nnamdi Azikiwe, Major AgunyiIronsi, General Yakubu Gowon, General Muritala

Mohammed, General Olusegun Obasanjo, Major General Mohammed Buhari, General
Ibrahim Babangida, Chief Earnest Shonekan, General Sanni Abacha, General Abdulsalami
Abubakar, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, Alhaji Umar Musa Yaradua, Dr.Goodluck Ebele
Jonathan}.

1.2.2 Set Builder Form

This gives the precise property or properties characterising each element of the set. It has the
form: S = {x | x possesses the property, Y}, where x in this case is an arbitrary element of
the set S and the symbol “|” denotes “such that.”
Case Study 1.4

Write the following in set builder form using any symbol of your choice.

The set of months of the year

The set of students in DLI

Solution

M = {x | x is a month of the year}

B = {x | x is a student in DLI}

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

From the solution above you can see that the arbitrary element x gives the property of the set,
i.e., it tells you what set of people or things are being described.
1. a) Let A = y | y is a prime number below 15

. List the elements of set A.

b) Let B = Types of triangle

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
. List the elements of set B.

c) Let C = Multiples of 5 up to 25

. List the elements of set C.

d) Let D = y | y is a factor of 24 greater than 10

. List the

elements of set D.

2. a) Let E = 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .

. Use set builder notation to describe set E.

b) Let F = Solid, Liquid, Gas

. Use set builder notation to describe set F.

c) Let G = Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn,

Neptune, Pluto

. Use set builder notation to describe set G.

d) Let H = 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, . . .

. Use set builder notation to describe set H.

In-Text Answer (ITAs)

Bravo! You have really done a great job in attempting it, now crosscheck with my solutions

𝐴 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}

B = {equilateral, Isosceles, Scalene}

C = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25}

D = {12, 24}

E = y | y is a even number

F = y | y are states of matter

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
G = y | y is planets in our solar system

H = y | y is a cube of positive integers

Now that you have understood the technique, you could easily apply it to solve questions on
set theory.

1.2.3 Standard Sets

The list of standard notations for sets is as follows:

= the set of integers {0,  1,  2,  3, …}
𝑎
ℚ= the set of rational numbers (𝑏 , 𝑏 ≠ 0)

ℝ= the set of real numbers { + ℚ}

+
= the set of positive integers. This set is also called the set of natural numbers and is
denoted by .
ℝn= Euclidean n-space, e.g., X = (X1, X2, …, Xn)
Ȼ= the set of complex numbers

1.2.4 The Universal Set

The universal set is the set that contains all elements under consideration in a particular
problem. It is denoted by ξ or .

Case Study 1.5

If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {x, y, z}, then the universal set is U = {1, 3, 5, x, y, z}, which implies
all the elements in both sets A and B.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.2.5 Subset

Consider the students who sit in the front row of the class and the entire students in the class.
The first category of students form part of the second but not vice-versa.
Definition 1.1
Let A and B be two sets, such that every element of A is an element of B. Then, we say A is a
subset of B and we write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 or 𝐵 ⊃ 𝐴 which reads “A is contained in B” or “B contains
A.” In some texts, the subset is denoted by ⊆ or ⊇. If A is not a subset of B, we write𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵
(which reads A is not contained in B).

Case Study 1.6

Let X = {a, b, c, 1, 2}, Y = {a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3}, Z = {c, d, e, 1, 2, 3}.

Which of these sets are subsets of the other?
Solution
Since subset is a part of another set, then, from the above, X⊂Y but X⊄Z
i.e., X is a subset of Y but X is not a subset of Z.

1.2.6 Proper Set

Definition 1.2
A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if
(i) A is a subset of B
(ii) A is not equal to B
Case Study 1.7

Which of these sets are proper subsets of the other?

X = {2, 5, 7}, Y = {2, 4, 5, 7} and Z = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Solution

Here, we are expected to look for the set whose every member is a member of another set.
Thus, we see that X is a proper subset of Y and Z, so we write X  Y and X  Z.

 Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {a, b, c, d, 1, 3, 7} and Z = {a, b, 1, 3}.

(i) Write the universal set for the sets.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
(ii) Which of these sets are subsets of the others?
(iii) Which of these are proper subsets of the others?


(i) U = {a, b, c, d, 1, 3, 7}
(ii) 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌 and 𝑍 ⊇ 𝑌
i.e., X is a subset of Y and Z is a subset of Y
(iii) 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌 and 𝑍 ⊂ 𝑌
i.e., X is a proper subset of Y and Z is a proper subset of Y.

1.2.8 Equality of Sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if every element of A is a member of B and
every element of B is a member of A. Then we write A = B
Logically speaking, A = B means (𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐵) or the Bi-conditional statement
(𝑎 ∈ 𝐴) ⇔ (𝑎 ∈ 𝐵) is true for all a.
Case Study 1.8

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. If A = {a, b} and B = {a, b}, we say

𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, then A = B

So, you can say A is equal to B if A is contained in B and B is contained in A.

Now, if X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Z = {1, 2, 3}. Is

(i). X equal to Y? (Why?) (ii). X equal to Z? (Why?)

Solution

Your answer is as good as mine, but see if we answered the same way.

(i) No, X is not equal to Y, i.e., X  Y, because every element of X is a member of Y, but
every element of Y is not a member of X, e.g., 4 is not a member of X.

(ii) Yes, X is equal to Z, because every element of X is a member of Z and every element
of Z is a member of X, i.e., 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑍, 𝑍 ⊆ 𝑋. Therefore, X = Z.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.3 Types of Sets

There are different types of sets. These include empty or null set, singleton, finite and
infinite set, and power set.

Definition 1.2

Null Set: A null or empty set is denoted by  or { }; it is a set which has no element.

Case Study 1.9

Let P be the set of all real numbers whose squares is –1, then P =  since there is no real
number whose square is –1.

Case Study 1.10

Let B = {x | x is both even and odd}

Then, B = ∅ since there is no integer that is both even and odd.

1.3.1 Singleton Set

A set containing only one element is called a singleton set.

Case Study 1.11

Y = {x | x is the current director of OOU ODLC}

In this example, the only element of the set is Prof. Henrietta Benedict is the current Director
of OOU ODLC, so we write:

Y = {Prof. Henrietta Benedict }

Case Study 1.12

If the set A is given as A = {a}, can you say A is a singleton set? Why?

Solution

Yes. A is a singleton set because ‘a’ is the only element of the set.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.3.2 Finite and Infinite Sets

A set is said to be finite if it consists a countable or definite number of elements. If the

number of elements in the set is uncountable or indefinite, then we say the set is an infinite
set.
Case Study 1.13

Let D be the set of days of the week. Then,

D = {Monday, Tuesday, …, Sunday} is a finite set. So you observe that we have 7 days in a
week. Since the set D has 7 elements, we say D is a finite set.

Case Study 1.14

Let N be the set of natural numbers.

Then, N = {1, 2, 3, …} is an infinite set because it contains an uncountable number of

elements. The dots … show that the elements of the set continue indefinitely.

What can you say of the following sets:

M = {x | x is a natural number less than 20}
P = {3, 9, 15, 21, …}
B = {John, James, Paul, Peter}
X = {x | x is from Lagos State}
Z = {x | x is a grain of sand}
Q = {q}

Well done! Your opinion for each of the questions is quite encouraging. See if they
correspond to the ones below.
M = {1, 2, 3, …, 19} is finite because the number of elements of M is known.
P = {3, 9, 15, 21, …} is infinite. P is the set of numbers divisible by 3 and the elements of the
set continue indefinitely.
B = {John, James, Paul, Peter}is finite because the set B has 4 elements. We can also say B
is the set of Christians that are males.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.4 Set Operations

In elementary arithmetic, addition, multiplication, division and subtraction are operations

which are also valid on the set of numbers. These then enable us to combine two elements of
sets to form a new set. To this end, we shall define the operations of sets, which include
union, intersection, complement, relative complement, and symmetric difference.

1.4.1 Union of a Set

The union of a set denoted by ∪ is like addition in numbers. It combines all the elements of
the sets in question without repeating any of the elements. For instance, let A and B be two
sets. The union of A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of elements which belong to either A
or B or both. That is, the combination of elements belonging to A and B without repetition.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 can also be defined as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Now, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 means 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, by definition 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
And 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 means 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, by definition 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
Case Study 1.15

If A = {2, 5, 8} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

Solution

Since 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the combination of elements of A and B, then,

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Observe that elements of A are contained in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and we write 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. Also, elements

of B are contained in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and we write 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. Hence, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

Find the union of the following pairs of sets.

A = {a, b, c}and B = {a, e, o, u}
X = {3, 6, 9, 12} and Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
Well done! Very easy now, isn’t it? You may check if you made a mistake.

 (i) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑒, 𝑜, 𝑢}
(ii) 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12}

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.4.2 Intersection of a Set

Here, we talk of elements which are common to two or more sets. The intersection of sets,
denoted by ∩, is therefore all the elements common to any two or more sets. For instance, let
A and B be any two sets. Their intersection is denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and is the set of all elements
which are common to sets A and B. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 can also be defined as: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Note that OR is used for union while AND is used for intersection.
Case Study 1.16

Given A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

Solution

Since intersection comprises all the elements common to both A and B, then we have that

A∩B = {a, e}

Case Study 1.17

1 1 1 1 1 2 4
If 𝐴 = {2 , 3 , 4 , 5} and 𝐵 = {3 , 3 , 1, 3}, what is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵?

Solution
1
𝐴∩𝐵 = 3

Observe that only elements present in A and B show their intersection. So, this property is
also for more than two sets. We only take the common elements in all the sets to form the
set of their intersection.

If A and B have no elements in common, then we write 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅. If this happens, we say

that the sets A and B are disjoint. Therefore, we say two or more sets are disjoint if their
intersection is empty.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.4.3 Complement of a Set

In this case, we compare any set with respect to the universal set. That is, we identify those
elements which are in the universal set but are not in the set of interest. Therefore, the
complement of a set A denoted by AC or A' or C(A) are those elements in the universal set
but not in set A, and we write,

𝐴𝐶 = 𝒰 – 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝒰 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}
Case Study 1.18

Let 𝒰 = {1, 2, …, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find the complement of A.

Solution

Since AC is the set of all the elements in the universal set that are not in A, we have,

AC = 𝒰 – A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

All we did was to remove all the elements of set A from the element of the universal set 𝒰 to
give the complement of set A.

1.4.4 Relative Complement of a Set

Here, like the arithmetic subtraction, we subtract one set from another to get their difference.
Hence, the relative complement of a set A with respect to another set B, denoted by B – A is
the set of all elements in set B that are not in set A. We write 𝐵 – 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉
𝐴}
That is, the element x is a member of B but not a member of A.

Case Study 1.19

If A = {1, 4, 7, 8} and B = {3, 4, 6, 9}, find (i) A – B and (ii) B–A

Solution

All we need do is to write down all the elements that are in one set but not in the other.

A – B = {1, 7, 8}

B – A = {3, 6, 9}

Note that 𝐴 – 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 and so it is for any relative complement.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1.4.5 Symmetric Difference

Let A and B be two sets. Then, the union of the relative complement of set A with respect to
set B and the relative complement of set B with respect to set A, is called symmetric
difference of the two sets and it is denoted by A  B.
In other words, the symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the relative complement of
the set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 that is,
𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 – 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 – 𝐴) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) – (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Example 1.20

Let P = {0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 15, 20} and Q = {3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17}. Find 𝑃∆𝑄.

Solution

Now, P – Q = {0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 15, 20} and Q – P = {3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 17}

Therefore, 𝑃∆𝑄 = (𝑃 – 𝑄) ∪ (𝑄 – 𝑃) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 20}

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Summary of Study Session 1

In study session 1, you have learnt that:

1. A set is a collection of well defined objects, elements or numbers.
2. Set is described by either of the two ways:
(a). by tabular form, e.g., A = {1, 2, 3}
(b). by set builder form, e.g., B = {x | 2  x  5}
3. If all elements of a set X are members of the set say Y, then X is said to be a subset of Y,
i.e., 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌. The set Y is called the superset of X, i.e., Y⊃X.
4. The universal set, denoted by E or U is the set which contains all the possible elements
under consideration.
5. A set which has no element is said to be an empty set or null set, denoted by  .
6. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
7. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ}
8. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its
Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this session.

SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcome 1.1)

Select from the following alternative (a) to (d), the correct answer to each question
1. If U = {5, 6, 7, 8}, P = {6, 7} and Q = {6, 8}, then (𝑃 ∩ 𝑄)′is
(a) {5, 6, 7} (b) {5, 7, 8} (c) {6, 7} (d) {5, 8}
2. The subsets X, Y and Z of a universal set are defined as
X = {a, e, m, p}, Y = {a, e, i, o, u} and Z = {l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u}
The elements of 𝑋 ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝑍) are
(a) {a, e, m, o, p, u} (b) {m, p, o, u} (c) {a, e, m, o, p}
(d) {a, e, m, p, u}
3. Given that P = {1, 3, 4} and Q = {2, 3, 4}, then 𝑃 ∩ 𝑄 is
(a) {1, 2} (b) {2, 3} (c) {2, 4} (d) {3, 4}
4. If the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, X = {2, 3, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 2, 4,
6, 10}, find (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌)′.
(a) X 'Y ' (b) ( X  Y )' (c) X 'Y ' (d)
X Y
5. If X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {3, 5, 6}, the elements of ( X  Y )  X are
(a) {1, 2, 3, 4} (b) {3, 5, 6} (c) {3} (d) {1, 2, 4}
6. Given that P = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {5, 6, 7, 8} and R = {1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2}, it follows that
I. P=R
n(R) = 3
III. n( P  R) = 4

Which of the statements above is (are) true?

(a) I only (b) II only (c) III only (d) I and III only
7. If P = {3, 1, 0, 5}, Q = {2, 3, 8, 1, 4} and R = {7, 6, 5}, then ( P  Q)  R is
(a) {5} (b) {3, 8} (c) {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
SAQs 1.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

1. If P = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {3, 5, 6}, find

(a) P Q (b) P Q (c) ( P  Q)  Q (d)
( P  Q)  P

2. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, X = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9}, Z = {2, 3,

4, 7, 9}, find X  Y  Z ' .
3. Given that U = {1, 2, 3, …, 10}, S = {3, 5, 7, 9} and T = {4, 5, 6, 7}, find
(i) S – T (ii) SC  TC (iii) T  SC (iv) S  T
4. If A = {x  Z | 0  x  15} and B = {x  Z |  3  x  10}, find
(i) A – B (ii) B – A (iii) A  B (iv) A  B.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Glossary of Terms

Set: collection or a class of well-defined objects

Set theory: the act of putting like things together.

Singleton set: a set containing only one element.

Universal set: the set that contains all elements.

Members of the set: the objects used to form a set

Symbolic form: uses symbols and logical connectors to represent the sentence logically

Infinite set: set that has no last element

Common elements: first element or second element must be common between two sets

Symmetric difference: the set of elements which are in either of the sets A and B, but not in
their intersection

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 2: The Venn Diagram

Introduction

The various set operations can be illustrated using diagrams called Venn diagrams.
The Venn diagram was initiated by a British mathematician, John Venn (1834-
1883). Consequently, the diagrams were named after him. Basically, the universal
set is represented by points in and on a rectangle while subsets are represented by points in
and on a sphere or circle inside the rectangle.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
2.1 Identify and define various types of set operations with their applications
2.2 Illustrate set operations using Venn diagrams

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
2.1 Set Operations

Case Study 2.1

Let A and B be two non-empty sets in the universal set. Represent the following on a Venn
diagram.

(i) A  B (ii) A  B (iii) (A  B)C (iv) B – A (v) (B – A)C (vi) A  B = 

(vii) A – B (viii) (A – B)C

Solution

We shall use the shaded portion in our diagram to represent the required region in the Venn
diagram.

(i) (ii)
A B A B

AB AB

(iii) (iv)
A B A B

(A  B)C B–A

(v) (vi)
A B A B

(B – A)C = A B
c A B 

(vii) A B (viii)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
AC  B A–B

Case Study 2.2

Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets in the universal set. Represent the following on a
Venn diagram.

(i) ABC (ii) ABC

(iii) (A  B  C)C (iv) A  B  CC

Solution

ABC AB C

(ii)
A B

(iii) (iv)
A B B
A

C
C

(A  B  C)C A  B  CC

2.1.1 Power Set

The set which contains all its possible subsets, including the empty set and the particular set
is called the power set. The number of subsets of power set or a non-empty set A is denoted
by n{P(A)} = 2n , where n is the number of elements of the set A, which means that the
power set has 2n subsets.
Case Study 2.3

Let A = {a, b, c}. What is the power set of A?

Solution

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
n
First, we get the number of subsets of A, i.e., P(A) = 2 . Since A has 3 elements, then the
3
number of subsets is P(A) = 2 = 8, which tells us that A has 8 subsets and they are given as

P(A) = {  , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

2.1.2 Algebra of Set

We shall consider the laws which are satisfied by set operations.

These laws include:
1. Idempotent laws
Given any set A, then
(i) AA = A (ii) AA = A
2. Commutative laws
(i) AB = BA (ii) AB = BA
3. Associative laws:
(i) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
(ii) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
4. Distributive laws
If A, B, and C are any three sets, then
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
5. Identity laws
(i) A = A (ii) A  = 
(iii) AU = U (iv) AU = A
6. Complement laws
If A is any set, then,
(i) A  AC = U (ii) A  AC = (iii) (AC)C = A
(iv) UC =  (v) (A  B)C = AC  BC
7. De Morgan’s laws
If A and B are any two sets, then
(i) (A  B)C= AC  BC
(A  B)C = AC  BC

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 2.4

The above laws can be proved as follows:

1. (i) Show that A  A = A

Solution

A  AA

Conversely, let x  A  A, then x  A or x  A. Clearly, x  A, hence,

AA A

Therefore, A  A = A

(ii) Show that A  A = A

From the definition of the intersection of sets, A  A  A.

Conversely, let x  A  A. Then, x  A and x  A. So, x  A

Hence, A  A  A.

Therefore, A  A = A

2. Show that A  B = B  A

Solution

Let x  A  B. Then, x  A or x  B. This implies that x  B or x A.

Therefore, x  B  A

So, AB BA (1)

Conversely, let y A  B. Then, y B or y A. This implies y A or y B.

Therefore, y A  B

Hence, B  A  A  B . (2)

By (1) and (2), we have,

AB = BA

3. If A, B, and C are any sets, show that

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
(i) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C (Associative law)

Solution

Let x  A  (B  C). Then, x  A or x  B  C  x  B or x  C

So, x  A or x  B or x  C  x  A  B or x  C

Therefore, x  (A  B)  C

Hence, A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C (1)

Conversely, let y (A  B)  C, then y A  B or y C

Thus, y A or y B or y C

Therefore, y  A  (B  C)

Hence, (A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (2)

By (1) and (2), A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C

4. If A, B, and C are any three sets, show that

A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)

Solution

Let x  A  (B  C).This implies that x  A and x  B  C

Now, x  B  C implies x  B or x  C or x both B and C.

If x  B, then x  A  B

If x  C, then x  A  C

This implies x  A  B or x  A  C

That is, x  (A  C)  (A  C)

So, A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C) (1)

Conversely, x  (A  B)  (A  C)

This implies that x  A  B or x  A  C

That is, x  A and x  B or x  A and x  C

This implies x  A and x  B or x  C

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
which implies x  A  (B  C)

Hence, (A  B)  (A  C)  A  (B  C) (2)

By (1) and (2),

A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)

5. If A and B are two sets, show that (A  B)C = AC  BC

(De Morgan’s law)

Solution

Let x  (A  B) C. Then, by definition of complement, x  A  B

implies x  A or x  B

which implies x  A and x  B

This implies x  AC and x  BC

Thus, x  AC  BC

Hence, (A  B)C  AC  BC (1)

Conversely, let x  AC  BC, then by definition of intersection, x  AC and x  BC.

This implies x  A and x  B

Thus, x  A or x  B

Which implies x  A  B

This implies x  (A  B)C

Therefore, AC  BC  (A  B)C (2)

By (1) and (2), (A  B)C = AC  BC

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
2.1.3 Cardinality of Sets

The cardinality of a set A is the number of elements in the set. It is often denoted by n (A).

Case Study 2.5

Let A = {a, b, 1, 2, 3}. What is the cardinality of A?

Solution

Since the cardinality is the number of elements in A, we count the elements and we have, n
(A) = 5

Example 2.6

Let B = {3, 5, 7}. What is the cardinality of B?

Solution

n (B) = 3

2.2 Application of Set theory

To this point we have learnt the fundamentals of set theory. Now we shall study the
interpretation of each concept in real life situation. This is rather achieved by considering
practical examples.
Case Study 2.7

Use Venn diagram to represent the following sets:

𝒰 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11, x, y, z}

A = {9, 11, 3, x, y}

B = {5, 7, 9, y, z}

C = {1, 7, 11, x, y, z}

Solution

Observe that A  𝒰, B  𝒰 and C  𝒰. So we have,

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Case Study 2.8

If n (X) = 30, n (Y) = 8 and n (X  Y) = 38, find n (X  Y) and show it on a Venn diagram.

Solution

n (X  Y) = n (X) + n (Y) – n (X  Y)

 n (X  Y) = n (X) + n (Y) - n (X  Y)

= 30 + 8 – 38 =0

Case Study 2.9

Out of 500 health workers investigated, 400 had HIV and 220 had malaria; 70 had both HIV
and malaria. Is this data correct?

Solution

Let U be the set of all health workers that were investigated.

Let A be the set of those workers who had HIV.

Let B be the set of those workers who had malaria.

Thus, A  B is the set of workers who had both HIV and malaria.

Then, n (U) = 500, n (A) = 400, n (B) = 220 and n (A  B) = 70

Therefore, n (A  B) = n (A) – n (B) + n (A  B) = 400 + 220 – 70

Since we were not told that some workers had neither HIV nor malaria, then,

AC  BC =  or n (AC  BC) = 0

And since n (U) = n (A  B) + n (A  B)C = n (A  B) + n (AC  BC) = n (A  B) + 0

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
But 500  550 and since this value exceeds the total number of workers investigated, the
given data is not correct.

Case Study 2.10

In the Ministry of Finance, there are 300 employees, out of which 180 are men, 176 are
university graduates, 167 are married persons, 84 are male university graduates, 115 are
married university graduates, 69 are married men, 27 are married male university graduates.
Find the number of single women who are not university graduates.

Solution

Let 𝒰 be the set of employees; A, the set of men; B, the set of married persons;

C, the set of university graduates

Then, A  B is the set of married men

A  C is the set of male university graduates

B  C is the set of married university graduates

A  B  C is the set of married male university graduates.

Now, n (𝒰) = 300, n (A) = 180, n (B) = 167, n (C) = 176,

n (A  B) = 69, n (A  C) = 84, n (B  C) = 115, n (A  B  C) = 27. n (AC  BC  CC) = ?

This information can be represented in a Venn diagram as shown below:

n (A  B  C)
AC = female BC = single persons

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
CC = not a university graduate

Then, (i) n (A  B) = n (A  B  CC) + n (A  B  C)

 n (A  B  CC) = n (A  B) – n (A  B  C) = 69 – 27 = 22

which is the number of married male employees who are not university graduates

(ii) n (B  C) = n (B  C  AC) + n (A  B  C)

 n (B  C  AC) = n (B  C) – n (A  B  C)

= 115 – 27 = 88

This gives the number of married female university graduates.

(iii) n (A  C) = n (A  C  BC) + n (A  B  C)

 n (A  C  BC) = n (A  C) – n (A  B  C)

= 84 – 27 = 57

This gives the number of male single university graduates.

(iv) n (A) = n (A  BC  CC) + n (A  B  CC) +

n (A  BC  C) + n (A  B  C)

180 = n (A  BC  CC) + 42 + 57 + 27

n (A  BC  CC) = 180 – 126 = 54

This gives the number of male, single and non-university graduates.

We are expected to find the number of single women who are not university graduates. That
is, n (A  BC  CC)

Now, n (𝒰) = n (A  B  C) + n (A  B  C)C

= n (A  B  C) + n (AC  BC  CC) (De Morgan’s law)

But n (A  B  C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A  B) – n (A  C) – n (B  C) + n (A  B 

C)

= 180 + 167 + 176 – 69 – 84 – 115 + 27 = 282

So, n (𝒰) = 282 + n (AC  BC  CC)  n (AC  BC  CC) = n (𝒰) – 282 = 300 – 282 = 18

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Therefore, the number of single women who are not university graduates is 18.

Case Study 2.11

In a business class containing 40 students, a student can either take Economics or Accounting
or both. If 20 students take Economics, 26 students take Accounting and 4 do not take either
subject, find (i) how many take both Economics and Accounting (ii) how many take
Economics only.

Solution

Let the students who take both be X. Let 𝒰 be the set of all students in the class; E, the set of
all students who take Economics; A, the set of all students who take Accounting

Then, n (𝒰) = 40, n (E) = 20, n (A) = 26, n (E  A)C = 4

Representing this information on a Venn diagram, we have,

Now, n (𝒰) = n (E  A) + n (E  A)C

= n (E) + n (A) – n (E  A) + n (E  A)C

40 = 20 - x+ 26 –x +4+x = 50 - x

Therefore, x = 50 – 40 = 10 students

(ii) Economics only means those that take Economics but not Accounting. That is,

n (E  AC) = n (E) – n (E  A) = 20 – X = 20 – 10 = 10 students

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In-Text Question (ITQ)

 In a survey of 200 workers, 130 drink Coca-Cola and 100 drink Fanta. How many
workers drink both Coca-Cola and Fanta if only 5 workers drink neither Coca-Cola
nor Fanta. How many workers drink at least one of Coca-Cola and Fanta.


In-Text Questions (ITA)

 Let C represent Coca-Cola and F represent Fanta. Let X represent workers who drink
both Coca-Cola and Fanta. Then, n (U) = 200, n (C) = 130, n (F) = 100 and n (C 
F)C= 5.
Representing this information on a Venn diagram, we have,

n (C  F)C = 5
C
(i) n (𝒰) = n (C  F) + n (C  F)

= n (C) + n (F) – n (C  F) + n (C  F)C

= 130 + 100 – x + 5
 x = 235 – 200= 35
So, 35 workers drank both Coca-Cola and Fanta.
(ii) At least one of Coca-Cola or Fanta means either the workers drank Coca-Cola but
not Fanta or Fanta, but not Coca-Cola or both. That is, we want to find
C
n (C  F ) + n (CC  F) + n (C  F)= 130 – x + 100 – x +x= 130 – 35 + 100 – 35 +
5
= 195

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Alternatively:
The statement: At least one of Coca-Cola or Fanta means all the workers that drank Coca-
Cola or Fanta. That is C  F.
n (C  F) = n (C) + n (F) – n (C  F) = 130 + 100 – x = 130 + 100 – 35 = 195

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Summary of Study Session 2

In study session 2, you have learnt that:

1. The set of all the subsets of a set X is called the power set of X, denoted by P(X)
2. If a set has n elements, the number of subsets is in the power set of X is 2n
3. Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of set
4. n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B)
5. n (A  B  C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A  B) –
n (A  C) – n (B  C) + n (A  B  C)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2

Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its
Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 2.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.1)

 A panel of 10 interviewers was to interview two candidates A and B to decide who

was suitable for a job. 7 said A was suitable, 5 said B was suitable while 2 said neither
A nor B was suitable. (i) How many said both A and B were suitable. (ii) How many
said A alone was suitable.
 In a survey of 200 housewives, it was discovered that 8 had read magazine A, 100 had
read magazine B and 96 had read magazine C. It was further discovered that 24 had
read A and B, 36 had read B and C while 26 had read A and C. Find
i. The number of housewives that had read all three magazines.
ii. The number of housewives that had read at least two magazines.
iii. The number of housewives that had read only one magazine.

SAQ 2.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 2.2)

 In a class of 50 students for a second semester examination, 30 students offer

Mathematics, 23 offer Biology while 15 offer Physics. 10 offer Mathematics and
Biology, 5 offer Biology and Physics and 6 offer Mathematics and Physics. 2 students
do not offer any of the three subjects.
i. Draw the Venn diagram to illustrate this information.
ii. How many students offer all three subjects?
iii. How many students offer any combination of two subjects only?
 In a class of 40 students, 25 speak Hausa, 16 speak Igbo, 21 speak Yoruba and each of
the students speaks at least one of these languages. If 8 speak Hausa and Igbo, 11
speak Hausa and Yoruba and 6 speak Igbo and Yoruba,
i. draw a Venn diagram to illustrate this information.
ii. how many students speak all the three languages?

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
 In a class of 36 students, 29 study Mathematics and 20 study Chemistry. If 5 students
do neither, how many students study Chemistry but not Mathematics?

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Set: collection or a class of well defined objects

Set theory: the act of putting like things together.

Singleton set: a set containing only one element.

Universal set: the set that contains all elements.

Conversely: introducing a statement or idea which reverses one that has just been made or
referred to

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 51 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 3: Number System

Introduction

The concept of putting more than one objects together brings about numbering. A
father might tell his son to bring him oranges and the son ask how many, the father
displays 3 fingers, the son says ok and enters inside to bring 3 oranges because he
already knew the his father ask him to bring 3 oranges. This concept was developed in
different levels till it got to counting in 1,2,3,4,5.. that we are used to this modern time.

In this study session, you will be introduced to the properties of natural numbers on
addition and multiplication, the meaning of rational, irrational numbers and integers.

Learning Outcomes for Study 3

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

3.1 Explain the real number system

3.2 State the properties of natural numbers

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3.1 The Real Number System

Mathematics began with counting and numbering. Human beings have always had the reason
to count because things appears mostly in multiples. The early men put together stones and
sticks to denote the figure of each objects. There have also been many elements of counting
since then which involves the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, the unary numeral system, the
ancient Egyptian numeral system, the Roman numeral system and the arithmetic numerals
among others.

A number system is a writing system for expressing numbers of a given set using digits or
other symbols in a consistent manner. The arithmetic numerals which involves counting
numbers in 1,2,3,4,5…. is the most frequently used. These made up the set of natural
numbers, which is denoted by N.

In-text Questions (ITQs) 3.1

i. What is a number system?

ii. The most frequently used number system is ___________

In-text Answer (ITAs) 3.1

i. A number system is a writing system for expressing numbers of a given set using
digits or other symbols in a consistent manner.
ii. Arithmetic numerals

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3.2 Properties of Natural Numbers N

The set N of natural numbers has the following properties:

i. 𝐼 𝜖 𝑁 ie N is a non empty set.

ii. For each n 𝜖 𝑁, there exist (n+1) called the Successor n. It then follows that
(m+1) = (n+1) if and only if m = n.

3.2.1 Addition

For any n 𝜖 𝑁, if 𝑚∗ is the Successor of m as defined above, then 𝑚∗ + n is defined as

(𝑚 + 𝑛)∗ . That is, the addition of any two numbers gives rise to another number.

3.2.2 Multiplication (.)

For any n 𝜖 𝑁, n.1 is n. That is, any number multiplied by 1 gives us that exact number.

For 𝑚, 𝑛 𝜖 𝑁, 𝑚. 𝑛∗ = 𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚, where 𝑛∗ is the Successor of n.

Case Study 3.1

Let m=2, n=3, 𝑛∗ =4,

𝑚. 𝑛∗ = 2×4 = 8

m.n+m = 2×3+2 = 6+2 = 8

1.5 Order ‘>’

Let m, n𝜖 N, We say m is greater than n (m>n) or n is less than m (n<m) if m=n+s for some
𝑥 𝜖 𝑁.

3.2.3 Addition is associative

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝜖 𝑁, then

(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)

Case Study 3.2

N= 1,2,3,4,5,6…

Let a=2, b=3, c=4

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Since (a+b)+c = a+(b+c)

(2+3)+4 = 5+4 = 9

2+(3+4) = 2+7 = 9

Box 3.1: Associative law of addition

Since (2+3)+4 is 9 and 2+(3+4) is 9, Associative law is satisfied on addition.

3.2.4 Addition is Commutative

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 𝜖 𝑁

a+b = b+a

Case Study 3.3

𝑎, 𝑏 𝜖 𝑁, That is N = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7….

Let a=5, b=7

Since a+b = b+a,

5+7 = 12

7+5 = 12

Box 3.2 Commutative law of addition

Since a+b and b+a is 12, commutative law is satisfied on addition.

3.2.5 Distributivity of Multiplication over Addition

For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝜖 𝑁

a(b+c) = ab+ac

Case Study 3.4

N = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9….

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Let a=2, b=5, c=9

Since a(b+c) = ab+ac,

a(b+c) = 2(6+9) = 2(15) = 30

ab+ac = 2×6 + 2×9 = 12 + 18 =30.

Box 3.3: Distributive law of multiplication over addition

Since a(b+c) and ab+ac is 30, distributive law of multiplication over addition is satisfied.

Multiplication is Associative

For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝜖 𝑁,

a(bc)=(ab)c

Case Study 3.5

N = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9…

Let a = 3, b =4, c = 5

a(bc) =3(4×5) = 3×20 = 60

(ab)c =(3×4)5 = 12×5 = 60

Box 3.4: Multiplication is associative

Since a(bc) and (ab)c is 60, Associative law is satisfied on multiplication

3.2.7 Multiplication is commutative.

ab = ba

Case Study 3.6

N= 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9….

Let a=2, b=8

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
ab = 2×8 = 16

ba = 8×2 =16

Box 3.5: Commutative law of multiplication

Since ab and ba =16, Commutative law is satisfied on multiplication.

3.2.8 Trichotomy Law

If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝜖 𝑁, then one and only one of the following holds

a>b. or a=b or b>a.

In-text Questions (ITQs) 3.2

i. What are the properties of addition and Multiplication

ii. What is associative law.

In-text Answers (ITAs) 3.2

i. Associative law, Commutative law and Distributive law

ii. (a+b)+c= a+(b+c)

3.2.9 Integer

The set of natural number N can be extended or include the solution of equation of the type
a+x=b with 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖𝑁. We then have the numbers …-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3… The set consists of these
numbers is called the set Z of integers.

3.2.10 Rational Numbers

𝑎
This is the set of all numbers that can be expressed in the form 𝑏, where a≠0 and a,b are
1 52
integers.. Example, 5, 6,8 etc.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3.2.11 Irrational Numbers

These are real numbers that are not rational. Example √2, √3, 𝜋

3.2.12 Operations on Real Numbers

There are series of laid down rules which governs the multiplication and addition of real
numbers. These rules are:

3.2.13 Operation Involving Zero

i. The product of any number with zero is zero. Example 5×0=0

ii. The addition of any number to zero is that same number. Example 5+0=5

3.2.14 Multiplication by ‘-1’

The following rules applies to any number multiplied by -1

i. (-1)x = -x. Example (-1)5 = -5.

ii. -1(-x) = x. Example -1(-5) = 5.
iii. (-1)(-x) = x. Example (-1)(-5) = 5.
iv. (-x)(-y) = xy. Example (-2)(-5) = 10
v. (-x)y = x(-y) = -xy. Example (-2)5 = 2(-5) = -10.
vi. –(x+y) = -x-y. Example –(2+5) = -2-5 = -7
vii. –(x-y) = -x+y. Example –(2+5) = -2+5 = +3.

3.2.15 Operations involving -1 as Index

i. −1−1 = −1
1 1
ii. For x≠0, 𝑥 −1 = 𝑥. Example 2−1 = 2

iii. For x≠0, (𝑥 −1 )−1 = 𝑥. Example (2−1 )−1 = 2−1×−1 = 21 = 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
iv. For x≠0 and y≠0, 𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −1 × 𝑦 −1 , 𝑥 × 𝑦 . 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 =2×3=
2×3 6
𝑥 𝑦 2 3
v. For x≠0 and y≠0, (𝑦)−1 = 𝑥 . 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒(3)−1 = 2.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Figure 1.1: Properties of numbers

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of Study Session 3

In study session 3, you have learnt that:

1. A number system is a writing system for expressing numbers of a given set using
digits or other symbols in a consistent manner.
2. The addition of any two numbers gives rise to another number.
3. Any number multiplied by 1 gives us that exact number.
4. Addition is associative and commutative
5. Multiplication is associative and commutative
6. Distributive of multiplication is over addition
7. The set consists of natural numbers is called the set Z of integers.
8. The product of any number with zero is zero. Example 5×0=0
9. The addition of any number to zero is that same number. Example 5+0=5

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQ 3.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.1)

Explain the number system

SAQ 3.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.2)

1. If a=11, b=23, show that the addition of these numbers give rise to another number.
2. Show that any number multiplied by 1 gives us that same number.
3. What are the properties of natural numbers?
4. If a=5, b=7 and c=13, show all the properties of natural numbers.
.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

∈: member of

Successor: numbers directly after or directly before a given number

Multiples: a product that we get when one number is multiplied by another number

Natural numbers: the numbers that are used for counting and are a part of real numbers

Properties: Property is any item that a person or a busine ss has legal title over

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus
7. Usman, M.A., Odetunde, O.S., Ogunwobi, Z.O., Hammed, F.A, (2016). Mathematics
for University Students, Vol 1. Ibadan.

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 63 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 4: Mathematical Induction

Introduction

Before a theory is generally accepted scientifically, it has to go through a lot of

proofs. One of the essential tools of proving in mathematics is mathematical
induction; it is a technique for proving results or establishing statements for natural
numbers.

This study session illustrates the method through a variety of examples.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
4.1 Define mathematical induction

4.2 Use mathematical induction to prove statement for natural numbers

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
4.1 Definition of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a statement, a

formula or a theorem is true for every natural number.

The technique involves two steps to prove a statement, as stated below:

Step 1 (Base step): It proves that a statement is true for the initial value.

Step 2 (Inductive step): It proves that if the statement is true for the nth iteration (or number
n), then it is also true for (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ h iteration (nor number n+1).

In-Text Question (ITQ) 4.1

i. Define mathematical induction

In-Text Answer (ITA) 4.1

i. Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a

statement, a formula or a theorem is true for every natural number

4.2 Proving Statements with Mathematical Induction

Step 1: Consider an initial value for which the statement is true. It is to be shown that the
statement is true for n = initial value.

Step 2: Assume the statement is true for any value of n = k. Then prove the statement is
true for n = k+1. We actually break n = k+1 into two parts, one part is n = k (which is
already proved) and try to prove the other part.

Case Study 4.1

Prove 3𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 2 for n = 1, 2, ...

Solution

Step 1: For n = 1, 31 − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2 which is a multiple of 2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Step 2: Let us assume 3𝑛 − 1 is true for n=k, Hence, 3𝑘 − 1 is true (It is an assumption)

We have to prove that 3𝑘+1 − 1 is also a multiple of 2

3𝑘+1 − 1=3 × 3𝑘+1 − 1=(2 × 3𝑘 ) = (3𝑘 − 1)

The first part (2 × 3𝑘 ) is certain to be a multiple of 2 and the second part (3𝑘 − 1) is also
true as our previous assumption.

Hence, 3𝑘+1 − 1is a multiple of 2.

So, it is proved that 3𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 2.

Case Study 4.2

1 + 3 + 5+. . . +(2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2, …

Solution

Step 1: For n=1,1=12 , Hence, step 1 is satisfied.

Step 2: Let us assume the statement is true for n =k

Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 2 is true (It is an assumption)

We have to prove that 1 + 3 + 5+. . . +(2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) = (𝑘 + 1)2 also holds

1+3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1)

= 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 + 2 − 1)

=1+3+5+⋯+(2k+1)

=1+3+5+⋯+(2k−1)+(2k+1)

= 𝑘 2 + (2𝑘 + 1)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
= (𝑘 + 1)2

𝑆𝑜, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) = (𝑘 + 1)2 hold which satisfies the step 2.

Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 is proved.

Case Study 4.3

Prove that (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 is true for every natural number n

Solution

Step 1: For n=1, (𝑎𝑏)1 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 = 𝑎𝑏, Hence, step 1 is satisfied.

Step 2: Let us assume the statement is true for n=k

, Hence, (𝑎𝑏)𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 is true (It is an assumption).

We have to prove that (𝑎𝑏)𝑘+1 = 𝑎𝑘+1 𝑏 𝑘+1 also hold

Given, (𝑎𝑏)𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑏 𝑘

Or, (𝑎𝑏)𝑘 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 (𝑎𝑏) [Multiplying both side by 'ab']

Or, (𝑎𝑏)𝑘+1 = (𝑎𝑎𝑘 )(𝑏𝑏𝑘 )

Or, (𝑎𝑏)𝑘+1 =(𝑎𝑘+1 𝑏 𝑘+1 )

Hence, step 2 is proved.

So, (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 is true for every natural number n.

4.2.1 Strong Induction

Strong Induction is another form of mathematical induction. Through this induction

technique, we can prove that a propositional function, P(n) is true for all positive integers,

n, using the following steps:

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
a. Step 1(Base step): It proves that the initial proposition P(1) is true.
b. Step 2(Inductive step): It proves that the conditional statement [P(1) ∧P(2) ∧P(3)
∧⋯∧P(k)] → P(k+1) is true for positive integers k

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of Study Session 4

In study session 4, you have learnt that:

1. Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a

statement, a formula or a theorem is true for every natural number
2. The technique involves two steps to prove a statement are base step and inductive
step
3. Base step proves that a statement is true for the initial value.
4. Inductive step proves that if the statement is true for the nth iteration (or number n),
then it is also true for (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ h iteration ( or number n+1).

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQ 4.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.1)

1
1. Using mathematical induction, prove that 12 + 22 + 32 … + 𝑛2 = (6) {𝑛(𝑛 +

1)(2𝑛 + 1)} 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

SAQ 4.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.2)

1. By mathematical induction, prove that 1 × 2 + 3 × 4 + 5 × 6 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) ×

𝑛(𝑛+1)(4𝑛−1)
2𝑛 = 3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Prove: an inferential argument for

a mathematical statement, showing that the stated assumptions logically guarantee the
conclusion

Theorem: a non-self-evident statement that has been proven to be true, either on the basis of
generally accepted statements such as axioms or on the basis of previously established
statements such as other theorems.

Mathematical technique: are based on the representation of the essential aspects of an

actual system using mathematical languages

Statement: a definite or clear expression of something

Propositional function: a statement expressed in a form that would take on a value of true or
false were it not for the appearance within it of a variable x

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus
7. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/discrete_mathematics/discrete_mathematical_inductio
n.htm
8. https://www.math-only-math.com/problems-on-principle-of-mathematical-
induction.html

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 5: Real Sequences and Series

Introduction

Consider each of the following set of numbers:

a. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 . . .
b. 20, 17, 14, 11 . . .
c. 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 . . .
d. 1, 4, 9, 16, . . .

These are examples of a sequence. Every member of each set is called a term, the three dots
after each set show that the set of numbers continues indefinitely. A sequence is an
arrangement of a set of numbers in a particular order followed by some rules. To know the
nth term of a sequence, it is important to study the rule guiding its increment or decrement by
checking the first 2 terms, apply the rule to the next term.

For instance, in (a) above, each term is 2 more than the preceding term, so the sequence
continues as …11, 13, 15…, in (b) above, each term is 3 less than the preceding terms, which
means you will subtract 3 from each term to generate the next term, so the sequence
continues as …8, 5, 2… In (c) above, each term is multiplied by 2 to get the next term and
the sequence continues as …96, 192, 384… So also (d) above is a set of square numbers i.e.
12 , 22 , 32 , 42 …, so the next terms are 52 , 62 , 72 which is …25, 36, 49…

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
5.1 Explain the concept of sequence
5.2 Calculate the arithmetic progression and arithmetic mean of a sequence
5.3 Solve the geometric progression and geometric mean of a sequence
5.4 Calculate the sum of arithmetic progression and geometric progression of a sequence

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
5.1 Sequence as a Function

Consider a sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, …, the general term is 2 + (𝑛 − 1) × 3 = 2 + 3𝑛 − 3 =

3𝑛 − 1. You can verify by taking n = 1, 2, 3, 4. Find the 10th term (n=10), the 25th term and
the 100th term.

Hence, it denotes any term T is a function of the positive integers where 𝑇(𝑛) = 3𝑛 − 1. We
shall write this as 𝑇𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1, where 𝑇𝑛 is the nth term and n=1, 2, 3, … This will give you
a formula for finding any term of the sequence.

In general, a sequence 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , … 𝑇𝑛 is the set of images given by the function 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛) of

the positive integers 1, 2, 3… ,n. The sequence may be finite or infinite. In a finite sequence,
n will have an upper value and 𝑇𝑛 will be the last term of the sequence while an infinite
sequence has no last term.

Case Study 5.1

Find the first 5 terms of the sequence whose general term is given by:

a. 𝑇𝑛 = 3 + 7𝑛
b. 𝑇𝑛 = (−2)𝑛

Solution

a. 𝑇𝑛 = 3 + 7𝑛
𝑇1 = 3 + 7(1) = 10
𝑇2 = 3 + 7(2) = 17
𝑇3 = 3 + 7(3) = 24
𝑇4 = 3 + 7(4) = 31
𝑇5 = 3 + 7(5) = 38
b. 𝑇𝑛 = (−2)𝑛
𝑇1 = (−2)1 = −2
𝑇2 = (−2)2 = 4
𝑇3 = (−2)3 = −8
𝑇4 = (−2)4 = 16

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑇5 = (−2)5 = −32

5.2 Arithmetic Sequence

Here, you will learn about the arithmetic progression and arithmetic mean

5.2.1 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

In an arithmetic progression (Linear sequence), the difference between a term and the one
preceding it is always a constant. The constant number is called the common difference
denoted by d i.e. 𝑇𝑛 − 𝑇𝑛−1 = 𝑑.

Where 𝑇𝑛−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (𝑛 − 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.

Case Study 5.2

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) Common difference (d)

3, 7, 11, 15… 4

10, 6, 2, -2… -4

-21, -16, -11, -9 5

If a sequence 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 , is such that

𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇4 − 𝑇3
= 𝑇5 − 𝑇4 … 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 … 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.

So, for any A.P., 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Where a is the first term, n is the nth term and d is the common difference.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study5.3

What is the 15th term of the sequence -3, 2, 7, …

Solution

d= 2-(-3) = 5, a = -3

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑇15 = −3 + (15 − 1)5

𝑇15 = −3 + (14)5 = −3 + 70

𝑇15 = 67

Case Study 5.4

The 4th term of an arithmetic progression is 15 and the 9th term is 35. Find the 15th term.

Solution

𝑇4 = 15, 𝑇9 = 35

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 15

𝑇9 = 𝑎 + 8𝑑 = 35

∴ 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 15 (i)

𝑎 + 8𝑑 = 35 (ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii)

5𝑑 = 20

∴𝑑=4

Substitute 𝑑 = 4 in equation (i)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑎 + 3(4) = 15

𝑎 = 15 − 12

𝑎=3

𝑇15 = 𝑎 + (15 − 1)𝑑

𝑇15 = 3 + 14 × 4

𝑇15 = 59

5.2.2 Arithmetic Mean

If a, b, c are three consecutive terms of an A.P., then b is the arithmetic mean of a and c.

1
Now b – a = c – b, so b = (𝑎 + 𝑐)
2

Case Study 5.5

Find the arithmetic mean of 4 and 18.

Solution

Let the arithmetic mean be 𝑝, ∴ 4, 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 18 is an arithmetic progression.

4 + 18 22
∴𝑝= =
2 2

𝑝 = 11

Case Study 5.6:

Insert 5 arithmetic means between -3 and 21

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Solution

You are simply asked to find 5 numbers p, q, r, s, t, such that -3, p, q, r, s, t, 21 are seven
terms of an A.P.

Then, 𝑎 = −3, 𝑇7 = 21

So
𝑇7 = −3 + (7 − 1)𝑑 = 21

𝑇7 = −3 + (6)𝑑 = 21

𝑇7 = 6𝑑 = 24; 𝑑 = 4

Since d = 4,

You will add 4 to the first term and the subsequent terms to have -3, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17,

Therefore, the required numbers are: 1, 5, 9, 13, 17

5.3 Geometric Sequence

In this section, you will learn about geometric progression and arithmetic mean.

5.3.1 Geometric Progression (G.P.)

In a geometric progression (Exponential sequence), the ratio of a term and that immediately
preceding it is always a constant. This constant number is called the common ratio denoted
by r.

𝑇
𝑟 = 𝑇 𝑛 , where 𝑇𝑛−1 is the (n - 1)th term.
𝑛−1

𝑇2 𝑇 𝑇
So, if a sequence 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 … 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 = 𝑇3 = 𝑇4…, then 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 … are in
𝑇1 3 3

geometric progression.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 5.7

Geometric Progression (G.P.) Common ratio

2, 4, 8, 16… 4 8 16
𝑟= = = =2
2 4 8

1 5 1 5
12, 8, 5 , 3 … 8 5 3 2
3 9 𝑟= = 3 = 19 =
12 8 5 3
3

4, -8, 16, -32… −8 16 −32

𝑟= = = = −2
4 −8 16

If the first term of a geometric sequence is a and the common ratio is r, if 𝑇𝑛 is the nth term
of the sequence then:

𝑇1 = 𝑎

𝑇2
=𝑟
𝑇1

∴ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟

𝑇3 = 𝑇2 × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2

𝑇4
=𝑟
𝑇3

𝑇4 = 𝑇3 × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2 × 𝑟 = 𝑇𝑛

Thus, the nth term of a geometric progression 𝑇𝑛 is 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

Case Study 5.8

The 2nd term of a g.p. is 35 and the fourth term is 875, find:

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
a. The first term
b. The fifth term

Solution

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑇2 = 𝑎𝑟 = 35

𝑇4 = 𝑎𝑟 3 = 875

𝑎𝑟 3 875
=
𝑎𝑟 35

𝑟 2 = 25

∴𝑟=5

a. 𝑎𝑟 = 35
35
𝑎= =7
7
b. 𝑇5 = 𝑎𝑟 4
7 × 54 = 7 × 625
= 4375

Hence, the common ratio is 5, the first term is 7 and the fifth term is 4375.

Case Study 5.9

Find the two possible values of p if p – 3, 3p + 5 and 18p – 5 are three consecutive terms of a
geometric progression.

Solution

If p – 3, 3p + 5 and 18p – 5 are three consecutive terms of a geometric progression, then

3𝑝 + 5 18𝑝 − 5
=
𝑝−3 3𝑝 + 5

(3𝑝 + 5)(3𝑝 + 5) = (18𝑝 − 5)(𝑝 − 3)

9𝑝2 + 30𝑝 + 25 = 18𝑝2 − 59𝑝 + 15

9𝑝2 − 89𝑝 − 10 = 0

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
9𝑝(𝑝 − 10) + 1(𝑝 − 10) = 0

(9 − 10)(9𝑝 + 1) = 0

1
𝑝 = 10 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = −
9

5.3.2 Geometric Mean

If a, b, c are consecutive terms of a G.P., then b is the geometric mean of a and c,

𝑏 𝑐
𝑟= ;𝑟 =
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐
Then, 𝑎 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐
∴ 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑐

The term b, which is the positive square root of the product of a and c is the geometric mean
of a and c.

Case Study 5.10

Insert two geometric means between 12 and 324.

Solution

Let the geometric means be x and y, then 12, x, y, and 324 are in geometric progression.

𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 12

𝑇4 = 𝑎𝑟 3 = 324

𝑎𝑟 3 = 324 (i)

𝑎 = 12 (ii)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖)𝑏𝑦 (𝑖𝑖)

𝑎𝑟 3 324
=
𝑎 12

𝑟 3 = 27

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑟=3

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑇2 = 𝑎𝑟

𝑇2 = 12 × 3 = 36

𝑇3 = 𝑦 = √36 × 324 = √11664

= 108

Hence the geometric means are 36 and 108.

5.4 Series

A series is a partial sum of a sequence. Consider the sequence 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 …, you will now add
the terms to give you a series 𝑆 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯,

𝑆1 = 𝑇1
𝑆2 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑆3 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑛

So also,

𝑆𝑛−1 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑛−1

NOTE:

𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1 = 𝑇𝑛

Case Study 5.11

If 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 + 1, find the 1st, 5th and 12th terms.

Solution

1st term = 𝑇1 = 𝑆1 = 12 − 1 + 1 = 1

Now, 𝑆5 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇5 and 𝑆4 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4

So, 𝑇5 = 𝑆5 − 𝑆4 = (52 − 5 + 1) − (42 − 4 + 1)

= (25 − 5 + 1) − (16 − 4 + 1) = 21 − 13 = 8

Also, 𝑇12 = 𝑆12 − 𝑆11 = (122 − 12 + 1) − (112 − 11 + 1)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
= (144 − 12 + 1) − (121 − 11 + 1) = 133 − 111 = 22

5.4.1 Sum of an Arithmetic Progression

Let the first term of an arithmetic progression be a and the common difference be d, the
expression for the sum of n terms of an arithmetic progression is as follows:

Let the sum be 𝑆𝑛 , then:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛 (i)

Also, 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛 + (𝑇𝑛 − 𝑑) + (𝑇𝑛 − 2𝑑) + ⋯ + 𝑎 (ii)

Adding (i) and (ii)

2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 ) + (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 ) + (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 ) + (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 ) … 𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

∴ 2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 )

𝑛
∴ 2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 )
2

But 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2

Case Study 5.12

Find the sum of the first 20 terms of 2 + 5 + 8 + …

Solution
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
20
𝑆20 = [2 × 2 + (20 − 1)3]
2

𝑆20 = 10[4 + (19)3]

𝑆20 = 10 × (4 + 57)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑆20 = 610

5.4.2 Sum of a Geometric Progression

Let the term of a geometric progression be a and the common ratio be r, the expression of
the sum of n terms of the geometric progression is as follows:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 (i)

𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 (ii)

Subtracting (ii) from (i)

𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
∴ 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟

Subtracting (i) from (ii)

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
The formula 𝑆𝑛 = is applicable if |r| < 1. |r| is the magnitude of the common ratio.
1−𝑟
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
The formula 𝑆𝑛 = is applicable if |r| > 1, if |r| < 1 and n tends to ∞, then 𝑟 𝑛 →
𝑟−1

0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞.

The sum of the n terms as n approaches infinity is called the sum to infinity of the series and
its denoted by 𝑆∞
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟

Case Study 5.13

1 1 1
Find the sum of the first ten terms of 8 , 4 , 2 …

Solution

1
𝑎= , 𝑟 = 2, 𝑛 = 10
8
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1 10
(2 − 1) 1 1023 7
𝑆10 = 8 = (1024 − 1) = = 127
2−1 8 8 8

Case Study 5.14

1 1 1
Find the sum to infinity of the sequence 1, 4 , 16 , 64 …

Solution

1
𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = , |𝑟| < 1
4
𝑎 1
𝑆∞ = = 1
1−𝑟 1−
4

1 4 1
3 = =1
3 3
4

5.4.3 Recurrence

A sequence may sometimes be defined as a relation between two or more consecutive terms.
Such a relation is called recurrence relation. Once a term of a recurrence relation is obtained,
the others can be obtained successfully.

Case Study 5.15

A sequence 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 , … is defined by the recurrence relation

1
𝑈𝑛 = 3 + 2 𝑈𝑛−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛 ≥ 1. If 𝑈1 = 10

a. find the first 5 terms of the sequence.

1 𝑛−1
b. Show that 𝑈𝑛 = 6 + 4 (2)

Solution
1
a. 𝑈1 = 10𝑈2 = 3 + 2 × 10 = 3 + 5 = 8
1
b. 𝑈3 = 3 + 2 × 8 = 3 + 4 = 7

1 1 1
𝑈4 = 3 + × 7 = 3 + 3 = 6
2 2 2
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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1 1 1 13 1 1
𝑈5 = 3 + × 6 = 3 + × = 3+3 =6
2 2 2 2 4 4
1 𝑛−1
c. 𝑈𝑛 = 6 + 4 (2)

1 1−1 1 0
𝑈1 = 6 + 4 ( ) 6 + 4 ( ) = 6 + 4 = 10
2 2

1 2−1 1 1
𝑈2 = 6 + 4 ( ) = 6 + 4( ) = 6 + 2 = 8
2 2

1 3−1 1 2
𝑈3 = 6 + 4 ( ) = 6 + 4( ) = 6 + 1 = 7
2 2

1 4−1 1 3 1 1 1
𝑈4 = 6 + 4 ( ) = 6 + 4( ) = 6 + 4 × = 6 + = 6
2 2 8 2 2

1 5−1 1 4 1 1 1
𝑈5 = 6 + 4 ( ) = 6 + 4( ) = 6 + 4 × = 6+ = 6
2 2 16 4 4

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Summary of Study Session 5

In study session 5, you have learnt that:

1. for any A.P., 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

2. If a, b, c are three consecutive terms of an A.P., then b is the arithmetic mean of a and
c.
3. the nth term of a geometric progression 𝑇𝑛 is 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
4. If a, b, c are consecutive terms of a G.P., then b is the geometric mean of a and c;
𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐
∴ 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑐
5. 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑛
𝑛
The sum of an A.P. 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
6. For the sum of a g.p. 𝑆𝑛 = is applicable if |r| < 1 while 𝑆𝑛 = is
1−𝑟 𝑟−1

applicable if |r| > 1.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQ 5.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.1)

1. Find the first four terms of the sequence whose general term is given by
i. 7 × 3𝑛
1 𝑛−2
ii. 5 × (2)

2. Say what the pattern of is for each of the following sequences and give the next three
terms
i. 2, 6, 12, 20
ii. 8, 0.8, 0.08, 0.008
1 1 1
iii. , , ,…
2 3 4

SAQ 5.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.2)

1. Find the value of x, given that x + 1, 2x and 2x + 3 are consecutive terms of an

arithmetic progression.
2. The sum of the 3rd and 7th terms of an A.P. is 38, and the 9th term is 37. Find the A.P.
3. If x + 1, 2x – 1 and x + 5 are in A.P., find the value of x.
4. Insert 4 arithmetic means between -12 and 13

SAQ 5.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.3)

1. A G.P. is such that the 3rd term minus the first term is 48. The 4th term minus the 2nd
term is 144. Find:
i. The common ratio
ii. The 1st term
iii. The 6th term of the sequence.
1
2. Find four geometric means between 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
SAQ 5.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.4)

1. How many terms of the series 2 + 5 + 8 + … must be taken if their sum is 155
2. The fourth term of an A.P. is 8 and the sum of the first 12 terms is 126, find the A.P.
3. The 3rd and 6th terms of a G.P. are 108 and -32 respectively. Find the sum of the first 7
terms.
4. A G.P. has a common ratio of 2, find the value of n for which the sum of 2n terms is
33 times the sum of n terms.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Consecutive: follow each other

Constant: a constant is a number on its own, or sometimes a letter such as a, b or c to stand

for a fixed number

Sequence: an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order
does matter

Indefinitely: for an unlimited or unspecified period of time

Common difference: the amount between each number in an arithmetic sequence

Common ratio: the constant factor between consecutive terms of a geometric sequence

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 91 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 6: Theory of Quadratic Equation

Introduction

The standard form of a quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0; where a, b and c

are real numbers with 𝑎 ≠ 0. A quadratic equation in x is also called a second-
degree polynomial in x (that is, the highest power of the unknown of a quadratic
equation is 2. Depending on the nature of the quadratic equation, there are many ways to
solve which includes factoring, square root method, completing the square method and use of
the quadratic equation.

In this study session, you will be introduced to the different methods you can solve a
quadratic equation and quadratic functions.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

6.1 Solve quadratic equation by factorizing, completing the square and by using the
quadratic formula

6.2 Calculate the sum and products of the roots without solving the quadratic equation

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

6.1 Methods of Solving Quadratic Equation

There are different methods of solving quadratic equation, you are going to learn them in this
session

6.1.1 Solving Quadratic Equation by Factorizing

The following steps are involved in solving a quadratic equation:

i. Move all terms in one side thus leaving 0 o the other side. i.e. writing it in its
general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
ii. Factorizing
iii. Apply the zero product principle and set each factor (linear) = 0
iv. Solve the two linear equations.

Case Study 6.1

Solve 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 15

Solution

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0 (Step i above)

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 15 = 0

𝑥(𝑥 − 5) + 3(𝑥 − 5) = 0

(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 (Step ii above)

(𝑥 − 5) = 0 ; (𝑥 + 3) = 0 (Step iii above)

𝑥 = 5 ; 𝑥 = −3 (step iv)

∴ the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 15 is 5 and -3.

NOTE: Not all quadratic equations can be solved by factorization.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
6.1.2 Square Roots Method

If u is an algebraic expression and d is a positive real number, then the equation 𝑢2 = 𝑑 has
exactly two solutions

𝑢 = √𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = −√𝑑 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑢 = ±√𝑑

Case Study 6.2

Solve 𝑥 2 = 25

Solution

a. 𝑥 = ±√25 ; 𝑥 = 5 𝑜𝑟 − 5
b. (4𝑥 − 3)2 = 16
4𝑥 − 3 = 4 (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)
4𝑥 = 7
7 7
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 −
4 4

6.1.3 Completing the Square Method

We can complete the square to solve a quadratic equation i.e. find where it is equal to zero.
The following steps are involved in completing the square method:

i. Divide all terms by a (the coefficient of 𝑥 2

𝑐
ii. Move the number term (𝑎) to the right side of the equation

iii. Complete the square on the left side of the equation and balance by adding the same
value to the right side of the equation
iv. Take the square root on both sides of the equation
v. Subtract the number that remain on the left side of the equation to find x.

Case Study 6.3

Solve 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 = 0
Solution
5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 2 − 0.8𝑥 − 0.4 = 0 (𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑏𝑦 5 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖)𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑥 2 − 0.8𝑥 = 0.4 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑖)
𝑏 2 0.8𝑥 2
( ) =( ) = 0.42 = 0.16 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2 2
𝑥 2 − 0.8𝑥 + 0.16 = 0.4 + 0.16
(𝑥 − 0.4)2 = 0.56
𝑥 − 0.4 = ±√0.56 = ±0.748 (3𝑑. 𝑝. ) (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑣)
𝑥 − 0.4 = ±0.748
𝑥 − 0.4 = 0.748 or 𝑥 − 0.4 = −0.748
𝑥 = 0.748 + 0.4 or 𝑥 = −0.748 + 0.4
𝑥 = 1.148 𝑜𝑟 − 0.348

6.1.4 The Quadratic Formula

An efficient method of solving all quadratic equation problems is the quadratic formula. The
general form of a quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 quadratic formula states that

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Case Study 6.4

Solve 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0

Solution

Applying the quadratic formula

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

to 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0; 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = −5
−(−2) ± √(−2)2 − 4 × 3 × −5
𝑥=
2×3
2 ± √4 − (−60)
𝑥=
6
2 ± √64
𝑥=
6
2±8
𝑥=
6

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
10 −6
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟
6 6
𝑥 = 1.667 𝑜𝑟 − 1

6.2 Operations on the Roots

In this section, you will learn the sum and difference of roots

6.2.1 Sum and Products of the Roots

Many problems concerning the roots of a quadratic equation can be solved without actually
finding them. For example, we can find the sum and the product of the roots directly from
the coefficients in the equation. We usually call the roots 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽.

If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then, it is equivalent to

(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0 ; (𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝑥 = 𝛽)

By expansion, (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 𝑥 2 − 𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
= 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
𝑏 𝑐
Comparing𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 (𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎)

and 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
𝑏 𝑐
Hence, 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎.

So for any quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with roots 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽:

𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − , 𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎 𝑎

Case Study 6.5

If ∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are roots of the quadratic equation 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0, find 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽

Solution
Comparing 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 with the general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0; 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 =
−4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −1
𝑏 −4 4
𝛼+𝛽 =− =− =
𝑎 3 3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑐 −1 1
𝛼𝛽 = = =−
𝑎 3 3

6.2.2 Symmetric Functions of the Roots

Knowing the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 for a given equation, we can calculate the values of
other functions of 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 provided they are symmetric.

A Symmetric Function of 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 is that in which if 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are interchanged, the function
is the same or multiplied by -1.

For example 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 is a Symmetric Function as it is the same as 𝛽 2 + 𝛼 2 , similarly 𝛼 2 −

𝛽 2 is the same – (𝛽 2 − 𝛼 2 ), so 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 is also a Symmetric Function, but 3𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 is not a
Symmetric Function.

The values of a Symmetric Function of 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 can be found without knowing the values of
𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽.

Case Study 6.6

If 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0

Find the values of

a. 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
b. 𝛼 − 𝛽
c. 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2
1 1
d. +𝛽
𝛼

e. 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3
f. 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3

Solution

From 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0; a = 2, b = -1, c = -2

𝑏 −1 1
𝛼+𝛽 =− =− =
𝑎 2 2
𝑐 −2
𝛼𝛽 = = = −1
𝑎 2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Each of the functions must be expressed in terms of ∝ +𝛽 and ∝ 𝛽 only.

1 2 1 9
a. 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = (2) − 2(−1) = 4 + 2 = 4
1 17
b. 𝛼 − 𝛽 cannot be found directly, we use (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽 = 4 + 4 = ,
4

√17
hence 𝛼 − 𝛽 = ± 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝛼 > 𝛽 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 < 𝛽
2
1 √17 √17
c. 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽) = (2) × ( ) = (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝛼 > 𝛽)
2 4
1
1 1 𝛽+𝛼 2 1
d. + = = =−
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 −1 2

e. 𝛼 3 ± 𝛽 3 . This can be factorized

𝛼 3 ± 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 ± 𝛽)(𝛼 2 ∓ 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼 + 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 3𝛼𝛽]

1 1 2 13
= ( ) [( ) + 3] =
2 2 8

𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼 − 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽]

√17 1 2 √17
= [( ) + 1] = 5
2 2 8

Page 98 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of study Session 6

In study session 6, you have learnt that:

1. A quadratic equation is in the form of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

2. After factorizing the equation, then set each factor to equal to zero and solve.
3. When using square root method, 𝑢 = ±√𝑑
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
4. The formula 𝑥 = can solve all quadratic equations
2𝑎

5. If the roots of a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are roots 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽:

𝑏 𝑐
𝛼+𝛽 =− , 𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎 𝑎

Page 99 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 6

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 6.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.1)

1. Solve 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
2. 9𝑥 2 = 4
3. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
4. 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 4 = 0

SAQs 6.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.2)

1. If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of the following equations, state the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽
a. 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0
b. 3𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 2

Page 100 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Factorization: writing a number or another mathematical object as a product of several

factors, usually smaller or simpler objects of the same kind.

Symmetric: having corresponding points whose connecting lines are bisected by a given
point or perpendicularly bisected by a given line or plane symmetrical curves

Zero product principle: if a * b = 0 then either a or b equal zero

Symmetric Function: its value is the same no matter the order of its arguments

Positive real number: the subset of those real numbers that are greater than zero

Roots: the x-intercepts

Page 101 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 102 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 7: The Binomial Theorem

Introduction

An algebraic expression that consists of two terms is called a binomial. For

example (x + y) is called a binomial. Expanding binomial equation by direct
multiplication is tedious and can be difficult for larger powers or more complicated
expressions but the binomial theorem makes it easier in expanding binomial equations.

In this study session, you will be introduced to thee binomial theorem and the application of
Pascal’s triangle.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 7

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

7.1 Expand binomial equations using Pascal’s triangle

7.2 Interpret binomial theorem

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
7.1 Pascal’s Triangle

Consider the expansion of each of the following

(𝑥 + 𝑦)0 ; (𝑥 + 𝑦)1 ; (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 ; (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 ; (𝑥 + 𝑦)4 ; (𝑥 + 𝑦)5

(𝑥 + 𝑦)0 = 1

(𝑥 + 𝑦)1 = 1𝑥 + 1𝑦

(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 1𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 1𝑦 2

(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 1𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 1𝑦 3

(𝑥 + 𝑦)4 = 1𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 3 + 1𝑥 4

(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 = 1𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 + 10𝑥𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 1𝑦 5

The coefficient of x and y can be displayed in an array as

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

The array of coefficients displayed above is called Pascal’s triangle. It was formed by a
French mathematician called Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) It is very fascinating, it always starts
and end with 1. The number in-between is the sum of the two numbers exactly above it.

Two significant features of Pascal’s triangle are:

a. Each line of coefficient is symmetrical

b. Each line of coefficient can be obtained from the line of the coefficients immediately
preceding it.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 7.1

We can obtain the coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 from the coefficient of (𝑥 + 𝑦)4 as follows

Coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)4 => 1 4 6 4 1

Coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 => 1 5 10 10 5 1

Hence, the coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1.

Case Study7.2

Using Pascal’s triangle, expand (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)4 and simplify completely

Solution
(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)4 = (2𝑥)4 + 4(2𝑥)3 (3𝑦) + 6(2𝑥)2 (3𝑦)2 + 4(2𝑥)(3𝑦)3 + (3𝑦)4
= 16𝑥 4 + 96𝑥 3 𝑦 + 216𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 216𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 216𝑥𝑦 3 +81𝑦 4

Case Study 7.3

Using Pascal’s triangle, simplify (1.01)4 correct to 5d.p.

Solution
The coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)4 are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.
(1.01)4 = (1 + 0.01)4
(1 + 0.01)4 = 1 + 4(0.01) +6(0.01)2 + 4(0.01)3 + (0.01)4
= 1 + 0.04 + 0.0006 + 0.000004 + 0.00000001
= 1.04060401
= 1.04060 (5𝑑. 𝑝)

7.2 Binomial Theorem

The binomial expansion is applicable to any index n, where n can be positive or negative
integer or even a fraction. If |x| < 1, then

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
2
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3
(1 + 𝑥) = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + +
2! 3!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)𝑥 4
+
4!

This can also be written as

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝐶3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛

Note: 𝑛𝐶0 =𝐶𝑛=1

Case Study 7.4

Use the binomial expression formula to obtain the first five terms of the expansion of
1 −2
(1 + 2 𝑥)

Solution

1 −2 1 (−2)(−3) 1 2 (−2)(−3)(−4) 1 3
(1 + 𝑥) = 1 + (−2) ( 𝑥) + ( 𝑥) + ( 𝑥)
2 2 2! 2 3! 2
(−2)(−3)(−4)(−5) 1 4
+ ( 𝑥) + ⋯
4! 2

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
= 1 − 𝑥 + 3. − 4. + 5.
4 8 16

Case Study 7.5

𝑥 7
Obtain the fifth term of the expression of (1 + 3)

Solution
Let the fifth term be 𝑇5
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)𝑥 4
𝑇5 =
4!
7(6)(5)(4) 𝑥 4
= ( )
4! 3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
7×6×5×4 𝑥 4
= ( )
4×3×2×1 3
𝑥 4 𝑥 4 35𝑥 4
35 ( ) = 35 × =
3 81 81

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of study Session 7

In study session 7, you have learnt that:

1. Each line of coefficients of a Pascal’s triangle is symmetrical.

2. Each line of the Pascal’s triangle coefficient can be obtained from the line of
coefficients immediately preceding it.
3. The initial coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 is
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
𝑛(𝑛−1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)𝑥 3
4. Binomial theorem states that (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +
2! 3!
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3)𝑥 4
4!

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 7

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 7.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.1)

1. Find the first four terms of the expansion of (1 + 2𝑥)10 in ascending powers of x

SAQs 7.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.2)

1. Use the binomial theorem to expand (1 + 5𝑥)2

2. Expand (1 − 𝑥)3 using binomial theorem, hence find the value of (0.999)3 correct to
5 d.p.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Array: a set of numbers or objects that will follow a specific pattern. An array is an orderly
arrangement (often in rows, columns or a matrix) that is most commonly used as a visual tool
for demonstrating multiplication and division

Expansion: expressing it as a sum of products by using the fact that multiplication distributes
over addition

Significant features: having or expressing a meaning

Coefficient: a numerical or constant quantity placed before and multiplying the variable in an
algebraic expression

Index: the power or exponent which is raised to a number or a variable

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 111 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 8: Complex Numbers 1

Introduction

In the real number system, there is no solution to the equation 𝑥 2 = −1. We shall
consider a new number system in which the equation does have a solution. The
root of this number system is the number “i” which is known as the imaginary unit
in which 𝑖 2 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √−1 = 𝑖. We can create many more new numbers like
6𝑖, −32𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖√7. These are examples of imaginary numbers. However, we can go further
by combining real numbers to imaginary numbers like 3 + 7𝑖, 2 + 5𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 − 𝑖√7. the
combination is called complex numbers.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 8

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

8.1 Define and classify a complex number

8.2 Identify the conjugate of a complex number

8.3 Solve a complex number different operations

8.4 Represent a complex number on the Argand diagram and add and subtract a complex
number graphically

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
8.1 Definition

A complex number is any number that can be written as a + bi, where “i” is the imaginary
unit and “a” and “b” are real numbers.

a + bi

a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the number.

The table below shows examples of complex numbers, with the real and imaginary parts
identified. You will find it easier to identify the real and imaginary part of the number if
written in standard form.

Complex number Standard Form Description of parts

7i – 2 -2 + 7i The real part is -2while the

imaginary part is 7

4 – 3i 4 + (-3)i The real part is 4and the

imaginary part is -3

9i 0 + 9i The real part is 0 and the

imaginary part is 9

-2 -2 + 0i The real part is -2 and the

imaginary part is 0

Table 8.1: Standard Form of a Complex Number

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 8.1

i. What is the real part of 13.2i + 1?

ii. What is the imaginary part of 21 – 14i?
iii. What is the imaginary part of 17i

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 8.1

i. In the form of a + bi, 13.2i + 1is written as 1 + 13.2i, since a is the real part, then the
real part is 1.
ii. 21 – 14i is written as 21 + (-14)I in the form of a + bi, since b is the imaginary part,
the imaginary part is -14.
iii. Writing 17i in the form of a + bi, we have 0 + 17i. Since a is the real part, the real
part is 0.

8.1.1 Classification of Complex Numbers

Now that you already know what a real number is, we can now give a proper definition for an
imaginary number.

An imaginary number is a complex number a + bi where a = 0. Similarly, a real number is a

complex number a + bi where b = 0.

We can conclude from the definitions above that any real number or imaginary number is
also a complex number.

Nevertheless, there are complex numbers that are neither real nor imaginary. For instance, 4
+ 2i.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Fig 8.1: Parts of a Complex Number

NOTE

Zero is the complex number of 0 + 0i, therefore 0 is also a complex number.

It is a complex number when 0 is the real part which means it is an imaginary number.

It is also a complex number when the imaginary part is 0 which means it is a real number.

In conclusion, 0 is real, imaginary and complex.

8.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of a complex number a + bi is the complex number a – bi. In other words, it is
the original complex number with the sign on the imaginary part changed.

Case Study 8.1

Complex Number Conjugate

1 1
3+ 𝑖 3− 𝑖
2 2

12 - 5i 12 + 5i

1–i 1+i

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
45i -45i

101 101

Table 8.2: Conjugate of a Complex Number

NOTE: The conjugate of a real number is just itself.

8.3 Operations in Complex Numbers

A lot of operations can be done in complex number. Now we consider how to add, subtract,
multiply and divide complex Numbers.

8.3.1 Addition and Subtraction

The easiest way to add or subtract complex numbers is to think of each number as a
polynomial and add and subtract in the exact way you do your polynomials

Case Study 8.2

Simplify

a. (-4 + 7i) + (5 – 10i)

b. (4 + 12i) – (3 - 15i)
c. 5i – (-9 + 1)
Solution
a. (-4 + 7i) + (5 – 10i) = -4 + 5 + 7i + (-10i) = 1+7i – 10i = 1-3i
b. (4 + 12i) – (3 - 15i) = 4 – 3 + 12i - - 15i = 1 + 12i + 15i = 1 + 27i
c. 5i – (-9 + 1) = (0 + 5i) – (-9 + i) = 0- (-9) + 5i – (+i) = 9 + 5i – I = 9 + 4i

8.3.2 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

You will multiply complex numbers as you do polynomials. The little difference will come
in the final step as you will see below. You will multiply the first bracket by the second
bracket, 𝑖 2 = 1.

Case Study 8.3

Multiply each of the followings and write your answer in standard form.

a. 7i (-5 + 2i)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
b. (1 – 5i)(-9 + 2i)
c. (4 + i)(2 + 3i)
d. (1 – 8i)(1 + 8i)
Solution
a. 7i (-5 + 2i)

=-35i + 14i2

= -35i – 14 (since 𝑖 2 = 1)

= -14 – 3i (in standard form)

b. (1 – 5i)(-9 + 2i)
=-9 + 2i + 45i - 10𝑖 2
= -9 + 47i + 10
= 1 + 47i.
c. (4 + i)(2 + 3i)
= 8 + 12i + 2i + 3𝑖 2
= 8 + 14i – 3
= 5 + 14i
d. (1 – 8i)(1 + 8i)
= 1 + 8i – 8i – 64𝑖 2
= 1 + 64 = 65
= 65 + 0i

Multiplying a complex number by its conjugate gives you a real number

(a + bi)(a – bi) = 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏𝑖 − 𝑎𝑏𝑖 − 𝑏 2 𝑖 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
(a + bi)(a – bi) = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

This formula makes it convenient when dividing complex numbers. You will multiply the
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Case Study 8.4
Simplify each of the following and write in standard form.
3−𝑖 (3−𝑖)(2−7𝑖) 6−21𝑖−2𝑖+7𝑖 2 6−23𝑖−7 −1−23𝑖 1 23𝑖
a. 2+7𝑖
= (2+7𝑖)(2−7𝑖) = 22 +72
= 22 +72
= 53
= − 53 − 53

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3 (3)(9+𝑖) 27+3𝑖 27+3𝑖 27 3
b. = (9−𝑖)(9+𝑖) = 92 +12 = = 82 + 82 𝑖
9−𝑖 82

8𝑖 8𝑖(1−2𝑖) 8𝑖−16𝑖 2 8𝑖+16 8𝑖 16 16 8

c. = (1+2𝑖)(1−2𝑖) = = = + = + 5𝑖
1+2𝑖 12 +22 5 5 5 5
6−9𝑖
d. 2𝑖

Since the denominator is a pure imaginary number, you will first break up the fraction as
follows:
6−9𝑖 6 9𝑖 3 9
=2𝑖 − 2𝑖 = 𝑖 − 2
2𝑖

To get rid of the i in the denominator, you will multiply the numerator and the denominator
of the first term by i
6−9𝑖 3 9 3(𝑖) 9 3𝑖 9 9
=𝑖 − 2 = − 2 = −1 − 2 = − 2 − 3𝑖
2𝑖 𝑖(𝑖)

8.3.3 Powers of i

𝑖1 = 𝑖
𝑖 2 = −1
𝑖 3 = 𝑖. 𝑖 2 = −𝑖
𝑖 4 = (𝑖 2 )2 = −12 = 1
𝑖 5 = 𝑖. 𝑖 4 = 𝑖
𝑖 6 = 𝑖 2 . 𝑖 4 = (−1)(1) = −1
𝑖 7 = 𝑖 2 . 𝑖 6 = −𝑖
𝑖 8 = (𝑖 4 )2 = (1)2 = 1

You can see the pattern repeats after every four powers.

8.3.4 Square Roots

We are familiar with square roots of real numbers. For instance,

6 = √36 = √(4)(9) = √4√9 = (2)(3) = 6

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
We can also break up products under a square root into a product of square roots provided
each number is positive. We can also do the same thing if one of the numbers is negative. For
instance,

6𝑖 = √−36 = √(−4)(9) = √−4√9 = (2𝑖)(3) = 6𝑖

However, if both numbers are negative, this won’t work anymore.

6 = √36 = √(−4)(−9) ≠ √−4√−9 = (2𝑖)(3𝑖) = 6𝑖 2 = −6

√𝑎√𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏
√−𝑎√𝑏 = √−𝑎𝑏
√𝑎√−𝑏 = √−𝑎𝑏
√−𝑎√−𝑏 ≠ √(−𝑎)(−𝑏)

Case Study 8.5

Multiply (2 − √−100)(1 + √−36)

Solution

(2— 100)(1 + √−36) = (2 − 10𝑖)(1 + 6𝑖)

= 2 − 10𝑖 + 12𝑖 − 602

= 2 + 2𝑖 + 60

= 62 + 2𝑖

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

8.4 The Argand Diagram

A real number can be graphically represented as a point on a real line. In 1806, the French
Mathematician, Jean-Robert Argand devised a means of representing a complex number
using the same Cartesian coordinate system. You are familiar with the system of representing
a point (a,b) n the Cartesian plane where the first one (a) is represented on the x-axis and the
second (b) is represented on the y-axis. So also, representing a complex number, the x-axis
becomes the “real-axis” while the y-axis becomes the “imaginary-axis.

p(a,b)
b

a x

8.4.1 Graphical Addition of Complex Numbers

If we draw the two complex numbers 𝑍1 = 2 + 3𝑖 and 𝑍2 = 5 + 𝑖 on an argand diagram, you

will construct a parallelogram from the two adjacent sides 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 with the aid of your
set square and ruler as shown in figure

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

P(7,4)

3 (2,3)

1 (5,1)

1 4

The diagonal OP represents the addition of 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 .

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of study Session 8

In study session 8, you have learnt that:

1. A complex number is any number that can be written as a + bi.

2. In the complex number 7i – 2, -2 is the real part and 7i is the imaginary part.
1 1
3. The conjugate of 3 + 2 𝑖 is 3 − 2 𝑖 and the conjugate of a real number is just itself.

4. 0 is real, imaginary and complex.

5. Multiplying a complex number by its conjugate gives you a real number
(a + bi)(a – bi) = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
6. 𝑖 2 = −1
7. √𝑎√𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏
8. To add two complex numbers graphically, you will construct a parallelogram from
the two adjacent sides, the diagonal OP gives you the result.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 8

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 8.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 8.1)

1. Identify the real and imaginary part in the following

a. 3 + 2i
b. (-2 – 4i)
c. 3 - 6i

SAQs 8.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 8.2)

1. Find is the conjugate of the following

a. 12 - 12i
b. -24i

SAQs 8.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 8.3)

1. Evaluate the following expressions

a. (3 + 2i) – (8 – 5i)
b. (4 – 2i) * (1 – 5i)
c. (-2 – 4i) / i
d. (-3 + 2i) / (3 - 6i)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Conjugate: where we change the sign in the middle of two terms

Imaginary Number: complex number that can be written as a real number multiplied by
the imaginary unit 𝑖, which is defined by its property 𝑖 2 = −1

Imaginary unit: a solution to the quadratic equation

Polynomial: an expression consisting of variables and coefficients, that involves only the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents of
variables

Adjacent: Adjacent angles are two angles that have a common side and a common vertex
(corner point) but do not overlap in any way

Parallelogram: a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel (and therefore opposite angles
equal)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 125 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 9: Complex Number 2

Introduction

You have learnt how to classify a complex number and how to get its conjugate,
perform different operations on a complex number and also represent a complex
number on the Argand diagram. There are other forms in which a complex number
can be written.

This study takes you through other forms of writing a complex number

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 9

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

9.1 Find the modulus and argument of a complex number

9.2 Write a complex Number in polar form and carry out operations in complex form

9.3 Write a complex number in exponential form

9.4 Explain De Moivre’s Theorem and the Nth root of unity

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
9.1 Modulus and Argument of Complex Number

In this session, you will learn the modulus and argument of complex number

9.1.1 Modulus (or Absolute Value) of Complex Number

The modulus of a complex number a + bi is its distance from the origin when represented on
the Argand diagram. |a + bi| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

NOTE: The modulus of a complex number is also called its absolute value,

Case Study 9.1

Find the modulus of

i. |3 + 4i|
ii. |4 + 5i|

Solution

i. |3 + 4i| = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5

ii. |4 + 5i| = √42 + 52 = √16 + 25 = √41

9.1.2 Argument of a Complex Number

The argument of a complex number is the angle between the position vector of the number on
the Argand diagram and the positive real axis. Arg (x +iy) is obtained by by setting 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑦
; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥

x - iy

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
To determine the value of 𝜃, you must give due regards to the sign of x and y. That is the
quadrant in which the positive number is located. You must also note that for any complex
number 𝑍 ≠ 0, there is only one value of 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

In locating the quadrant, the range of values of each quadrant is as follows:

1st quadrant = 0° < 𝜃 < 90°

2nd quadrant = 90° < 𝜃 < 180°

3rd quadrant = 180° < 𝜃 < 270°

4th quadrant = 270° < 𝜃 < 360°.

The formula ACTS is useful in knowing the quadrant in which each trigonometric value is
positive

A – All positive

C – Cosine positive

T – Tangent positive

S – Sine positive.

The formula for getting the formula of acute angle to be considered in each quadrant is as
follows:

1st quadrant = 𝜃

2nd quadrant = 180° - 𝜃

3rd quadrant = 𝜃 − 180°

4th quadrant = 360° – 𝜃

Case Study 9.2

Find the argument of 1 + i

Solution
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = , 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1
𝑥
1
tan 𝜃 = =1
1

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 = 45°

Since x and y are both positive, it shows that the complex number is situated in the first
quadrant.
𝜋
Arg (1 + i)= 45° = (NOTE: 𝜋 = 180°)
4

Case Study 9.3

1 √3
Find the argument of the complex number 2 − 𝑖
2

Solution

𝑦 1 √3
tan 𝜃 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 2

√3 1 √3 2
− ÷ =− × = −√3.
2 2 2 1

𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 − √3 = −60°

Since tan is negative on the fourth quadrant, the negative angle indicate that the resulting
angle lies on the fourth quadrant. The formula of the fourth quadrant is 360° – 𝜃

∴ 360° − 60° = 300°

9.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number

Since 𝑍 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = => 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥 𝑥

Let 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Since 𝑍 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, it can be written as

𝑍 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑍 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
𝑍 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) is the polar form of the complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Case Study 9.4

Express 𝑍 = 4 + 3𝑖 in polar form.

Solution

You will first make a sketch.

You will then find arg (4 + 3i)

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 , where x = 4, y = 3

3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
4

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 0.75

𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.75 = 36.9°

𝑟 = √42 + 32 = √16 + 9 = √25 = 5

In polar form

𝑍 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

∴ 𝑍 = 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠36.9° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛36.9°)

Case Study 9.5

Express
𝑍 = 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠225° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛225°) in the form of x + iy.

Solution

Angle 225° is in the 3rd quadrant, recall that the formula of angles in 3rd quadrant is 𝜃 −
180°

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Since 𝜃 = 225°

225° − 180° = 45°

Since cos is negative in the 3rd quadrant,

𝑐𝑜𝑠225° = −𝑐𝑜𝑠45°

Also, sin is negative in the 3rd quadrant

𝑠𝑖𝑛225° = −𝑠𝑖𝑛45°

𝑍 = 5(−𝑐𝑜𝑠45° − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛45°)

𝑍 = 5(−0.7071 − 𝑖0.7071)

𝑍 = −3.5355 − 𝑖3.5355

𝑍 = −3.5355(𝑖 + 1)

9.2.1 Multiplication of Complex Numbers in the Polar Form

Let
𝑍1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )

𝑍2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

Then,

𝑍1 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ). 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

Since 𝑖 2 = −1

𝑍1 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

𝑍1 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )]

NOTE: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

𝑍1 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]

NOTE: To multiply two complex numbers in polar form

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
a. Multiply the r’s together
b. Add the angles 𝜃 together.

Case Study 9.6

Simplify 3(𝑐𝑜𝑠143° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛143°) × 4(57° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛57°)

Solution

3(𝑐𝑜𝑠143° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛143°) × 4(57° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛57°)

=3 × 4[cos(143° + 57°) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(143° + 57°)

=12[𝑐𝑜𝑠220° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛220°)

9.2.2 Division of Numbers in Polar Form

𝑟1
The formula [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )is used to divide numbers in polar form. You
𝑟2

will divide the r’s and subtract the angles 𝜃.

Case Study 9.7

10(𝑐𝑜𝑠126°+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛126°)
Simplify in polar form.
2(𝑐𝑜𝑠72°+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛72°)

Solution

10(𝑐𝑜𝑠126° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛126°) 10
= [cos(126° − 72°) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(126° − 72°)]
2(𝑐𝑜𝑠72° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛72°) 2

= 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠54° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛54°

9.3 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

Another way of writing a complex number is writing it in its exponential form.

Firstly, we will need Euler’s formula

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

We can rewrite the polar form of a complex number into its exponential form as:

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

Where 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑍

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
The multiplicative inverse is given as

1 𝑖(−𝜃)
𝑍 −1 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )−1 = 𝑟 −1 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )−1 = 𝑟 −1 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒
𝑟

1 𝑖(−𝜃)
𝑍 −1 = 𝑒
𝑟

The polar form of the multiplicative inverse is

1
𝑍 −1 = [cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝜃)
𝑟

9.4 Moivre’s Theorem

De-Moivre’s theorem states that:

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃

Proof:

Since 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑛 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛

(𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛

∴ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛

If n is a fraction, then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 is one of the values of (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 .

9.4.1 Nth Root of Unity

The solutions of the equation 𝑍 𝑛 = 1 for positive values of integer n are the n roots of unity.

In polar form, the equation 𝑍 𝑛 = 1 can be written as

𝑖2𝑘𝜋
𝑍 𝑛 = cos(0 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(0 + 2𝑘𝜋) = 𝑒 𝑛

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
K= 0, 1, 2…

Using De-Moivre’s theorem, you will find the nth roots of unity from the equation below.

2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 𝑖2𝑘𝜋

𝑍 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )] = 𝑒 𝑛 ; 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛

Given a positive integer n, a complex number Z is called an nth root of unity if and only if
𝑍𝑛 = 1

2𝜋𝑖 2𝜋𝑖 2𝜋𝑖

𝑍=𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

2𝜋𝑖 𝑛
 𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑒 𝑛 ) = 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 = 1

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of study Session 9

In study session 9, you have learnt that:

1. The modulus or absolute value of a complex number a + bi is |a + bi| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

𝑦
2. Arg (x +iy) is obtained by by setting 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 ; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1

3. 𝑍 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) is the polar form of the complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

4. 𝑍1 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
𝑟
5. The formula 𝑟1 [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) is used to divide complex number
2

6. De-Moivre’s theorem states that (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 9

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 9.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 9.1)

1. Multiply (3 + 2i)(2 - i)
2. Multiply (3 + 4i)(3 - 4i)

SAQs 9.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 9.2)

1. Divide 3 + 4i by 3 - 4i.
2. Divide 3 + 4i by 2i?

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Distance: length of a straight-line segment that links two points

Quadrant: the four quarters of the coordinate plane

Multiplicative Inverse: reciprocal for a number x, denoted by 1/x or x−1, is a number which
when multiplied by x yields the multiplicative identity, 1

Origin: the point where the axes of the system intersect

Polar form: denotes a complex number in terms of its vector's length and angular direction
from the starting point

Exponential form: a number usually is expressed as a coefficient between one and ten times
an integral power of ten, the exponent

Page 137 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 138 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 10: Circle Geometry

Introduction

A circle is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed point;
the fixed point is the centre and distance from the centre to a point on the circle is
the radius of the circle.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 10

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
10.1 State the general form of equation of a circle
10.2 Solve some problems on the equation of a circle
10.3 Proffer solutions to equation of the tangent and normal to a circle

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
10.1 Equation of a Circle

In the figure below, we want to consider a circle with centre C (a, b) and radius r .

P ( x, y)
( y  b)
r
C ( a, b) ( x  a)

0
x
Let P ( x, y) be any point on the circle. Then the equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and
radius r , is given as:

CP 2  ( x  a) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

But if the centre is the origin, then it means that a = 0 and b = 0 in which case the above
equation reduces to: ( x  0) 2  ( y  0) 2  r 2

 x2  y2  r 2

This is the equation of a circle with centre origin and radius r .

Let us solve some problems that relates to what we have just discussed.

Case Study 10.1

Find the equation of the circle with centre (– 3, 2) and radius 4.

Solution

Recall that the equation of a circle with radius (a, b) with radius r is

( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

Here, a  3 , b  2 and r  4 . So, putting these into the above equation of a circle, we
have,

( x  3) 2  ( y  2) 2  4 2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
 ( x  3)  ( y  2)  4
2 2 2

We now expand to have,

( x  3)(x  3)  ( y  2)( y  2) = 42

x 2  3x  3x  9  y 2  2 y  2 y  4 = 16

x 2  6x  9  y 2  4 y  4 = 16

x 2  6 x  y 2  4 y  13 = 16

 x 2  y 2  6x  4 y = 16 – 13

 x 2  y 2  6x  4 y = 3 or

x 2  y 2  6x  4 y  3 = 0

is the required equation.

Case Study10.2

Find the equation of a circle centre origin radius 6 units.

Solution

Recall that the equation of a circle from origin is given as

x 2  y 2  r 2 (since a  0 and b  0 )

 x 2  y 2  62

 x 2  y 2  36

x 2  y 2  36  0 is the required equation.

Case Study 10.3

Find the equation of the circle with centre (4,3) which passes through the point (2, 1).

Solution

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In this equation, you notice that a = – 4, b = 3, but r is not given to you directly. Now how
do we go about getting r ? Consider the figure below carefully and you will discover that r
is the distance from (4,3) to (2, 1).

(2, 1)

r
(4,3)

Hence, r 2  (4  2) 2  (3  1) 2

= (6) 2  (2) 2

= 36 + 4

r 2  40

 r = 40

Hence, the equation of a circle with centre (4,3) and radius 40 is

( x  4) 2  ( y  3) 2  ( 40 ) 2

( x  4) 2  ( y  3) 2  ( 40 ) 2

( x  4)( x  4)  ( y  3)( y  3)  ( 40 )( 40 )

x 2  4 x  4 x  16  y 2  3 y  3 y  9 = 40

x 2  8 x  16  y 2  6 y  9 = 40

x 2  8 x  y 2  6 y  25 = 40

 x 2  8 x  y 2  6 y = 40 - 25

x 2  y 2  8 x  6 y = 15 or

x 2  y 2  8 x  6 y  15 = 0

is the required equation of the circle.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.1

(a) Find the equation of a circle centre origin radius 8 units.

(b) Find the equation of the circle centre (2,3) and radius 5.

(c) Find the equation of the circle with centre (2,3) which passes through the point (1,
2).

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.1

(a) x 2  y 2  64  0 (b) x 2  y 2  4 x  6 y  12

(c) x 2  y 2  4x  6 y  3  0

10.2 The General Form of Equation of a Circle

To be able to establish the general equation of a circle, let us reconsider the equation of a
circle we have just treated.

The equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius is,

( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

By expanding the above equation of circle, we have,

( x  a)(x  a)  ( y  b)( y  b) = r2

x 2  ax  ax  a 2  y 2  by  by  b 2  r 2

x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  2by  b 2 = r2

x 2  y 2  2ax  2by  a 2  b 2 = r2 (1)

Let us say that

 a = g ,  b = f and c  a 2  b 2  r 2

Then, equation (1) becomes,

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
x  y  2 gx  2 fy  c  0
2 2

which is the general equation of a circle. Any of g , f , c can be zero.

10.2.1 Characteristics of an Equation of a Circle

The following are some of the characteristics of an equation of a circle.

(1) Any equation of the second degree in x and y represents that of a circle. This simply
means that there is no term of power higher than the second degree.
(2) The coefficients of x 2 and y 2 are equal.
(3) There is no term in xy .
To this end, the following equations represent circles:
 x 2  y 2  3x  4 y  2  0

 4x 2  4 y 2  2x  y  1

 3x 2  3 y 2  2 y  0

while the following do not represent circles:

 2x 2  y 2  2x  3y  2

 5x 2  5 y 2  4 x  8 y  1  0

 2 x 2  2 xy  7 x  3 y  2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In-Text Question (ITQ)

Which of the following is not an equation of a circle?

(a) 2x 2  y 2  2x  2 y  1

(b) x2  y2  4

(c) 3xy  y 2  2 x  3  0

(d) 2 x 2  2 y 2  3x  0

In-Text Answers (ITA)

(a) and (c)

Case Study 10.4

Find the centre and radius of the circle

x 2  y 2  3x  2 y  2  0

Solution

Here, we first rewrite the equations as follows:

( x 2  3x)  ( y 2  2 y )  2

We can now use the method of completing the square as follows to get to our destination.

Here we go!

 2  3  2
2 2 2 2
3
x 2  3x     y 2  2 y     2      
2  2   2  2 

2
 3 5
 x    ( y  1) 
2

 2 4

We compare this with the basic form of the equation of a circle.

( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
and we see that

3 5
a   , b = 1 and r 
2 2

 3  5
Hence, the centre is   ,1 and the radius is .
 2  2

Case Study 10.5

Find the centre and radius of the circle.

4 x 2  4 y 2  12 x  20 y  9  0

Solution

Here, we divide through with 4 to reduce the coefficients of x 2 and y 2 to 1, that is,

4 x 2 4 y 2 12 x 20 y 9
    0
4 4 4 4 4

9
 x 2  y 2  3x  5 y  =0
4

We can now rewrite the above equation as,

9
( x 2  3x)  ( y 2  5 y )  
4

Using the method of completing the square, we have,

  3  5 9   3   5
2 2 2 2

x  3x  
2
  y  5y  
2
      
 2   2  4  2   2 

2 2
 3  5 25
x    y   
 2  2 4

We can now compare with the basic form of the equation of a circle.

( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

and we see that

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3 5 5
a  , b  and r =
2 2 2

3 5 5
Hence, the centre is  ,  and the radius is .
2 2 2

In-Text Question (ITQ) 10.2

Find the centre and radius of the circle 3x 2  3 y 2  24 x  12 y  11 .

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.2

7 3
(4, – 2) and
3

10.3 Tangent to a Circle

A tangent at any point of the circle, is a line that just touches the circle without cutting
through the curve. This means that, diameter, chords or a line outside a circle are not
tangent since it either cuts a curve or does not meet the curve in any way as illustrated
below.

y L3 - Not tangent

L2 - Not tangent

L1 - Tangent

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0
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Given that the tangent to the circle x  y  a at the point 1 , y1 ) , then,
2 2 2
( x

xx1  yy1  a 2

This is the equation of the tangent to the circle.

Case Study 10.6

Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x 2  y 2  10 at the point (4,  2) .

Solution

The equation of the tangent to the circle x 2  y 2  a 2 at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given as

xx1  yy1  a 2

Given that x1  4 and y1 =  2 , substituting the above values into the equation we have,

4x  2 y  10

 2x  y = 5

is the required equation.

10.3.1 Equation of the Tangent to the General Equation of a Circle

Given a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the general equation of the circle

x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0

The equation of the tangent to the general circle is given as,

xx1  yy1  g ( x  x1 )  f ( y  y1 )  c  0

Case Study 10.7

Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x 2  y 2  3x  4 y  2  0 at the point (2, –
3).

Solution

This type of question requires that we compare x 2  y 2  3x  4 y  2 = 0 with the general

equation of the circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 .

 2g  3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
3
 g=
2
 2f  4
4
 f=
2
 c= 2
Let ( x1 , y1 ) = (2,3)

The equation of tangent to the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given as

xx1  yy1  g ( x  x1 )  f ( y  y1 )  c  0
Hence,
 3  3
x(2)  y (3)    ( x  2)  2 y    2  0
 2  2
3x
 2x  3y   3  2y  3  2 = 0
2
3x
 2x   3y  2 y  3  3  2 = 0
2
4 x  3x
  y4 =0
2
x
 y =4
2
Therefore, x  2 y  8 is the required equation.

10.3.2 Normal to a Circle

A normal to a curve at a given point ( x1 , y1 ) on a curve is a line perpendicular to the

tangent to the curve at that point as shown in the figure below.

y
Normal

Tangent
O

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
10.3.3 Equation of the Normal to a Circle

Given the normal to the circle x 2  y 2  a 2 at the point ( x1 , y1 ) , then

x1 y1  y1 x  0

This is the equation of the normal to the circle.

Case Study 10.8

Find the equation of the normal to the circle x 2  y 2  a 2 at the point (3,5) .

Solution

The equation of the normal to the circle x 2  y 2  a 2 at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given as

x1 y  y1 x = 0

Let ( x1 , y1 ) = (3,5)
Then, 3( y)  (5)(x) = 0
 3 y  5x =0
 3 y  5x = 0 is the required equation.

10.3.4 Equation of the Normal to the General Equation of a Circle

Given a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 , the equation of the normal to

the general equation of a circle is given as

y( x1  g )  x( y1  f )  fx1  gy1  0

Case Study 10.9

Find the equation of the normal to the circle x 2  y 2  3x  2 y  0 at the point (3, 2).

Solution

Comparing x 2  y 2  3x  2 y  0 with the general equation of a circle,

x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0

we have that,

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
2g  3 ,
3
 g
2
and 2 f  2
2
 f   1
2

Let ( x1 , y1 ) = (3, 2).

The equation of the normal to the circle is:
y( x1  g )  x( y1  f )  fx1  gy1 = 0

 3 3 
 y 3    x(2  1)  (1  3)    2  = 0
 2 2 

 6  3
y   x(1)  (3)  3 = 0
 2 
9y
 x 33 = 0
2
9y
 x  33
2
9y
x6
2
 9 y  2x  12 or 2 x  9 y  12 = 0
Thus, 2 x  9 y  12 = 0 is the required equation of the normal to the circle.

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of Study Session 10

In study session 10, you have learned the following:

(i) The equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius is,

( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

By expanding the above equation of circle, we have,

( x  a)(x  a)  ( y  b)( y  b) = r2

x 2  ax  ax  a 2  y 2  by  by  b 2  r 2

x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  2by  b 2 = r2

(ii) Given a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the general equation of the circle

x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0

The equation of the tangent to the general circle is given as,

xx1  yy1  g ( x  x1 )  f ( y  y1 )  c  0

Page 152 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 10.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 10.1)

1. In each case below find the equation of the circle, with

Centre Radius

(a) (1, 2) 3

(b) (2, 3) 4

(c) (4,  3) 6

(d) 0 3

3 3 1
(e)  , 
2 2 2

SAQs 10.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 10.2)

1. State the radius of the following circles.

(a) x 2  y 2  169 (b) 4 x 2  4 y 2  36

(c) 2ax 2  2ay 2  8a (d) 3x 2  3 y 2  a 2

SAQs 10.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 10.3)

1. Find the centre and radius of the following:

(a) 3x 2  3 y 2  24 x  12 y =  11

(b) x 2  y 2  4x  7 y = 8

(c) 2 x 2  2 y 2  8 x  12 y  18 = 0

(d) x2  y2  2  x  4y

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
SAQs 10.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 10.4)

1. Find the equation of the circle with centre (1, 2) which passes through the points (3, 4).

Page 154 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Tangent: A line that just touches a curve at a point

Circle centre: the point equidistant from the points on the edge

Diameter: any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose
endpoints lie on the circle

Radius: a straight line extending from the center of a circle or sphere to the circumference or
surface

Normal to a curve: the line perpendicular (at right angles) to the tangent to the curve at that
point

Page 155 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 156 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 11: Parametric Equations of a Circle

Introduction

Parametric equations are the equations that give the coordinates of every point on
the circle with respect to the angular coordinates of the points on the circle. In
particular it expresses the coordinates of every point on the circle in terms of one
variable or parameter,  .

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 11

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
11.1 Solve some problems on the parametric equation of a circle given the general
equation of a circle

Page 157 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
11.1 Parametric Equations of a Circle taken the Centre and Radius

We wish to consider a circle with centre C (a, b) and radius r . Let P ( x, y) be any point as
shown in the figure below.

P ( x, y)

Q C (a, b)

0 x

Fig 11.1

From the above figure, on the horizontal component,

QC = r cos

Similarly, on the vertical component,

PQ = r sin 

So, the point P on the circle with coordinates ( x, y) is given by the two equations:

x  a  r cos

y  b  r sin 

These are the required parametric equations.

Case Study 11.1

Given a circle with centre (3,  2 ) and radius 4, state the parametric equations.

Solution

The parametric equations state that:

Page 158 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
x  a  r cos , y  b  r sin 

Recall that from the centre of the circle c ,

ca 0

 ca

and

cb  0

 c  b

So, from the question given,

a  3 and b  2

Putting the above into the parametric equations, gives us

x  3  4 cos , y  2  4 sin 

which are the required parametric equations.

Case Study 11.2

Find the parametric equations of the circle x 2  y 2  10 at the point (4,  2) .

Solution

In this problem we need to first find the radius and centre of the circle.

From the given equation of the circle, x 2  y 2  10 the centre is (0,0) and r2=10

the radius r  10 , therefore the parametric equation is

for x  0  10 cos we write as x  10 cos

for y  0  10 sin  we write as y  10 sin 

Page 159 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 11.3

Given the parametric equations x  6  7 cos , y  5  7 sin  , state the centre and radius of
the circle.

Solution

For x  6  7 cos , we write as

x  6  7 cos (1)

and for y  5  7 sin  , we write,

y  5  7 sin  (2)

Compare equations (1) and (2) above with the general parametric equation, that is,

x  a  r cos , y  b  r sin 

Then, you will clearly see that,

a  6 and b  5 while the radius = 7

 The centre is (6, 5) and the radius is 7.

Case Study 11.4

Find the parametric equations of the circle 3x 2  3 y 2  24 x  12 y =  11

Solution

In order to find the parametric equation we must find the radius and centre of the circle.

Now we compare the equation with the general equation of a circle given by
x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 thus the equation above becomes x 2  y 2  8 x  4 y  11  0
So,
2 g  8 2 f  4
8 4
g  f 
2 2
 4 2
Hence, the centre is (-4,2)

Now the radius r  g  f  c that is

2 2

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
r  (4)  2  11
2 2

r  20  11  9  3
Therefore the parametric equation of the circle is given as
x  (4)  3 cos
x  4  3 cos  x  4  3 cos and
y  2  3sin   y  2  3 cos

Page 161 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Summary of Study Session 11

In study session 11, you have learnt that:

The point P on the circle with coordinates ( x, y) is given by the two equations:

x  a  r cos

y  b  r sin 

Page 162 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 11

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 11.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 11.1)

1. Given the parametric equations x  2  3 cos , y  3  3 sin  , state the centre and
radius of the circle.
2. Given a circle with centre (2, –1) and radius 5, state the parametric equations.
3. Find the parametric equations of the circle x 2  y 2  3 at the point (1,  2) .

4. Find the parametric equations of the circle 2 x 2  2 y 2  10 x  6 y  7  0

Page 163 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Vertical: up-down direction or position

Horizontal: left-right direction or position

Horizontal component: in a square sheet of paper, if we hold it horizontally then the part
which faces you

Vertical component: in a square sheet of paper, if we hold it horizontally then the part which
goes up

Coordinates: a letter and a number, that locate a specific point on a grid

Page 164 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 165 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 12: Trigonometry

Introduction

Just the mention of Trigonometry strikes fear in your heart? Fret not, you are not
alone. However, this is a problem that can be easily solved. Trigonometry is an easy
topic to understand if you follow its real-life applications. Let us familiarize ourselves
with the basis of trigonometry which is gotten from the formula acronym SOHCAHTOA.

This study session takes you through the application of trigonometry to real life problems

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 12

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
12.1 State some formulas on circular functions
12.2 Explain the rule of sign
12.3 Describe the concept of elementary angles
12.4 Use the concept of trigonometry in solving practical problems as it applies to
elevation and depression and triangles

Page 166 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

12.1 Sine, Cosine and Tangent of Angles

It is important to take you back to the basics so as to remind you of what you already know or
perhaps have forgotten.

Let us consider the acronyms: SOHCAHTOA from the figure below.

Hypotenuse
Opposite

O A

Adjacent

In the figure above OAB is a triangle which is right angled at A.

AÔB = 

AB Opposite
SOH  sin  = 
OB Hypotenuse

OA Adjacent
CAH  cos θ  
OB Hypotenuse

AB Opposite
TOA  tan θ  
OA Adjacent

sin 
tan  
cos

We have made use of the short forms of sine, cosine and tangent respectively.

Page 167 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
From the above definitions, we can now establish reciprocal ratios. That is, the cosecant of
angle  (abbreviated as cosec  ), the secant of angle  (abbreviated as sec  ) and the
cotangent of angle  (abbreviated as cot  ).

cosec  = 1

1

1

OB
sin   Opposite   AB  AB
   
 Hypotenuse   OB 

1 1 1 OB
sec  =   
cos  Adjacent  OA AB
 
 Hypotenuse  OB

1 1 cos
cot  =  
tan   sin   sin 
 
 cos 

Case Study 12.1

5
If  is acute, and tan   , find (a) sin  (b) cos  (c) cosec  (d) sec  (e) cot 
12

Solution

Let us begin by constructing a right-angled triangle  ABC as shown below.

13 5

C A
12

Page 168 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
In the figure above ABC is a triangle with a right angle A.

Opposite
Since tanθ  from our definitions, it implies that
Adjacent
AB = 5 and AC = 12
But BC is not yet known. So what do we do to get the value for BC? We apply Pythagoras
theorem.
AB 2  AC 2  BC 2
 BC 2  52  12 2 = 25 + 144 = 169

BC = 169 = 13
Now, from this point we can now begin to solve the given problems from (a) to (e) one by
one.

Opposite 5 Adjacent 12
(a) sin  =  , (b) cos  = 
Hypotenuse 13 Hypotenuse 13
1 1 13 1 1 13
(i) cosec  =   , sec  =  
sin   5  5 cos  12  12
   
 13   13 
1 1 12
(ii) cot  =  
tan   5  5
 
 12 

Case Study 12.2

3
If sin x = , find the value of the following such that 0 0  x  90 0 .
2
(a) sin x  cos x (b) tan x  sec x
cot x sin x
(c) cot x  cosec x (d) , (e)
sec x cosec x
Solution

I do hope you are not confused with the expression 0 0  x  90 0 . Oh, it simply means that x

is between 00 and 900, that is, an acute angle.

Page 169 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Here we go again. As usual, we begin by drawing an acute (right-angled) triangle to be able
to find the missing side that will enable us to tackle the questions.

2
3


C A
1
Applying Pythagoras theorem, we have,
BC 2  AB 2  AC 2

 AC 2 = BC 2  AB 2 = 2  ( 3)
2 2
= 4  3= 1
AC = 1 = 1

Having obtained the missing side, it is now easy to deal with the given task. So we have that:

3 1 3
sin x  , cos x  , tan x  = 3
2 2 1
3 1 3 1
(a) sin x  cos x =  =
2 2 2
3 1
Hence, sin x  cos x =
2

1
(b) tan x  sec x = tan x 
1
= 3 = 32
cos x 1
 
2

1 1 1 2
(c) cot x  cosecx =
1

1
=  = 
tan x sin x 3  3 3 3
 
 2 
 
(Take LCM)

1 2 1 1 3 3
= = =   =
3 3 3 3 3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
 1  1
   
(d)
cot x
=  tan x  cos x  2 
= =
sec x 1 tan x 3
cos x 1

1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 3
=   =  =
2 3
= =
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 (2 3 ) 2 4  3 6

sin x 3 3 9 3
(e)
sin x
= = sin x  sin x =   
cosecx  1  2 2 4 4
 
 sin x 

12.2 Rule of Signs

Consider a circle divided into four (4) equal places called quadrants as shown in the figure
below:
y

2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant

sin all

tan cos

3rd Quadrant
4th Quadrant

In the first quadrant, sine, cosine and tangent are all positive. This shows that:
(a) sin   0 (i.e., positive) in the 1st and 2nd quadrants. Hence, in the second quadrant,
we have that

sin(180 0   )  sin 
cos(180 0   )   cos
tan(180 0   )   tan 
Page 171 of 200
 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

(b) tan   0 (i.e., positive) in the 1st and the 3rd quadrants. Hence, in the 3rd quadrant, we
have that

sin(180 0   )   sin 

cos(180 0   )   cos
tan(180 0   )  tan 

(c) cos  0 (i.e., positive) in the 1st and the 4th quadrants. Hence, in the 4th quadrant, we
have that
sin(360° − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
cos(360° − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan(360° − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

12.3 Elementary Angles (Special Angles)

We shall consider angles like 00, 300, 450, 600, 900, 1800, 2700 and 3600 in their respective
trigonometry ratios and then apply same in solving mathematical problems.

We begin with 00 and 900 by considering triangle OAB below.

r y


O x A

When  = 00, y  0 , x r.

So,
y x y
sin 0 0   0 , cos 0 0   1 , tan 0 0  0
r r x
and using complementary angles,

sin(90 0 )  sin(90 0  0 0 )  cos(0 0 ) = 1

cos(90 0 )  cos(90 0  0 0 )  sin( 0 0 ) = 0

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
1
tan(90 0 )  tan(90 0  0 0 )  = undefined
0

In summary,

sin 0 0  0 sin 900  1

cos 0 0  1 cos 90 0  0
tan 0 0  0 tan 900 = undefined

Angle 450
Consider the isosceles triangle below. An isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two sides
equal. B

a 2
a

450
O A
a

From the figure above,

AÔB  OB̂A  90 0

AÔB  OB̂A
 AÔB  OB̂A = 450

Applying Pythagoras theorem,

OB 2  OA 2  AB 2  2a 2

a 1
 OB = a 2 , cos 450 = sin 450 =  ,and tan 450 =
a
=1
a 2 2 a

Angles 300 and 600

Consider the equilateral triangle below (an equilateral triangle is one that has all the sides
equal.

Page 173 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

300

2x 2x
x 3
600
O x x
A C

From the above figure,

OB  BC  CO  2 x
OA = AC = x.
Then, OB 2  OA 2  AB 2
 4 x 2  x 2  AB 2

 AB = x 3
CÔB  OB̂C  BĈO  60 0

OB̂A  AB̂C  30 0

Summary Table of Values

 00 300 450 600 900 1800 2700 3600

sin  0 1 1 3 1 0 -1 0
2
2 2

cos  1 3 1 1 0 -1 0 1
2
2 2

tan  0 1 1 3 - 0 - 0
3

It is so important you appreciate the table of values above by applying it to mathematical

problems.

Page 174 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 12.3

Without using tables, find the value of the following in simplified surd form.
(a) sin 1350 (b) cos 2400
(c) tan 3000 (d) sin 3300
(e) tan 1500 (f) cos 3150

Solution

1
(a) sin 1350 = sin(1800 – 1350) = sin 450 =
2
1
(b) cos 2400 = cos(1800 + 600) = – cos 600 = 
2

(c) tan 3000 = tan (3600 – 600) = – tan 600 =  3

1
(d) sin 3300 = sin (3600 – 300) = – sin 300 = 
2

1
(e) tan 1500 = tan (1800 – 1500) = – tan 300 = 
3
1
(f) cos 3150 = cos (3600 – 3150) = cos 45 =
2

12.4 Degrees and Radians

Here, we are going to learn how to convert degree to radian and radian to degree.
Consider and angle  , in radians, subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc AB as shown
below.

A
B

r r
O

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

The angle subtended at the centre O of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the
circle is called one radian. The angle  in radians is defined as:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵
𝜃= . The circumference is 2 r .
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑟)

2 r
Hence a complete rotation (3600) is  2 radians = 3600
r
Now, 2 radians = 3600

Case Study 12.4

Convert the following angles in degrees to radians.

(a) 00 (b) 300 (c) 600 (d) 900
(e) 1800 (f) 3000
Solution


To convert angles in degrees to radians, multiply the angle by the factor . So, we have:
180
  
(a)  00 = 0, (b)  300 =
180 180 6
   
(c)  600 = , (d)  900 =
180 3 180 2
  , (f)  5
(e)  1800 =  3000 =
180 180 3

Table of Degrees and Radians

Degrees 00 300 450 600 900 1200 1350 1500

Radians 0     2 3 5
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
Degrees 1800 2100 2250 2400 2700 3000 3150 3300
Radians  7 5 4 3 5 7 11
6 4 4 2 3 4 6

Now, look back at the table of values and make sure you know the exact values for radians!
Note: Be careful to include 0 when referring to degrees.

Page 176 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Let us practice converting back from angles in radians to degrees.

Case Study 12.5

Convert the following angles in radians to degrees.

3 7
(a) (b)
4 4

Solution

180 0
To convert angles in radians to degrees, multiply the angles by the factor .

180 0 3
(a)  = 1350
 4

180 0 7
(b)  = 3150
 4

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Summary of Study Session 12

In study session 12, you have learnt that:

1.
3 1 3
sin x  cos x  tan x 
2 , 2, 1 = 3
2. The angle subtended at the centre O of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius
of the circle is called one radian

Page 178 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 12

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

Provide answer to each of the following questions:

SAQs 12.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 12.1)

1. Use mathematical tables to evaluate each of the following:

(a) sin 22 0 (b) cos 430 (c) tan 510
2. Use mathematical tables to evaluate each of the following:
(a) sin 107 0 (b) cos1580 (c) tan 1120
3. Use mathematical table to evaluate each of the following:
(a) sin 2520 (b) cos 2150 (c) tan 1960
4. Use mathematical tables to evaluate each of the following:
(a) sin 2920 (b) cos3100 (c) tan 317 0
5. Use mathematical tables to evaluate the following:
(a) sin( 37 0 ) (b) cos(610 ) (c) tan( 109 0 )

SAQs 12.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 12.2)

8
1. If  is an acute angle and cos  , find
17
(a) sin  (b) tan  (c) cosec  (d) sec (e) cot 
3
2. If tan x  , find the value of the following, such that 0  x  90 0 .
7
(a) sin x  tan x (b) cos x  sin x (c) cot x  sec x
3. Convert each of the following angles in degrees to radians.
(a) 200 (b) 800 (c) 2100 (d) 3150
4. Convert each of the following angles in radians to degrees.
3 2 5
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d)
11 7 3

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Glossary of Terms

Reciprocal: what to multiply a value by to get 1

Acute: Acute angles measure less than 90 degrees

SOHCAHTOA: a mnemonic that gives us an easy way to remember the three main
trigonometric ratios

Reciprocal ratios: the ratio between the reciprocals of two quantities

Right-angled triangle: a triangle with one of the angles as 90 degrees

Complementary angles: two angles whose measures add to 90 degrees

Page 180 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 181 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Study Session 13: Trigonometric Identities

Introduction

A trigonometric identity is a trigonometric relationship between trigonometric

functions which is true for all values of the angle.
This study session takes you through the application of trigonometric functions.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 13

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
13.1 State some trigonometric identities
13.2 Use the concept of trigonometry in solving practical problems as it applies to
elevation and depression and triangles

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
13.1 Some trigonometric identities

Let us consider the triangle OAB shown below.

B
r y


O x A

Applying Pythagoras theorem, we have that

x2  y2  r 2
Dividing by r 2 , we get

y2 x2
 1 (1)
r2 r2

Opposite y y2
Recall that sin     sin 2   (2)
Hypotenuse r r2

Adjacent x x2
And cos    cos   2
2
(3)
Hypotenuse r r

Substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1) above, then we establish the trigonometric
relationship (identity) that
sin 2   cos2  = 1
 sin 2   1  cos2  and cos2   1  sin 2  .
1 1
Recall that sec  and cosec  
cos sin 
Now dividing sin 2   cos2  = 1 by cos2  , we have,

sin 2  cos2  1
 2 
cos  cos  cos2 
2

or tan 2   1 = cosec2 

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Similarly, dividing by sin 2  , we have,

sin 2  cos2  1
 
sin 2  sin 2  sin 2 
 1 + cot 2  = cosec2  .
Case Study13.1

1 1
Prove that  = 2 sec2 
1  sin  1  sin 

Solution

1 1
 (Take LCM)
1  sin  1  sin 

1  sin   1  sin  2 2
= =
(1  sin  )(1  sin  ) 1  sin   sin   sin 2  1  sin 2 

2
= = 2 sec2 
cos 2 

Case Study 13.2

cos 1  sin 
Show that 
1  sin  cos
Solution

cos cos (1  sin  )

=
1  sin  1  sin  (1  sin  )
cos (1  sin  ) cos (1  sin  ) 1  sin 
= = =
1  sin 2  cos 2  cos

Case Study 13.3

Show that (sin   cos )(tan  cot ) = sec  cos ec

Solution

(sin   cos )(tan  cot ) = sin  tan   sin  cot  cos tan   cos cot

sin  1 sin  1
= sin    sin    cos   cos 
cos tan  cos tan 

Page 184 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
sin 
2
1 1
=  sin    sin   cos 
cos  sin    sin  
   
 cos   cos 

sin 2  cos cos

=  sin    sin   cos 
cos sin  sin 

sin 2  cos2 
=  cos  sin  
cos sin 

sin  (sin 2  )  sin  cos2   cos sin 2   cos (cos2  )

=
cos sin 

sin  (sin 2   cos2  )  cos (sin 2   cos2  )

= (Since sin 2   cos2   1)
cos sin 
sin  (1)  cos (1) sin  cos 1 1
= =  =  = sec + cosec 
sin  cos sin  cos sin  cos cos sin 

Case Study 13.4

1
Show that tan   cot  .
sin  cos

Solution

1 sin  1 sin  cos

tan   cot = tan   =  =  (Take the
tan  cos  sin   cos sin 
 
 cos 
LCM)

sin 2   cos2 
=
cos sin 
1
= (Since sin 2   cos2   1)
sin  cos

Page 185 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 13.5

sin 2 
Simplify .
1  cos2 

Solution

sin 2  sin 2 
= =1
1  cos2  sin 2 

Case Study 13.6

sec tan 
Simplify 
cos cot

Solution

sec tan  sec tan   1 

 = sec (sec )  tan   sec 
2
 = 
cos cot cos (1 / tan  )  cos 
= sec2   tan 2  = 1  tan 2   tan 2  = 1

Case Study 13.7

5
Given that sin A  and that A is an Obtuse angle, find cos A and tan A without using
13
tables.
Solution

We know that
sin 2 A  cos2 A  1 (*)

169  25 144
2
5 25
 cos A2
= 1   = 1 = =
 13  169 169 169

144 12
 cos A = 
169 13
12
But A is obtuse,  cos A  
13

Page 186 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

To calculate for tan A , we know that

sin A 5 / 13
tan A   tan A 
cos A  12 / 13
5 13 5
tan A =  =
13  12  12

13.2 Double Angles

Consider sin( 2a) = 2 sin a cos a

cos(2a) = cos2 a  sin 2 a

We can now use cos2 a  sin 2 a  1 to obtain alternative formula for cos 2a :
cos(2a) = cos2 a  sin 2 a

= cos2 a  (1  cos2 a) = 2 cos2 a  1

cos(2a) = cos2 a  sin 2 a = (1  sin 2 a)  sin 2 a = 1 2 sin 2 a

Case Study 13.8

sin 2  cos 2  1
Show that = tan 
sin 2  cos 2  1

Solution

sin 2  cos 2  1 2 sin  cos  (1  2 sin 2  )  1

=
sin 2  cos 2  1 2 sin  cos  (2 cos 2   1)  1

2 sin  cos  2 sin 2  sin  (cos  sin  )

= =
2 sin  cos  2 cos 
2
cos (sin   cos )
sin 
= = tan  .
cos

Page 187 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Case Study 13.9
0
 1
Find the value of sin  22 
 2

Solution
0
 1
Let a =  22 
 2
0
1  1
Then consider cos(2a) =  cos(45 ) = 1  2 sin  22 
0 2

2  2
0
 1 1 2 1
 2 sin  22  = 1
2
=
 2 2 2
0 0
 1 2 1  1 2 1
 sin 2  22  =  sin  22  =
 2 2 2  2 2 2

Page 188 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1

Summary of Study Session 13

In study session 13, you have learnt that:

1
1. cosec  =
sin 
1
2. sec =
cos
1
3. cot  =
tan 
cos
4. tan  =
sin 

cos2   sin 2   1 

5. 1  tan 2   sec 2   Trigonometric identities
1  cot 2   cosec2 


sin   cos(90 0   )

6. cos   sin( 90 0   )  Complementary angles
tan   cot(90 0   ) 

Page 189 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 13

Now that you have completed this study session, you can access how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering these questions. Write your answers in your diary and
discuss them with your tutor at the next support meeting. You can check your answers with
the notes on the self-assessment questions at the end of this session.

SAQs 13.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 13.1)

1. Show that (cosec  cot )(cosec  cot ) = 1

2. Simplify (1  tan 2  )(1  sin 2  ) .

SAQs 13.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 13.2)

1  tan x
1. Show that  tan x .
1  cot x

2. Find all the solutions for x  (0, 2 ) for 2 sin 2 x  3 sin x =  1 .

3. Find all the solutions for x  (0, 2 ) for cos2 x  sin 2 x  cos x  1 = 0.

Page 190 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Glossary of Terms

Obtuse angle: angles between 90 degrees and 180 degrees

Elevation: the height to which something is raised
Depression: the depth to which something is lowered
Opposite: Side facing the angle in consideration
Adjacent: lying near to the angle in consideration
Hypotenuse: side facing the right angle

Page 191 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
References

1. Nwagbogwu, D. C. and Akinfenwa, O. A. (2008). Fundamentals of Mathematics,

S-S Stephen’s Nig. Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria.
2. www.oneaccess.com.ng/results_by_category.php?CategoryID.
3. Matthews, K. R. (1998). Elementary Linear Algebra, Department of Mathematics,
University of Queensland.
4. www.math.fsu.edu/~dli/matthews.pdf
5. Anthony Barcellos, (1992). Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Fifth edition, Volume 1,
American River College, Sacramento, California.
6. www.amazon.com › ... › Science & Mathematics › Mathematics › Calculus

Should you require more explanations on this study session? Please

do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.

Page 192 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 1

SAQ 1.1

1. B 2. A 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. C

SAQ 1.2

1 (a) . P Q   (b). P Q  {1,2,3,4,5,6} (c). ( P  Q)  Q  {3,5,6}  Q

(d). ( P  Q)  P  {1,2,3,4}  P.

X  Y  Z '  {1}

(i). S T  {3,9}. (ii). S  T  {1,2,8,10}. (iii) T  S  {4,6}.

c c c

(iv) S T  {5,7}.
(i) A  B  {10,11,12,13,14}. (ii). B  A  {2,1,0}.
(iii). A  B  {2,1,0,1,2,...,12,13,14}. (iv). A  B  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}.

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 2

SAQ 2.1

 (a). 4 interviewers (b). 3 interviewers

 (a). 6 housewives (b). 68 housewives (c). 126 housewives.

SAQ 2.2

 1 student offers all three subjects. 18 students offer any combination of two subjects
only
 13
 18

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 3

SAQ 3.1

A number system is a writing system for expressing numbers of a given set using digits or
other symbols in a consistent manner.

SAQ 3.2

1. 11 + 23 = 34
2. 5 × 1 = 5
3. Commutative, associative, distributive
4.
i. Commutative law of addition: 5 + 7 = 7 + 5 = 12
ii. Commutative law of multiplication: 5 × 7 = 7 × 5 = 35
iii. Associative law of addition: 5 + (7 + 13) = (5 + 7) + 13 = 25
iv. Associative law of multiplication: 5 × (7 × 13) = (5 × 7) × 13 = 455
v. Distributive law: 5 × (7 + 13) = (5 × 7) + (5 × 13) = 100

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 4

SAQ 4.1

1. Let the given statement be P(n). Then,

P(n): 1² + 2² + 3² + ..... +n² = (1/6){n(n + 1)(2n + 1)}.

Putting n =1 in the given statement, we get

LHS = 1² = 1 and RHS = (1/6) × 1 × 2 × (2 × 1 + 1) = 1.

Therefore LHS = RHS.

Thus, P(1) is true.

Page 194 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Let P(k) be true. Then,

P(k): 1² + 2² + 3² + ..... + k² = (1/6){k(k + 1)(2k + 1)}.

Now, 1² + 2² + 3² + ......... + k² + (k + 1)²

= (1/6) {k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1)²

= (1/6){(k + 1).(k(2k + 1)+6(k + 1))}

= (1/6){(k + 1)(2k² + 7k + 6})

= (1/6){(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)}

= 1/6{(k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)[2(k + 1) + 1]}

⇒ P(k + 1): 1² + 2² + 3² + ….. + k² + (k+1)²

= (1/6){(k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)[2(k + 1) + 1]}

⇒ P(k + 1) is true, whenever P(k) is true.

Thus, P(1) is true and P(k + 1) is true, whenever P(k) is true.

Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

SAQ 4.2

1. From the statement formula

When n = 1,

LHS =1 x 2 = 2

RHS = 1(1+1)(4x1−1)31(1+1)(4x1−1)3 = 6363 = 2

Page 195 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Hence it is proved that P (1) is true for the equation.

Now we assume that P (k) is true or 1 x 2 + 3 x 4 + 5 x 6 + …. + (2k - 1) x 2k

= k(k+1)(4k−1)3k(k+1)(4k−1)3.

For P(k + 1)

LHS = 1 x 2 + 3 x 4 + 5 x 6 + …. + (2k - 1) x 2k + (2(k + 1) - 1) x 2(k + 1)

= k(k+1)(4k−1)3k(k+1)(4k−1)3 + (2(k + 1) - 1) x 2(k + 1)

= (k+1)3(k+1)3(4k2 - k + 12 k + 6)
= (k+1)(4k2+8k+3k+6)3(k+1)(4k2+8k+3k+6)3
= (k+1)(k+2)(4k+3)3(k+1)(k+2)(4k+3)3
= (k+1)((k+1)+1)(4(k+1)−1)3(k+1)((k+1)+1)(4(k+1)−1)3 = RHS for P (k+1)

Now it is proved that P (k + 1) is also true for the equation.

So the given statement is true for all positive integers.

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 5

SAQ 5.1

1.
i. 7, 21, 63, 189
ii. 20, 10, 5, 2.5
2.
i. Pattern is common difference + 2 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56
ii. Pattern is divide each term by 10 8, 0.8, 0.08, 0.008, 0.0008, 0.00008,
0.000008
1 1 1 1 1 1
iii. Pattern is denominator increase by 1 , , , , ,
2 3 4 5 6 7

SAQ 5.2

1. x=2
1
2. 1, 5 2 , 10
3. x=4
4. -7, -2, 3, 8

SAQ 5.3

1.

Page 196 of 200

 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
i. 3
ii. 6
iii. 1458
1 1
2. 4 , 2 , 1, 2

SAQ 5.4

1. 10
2. 5, 6, 7, …
563
3. 3
4. 5[22𝑛 − (33 × 2𝑛 ) + 32]

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 6

SAQ 6.1

1. x = -2 or x = -3
2. x = 0.6666666 or x = -0.6666666
3. x = -0.268 or x = -3.732
4. x = 0.385 or x = -10.385

SAQ 6.2

1.
1 −3
a. 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 2 , 𝛼𝛽 = 2
−2
b. 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 2, 𝛼𝛽 = 3

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 7

SAQ 7.1

1. 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2 + 960𝑥 3

SAQ 7.2

1. 1 + 10𝑥 + 40𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 3 + 80𝑥 4 + 32𝑥 5

2. 1 − 3𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 , 0.99700

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 8

SAQ 8.1

1.
a. Real part = 3, imaginary part = 2i
b. Real part = -2, imaginary part = -4i
c. Real part = 3, imaginary part = 2i

SAQ 8.2

1.
a. 12 + 12i
b. 24i

SAQ 8.3

1.
a. -5 + 7i
b. -6 -22i
c. -4 + 2i
−21−12𝑖
d. 45

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 9

SAQ 9.1

1. 8 + i
2. 25

SAQ 9.2

−7+24𝑖
1. 25
8−6𝑖
2. 4

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 10

SAQ 10.1

1 (a) x 2  y 2  2 x  4 y  4

(a) x2  y 2  4x  6 y  3

(b) x 2  y 2  8 x  6 y  11  0

(c) x2  y2  9

(d) 4 x 2  4 y 2  12 x  12 y  17  0

SAQ 10.2

a
1. (a) 13 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d)
3

SAQ 10.3

7 3
1. (a) Centre: (4,-2) radius:
3

97
(b) Centre: (4,-7/2) radius:
2
(c) Centre: (2, 3) radius: 2
5
(d) Centre: (-1/2,-2) radius:
2

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 11

SAQ 11.1

1. Centre is (2, 3) with radius 3

2. 𝑥 = −2 + 5 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 1 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3. 𝑥 = −1√3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 2 + √3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4. 𝑥 = −2.5 + 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = −1.5 + 2 sin 𝜃

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 MAT 101: General Mathematics 1
Notes on SAQs for Study Session 12

SAQ 12.1

1. (a) 0.3746 (b) 0.7314 (c) 1.2349

2. (a) 0.9563 (b) -0.9272 (c) -0.24751
3. (a) -0.9511 (b) -0.8192 (c) 0.2867
4. (a) -0.9272 (b) 0.6428 (c) -0.9325
5. (a) -0.6018 (b) 0.4848 (c) 2.9042

SAQ 12.2

15 15 17 17 8
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
17 8 15 8 15

3 7  12 7 3 19 3
2. (a) (b) (c) (d)
4 7 4 3 7 7
 4 7 7
3. (a) (b) (c) (d)
9 9 6 4
4. (a) 49.090 (b) 51.430 (c) 3600 (d) 3000

Notes on SAQs for Study Session 13

SAQ 13.1

    11 3 
1st quadrant  , , 4th quadrant  , .
6 2  6 2 

SAQ 13.2

    3 5 
1st quadrant  , , 4th quadrant  , .
2 3  2 3 

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