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Flask Web Development Developing Web Applications
with Python 1st Edition Miguel Grinberg Digital Instant
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Author(s): Miguel Grinberg
ISBN(s): 9781449372620, 1449372627
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 8.44 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
Flask Web Development

Miguel Grinberg
Flask Web Development
by Miguel Grinberg
Copyright © 2014 Miguel Grinberg. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
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See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781449372620 for release details.

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While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.

ISBN: 978-1-449-37262-0
[LSI]
For Alicia.
 Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Part I. Introduction to Flask

1. Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Using Virtual Environments 4
Installing Python Packages with pip 6

2. Basic Application Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Initialization 7
Routes and View Functions 8
Server Startup 9
A Complete Application 9
The Request-Response Cycle 12
Application and Request Contexts 12
Request Dispatching 14
Request Hooks 14
Responses 15
Flask Extensions 16
Command-Line Options with Flask-Script 17

3. Templates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Jinja2 Template Engine 22
Rendering Templates 22
Variables 23
Control Structures 24
Twitter Bootstrap Integration with Flask-Bootstrap 26
Custom Error Pages 29
Links 31

v
 Static Files 32
Localization of Dates and Times with Flask-Moment 33

4. Web Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) Protection 37
Form Classes 38
HTML Rendering of Forms 40
Form Handling in View Functions 41
Redirects and User Sessions 44
Message Flashing 46

5. Databases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
SQL Databases 49
NoSQL Databases 50
SQL or NoSQL? 51
Python Database Frameworks 51
Database Management with Flask-SQLAlchemy 52
Model Definition 54
Relationships 56
Database Operations 57
Creating the Tables 58
Inserting Rows 58
Modifying Rows 60
Deleting Rows 60
Querying Rows 60
Database Use in View Functions 62
Integration with the Python Shell 63
Database Migrations with Flask-Migrate 64
Creating a Migration Repository 64
Creating a Migration Script 65
Upgrading the Database 66

6. Email. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Email Support with Flask-Mail 69
Sending Email from the Python Shell 70
Integrating Emails with the Application 71
Sending Asynchronous Email 72

7. Large Application Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Project Structure 75
Configuration Options 76
Application Package 78

vi | Table of Contents
 Using an Application Factory 78
Implementing Application Functionality in a Blueprint 79
Launch Script 81
Requirements File 82
Unit Tests 83
Database Setup 85

Part II. Example: A Social Blogging Application

8. User Authentication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Authentication Extensions for Flask 89
Password Security 90
Hashing Passwords with Werkzeug 90
Creating an Authentication Blueprint 92
User Authentication with Flask-Login 94
Preparing the User Model for Logins 94
Protecting Routes 95
Adding a Login Form 96
Signing Users In 97
Signing Users Out 99
Testing Logins 99
New User Registration 100
Adding a User Registration Form 100
Registering New Users 102
Account Confirmation 103
Generating Confirmation Tokens with itsdangerous 103
Sending Confirmation Emails 105
Account Management 109

9. User Roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Database Representation of Roles 111
Role Assignment 113
Role Verification 114

10. User Profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Profile Information 119
User Profile Page 120
Profile Editor 122
User-Level Profile Editor 122
Administrator-Level Profile Editor 124

Table of Contents | vii

 User Avatars 127

11. Blog Posts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Blog Post Submission and Display 131
Blog Posts on Profile Pages 134
Paginating Long Blog Post Lists 135
Creating Fake Blog Post Data 135
Rendering Data on Pages 137
Adding a Pagination Widget 138
Rich-Text Posts with Markdown and Flask-PageDown 141
Using Flask-PageDown 141
Handling Rich Text on the Server 143
Permanent Links to Blog Posts 145
Blog Post Editor 146

12. Followers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Database Relationships Revisited 149
Many-to-Many Relationships 150
Self-Referential Relationships 151
Advanced Many-to-Many Relationships 152
Followers on the Profile Page 155
Query Followed Posts Using a Database Join 158
Show Followed Posts on the Home Page 160

13. User Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Database Representation of Comments 165
Comment Submission and Display 167
Comment Moderation 169

14. Application Programming Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Introduction to REST 175
Resources Are Everything 176
Request Methods 177
Request and Response Bodies 177
Versioning 178
RESTful Web Services with Flask 179
Creating an API Blueprint 179
Error Handling 180
User Authentication with Flask-HTTPAuth 181
Token-Based Authentication 184
Serializing Resources to and from JSON 186
Implementing Resource Endpoints 188

viii | Table of Contents

 Pagination of Large Resource Collections 191
Testing Web Services with HTTPie 192

Part III. The Last Mile

15. Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Obtaining Code Coverage Reports 197
The Flask Test Client 200
Testing Web Applications 200
Testing Web Services 204
End-to-End Testing with Selenium 205
Is It Worth It? 209

16. Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Logging Slow Database Performance 211
Source Code Profiling 213

17. Deployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Deployment Workflow 215
Logging of Errors During Production 216
Cloud Deployment 217
The Heroku Platform 218
Preparing the Application 218
Testing with Foreman 222
Enabling Secure HTTP with Flask-SSLify 223
Deploying with git push 225
Reviewing Logs 226
Deploying an Upgrade 227
Traditional Hosting 227
Server Setup 227
Importing Environment Variables 228
Setting Up Logging 228

18. Additional Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) 231
Finding Flask Extensions 232
Getting Involved with Flask 232

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Table of Contents | ix
 Preface

Flask stands out from other frameworks because it lets developers take the driver’s seat
and have full creative control of their applications. Maybe you have heard the phrase
“fighting the framework” before. This happens with most frameworks when you decide
to solve a problem with a solution that isn’t the official one. It could be that you want to
use a different database engine, or maybe a different method of authenticating users.
Deviating from the path set by the framework’s developers will give you lots of
headaches.
Flask is not like that. Do you like relational databases? Great. Flask supports them all.
Maybe you prefer a NoSQL database? No problem at all. Flask works with them too.
Want to use your own homegrown database engine? Don’t need a database at all? Still
fine. With Flask you can choose the components of your application or even write your
own if that is what you want. No questions asked!
The key to this freedom is that Flask was designed from the start to be extended. It comes
with a robust core that includes the basic functionality that all web applications need
and expects the rest to be provided by some of the many third-party extensions in the
ecosystem and, of course, by you.
In this book I present my workflow for developing web applications with Flask. I don’t
claim to have the only true way to build applications with this framework. You should
take my choices as recommendations and not as gospel.
Most software development books provide small and focused code examples that
demonstrate the different features of the target technology in isolation, leaving the “glue”
code that is necessary to transform these different features into a fully working appli‐
cations to be figured out by the reader. I take a completely different approach. All the
examples I present are part of a single application that starts out very simple and is
expanded in each successive chapter. This application begins life with just a few lines of
code and ends as a nicely featured blogging and social networking application.

xi
Who This Book Is For
You should have some level of Python coding experience to make the most of this book.
Although the book assumes no previous Flask knowledge, Python concepts such as
packages, modules, functions, decorators, and object-oriented programming are as‐
sumed to be well understood. Some familiarity with exceptions and diagnosing issues
from stack traces will be very useful.
While working through the examples in this book, you will spend a great deal of time
in the command line. You should feel comfortable using the command line of your
operating system.
Modern web applications cannot avoid the use of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. The
example application that is developed throughout the book obviously makes use of
these, but the book itself does not go into a lot of detail regarding these technologies
and how they are used. Some degree of familiarity with these languages is recommended
if you intend to develop complete applications without the help of a developer versed
in client-side techniques.
I released the companion application to this book as open source on GitHub. Although
GitHub makes it possible to download applications as regular ZIP or TAR files, I strongly
recommend that you install a Git client and familiarize yourself with source code version
control, at least with the basic commands to clone and check out the different versions
of the application directly from the repository. The short list of commands that you’ll
need is shown in “How to Work with the Example Code ” on page xiii. You will want to
use version control for your own projects as well, so use this book as an excuse to learn
Git!
Finally, this book is not a complete and exhaustive reference on the Flask framework.
Most features are covered, but you should complement this book with the official Flask
documentation.

How This Book Is Organized

This book is divided into three parts:
Part I, Introduction to Flask, explores the basics of web application development with
the Flask framework and some of its extensions:

• Chapter 1 describes the installation and setup of the Flask framework.

• Chapter 2 dives straight into Flask with a basic application.
• Chapter 3 introduces the use of templates in Flask applications.
• Chapter 4 introduces web forms.
• Chapter 5 introduces databases.

xii | Preface
 • Chapter 6 introduces email support.
• Chapter 7 presents an application structure that is appropriate for medium and
large applications.

Part II, Example: A Social Blogging Application, builds Flasky, the open source blogging
and social networking application that I developed for this book:

• Chapter 8 implements a user authentication system.

• Chapter 9 implements user roles and permissions.
• Chapter 10 implements user profile pages.
• Chapter 11 creates the blogging interface.
• Chapter 12 implements followers.
• Chapter 13 implements user comments for blog posts.
• Chapter 14 implements an Application Programming Interface (API).

Part III, The Last Mile, describes some important tasks not directly related to application
coding that need to be considered before publishing an application:

• Chapter 15 describes different unit testing strategies in detail.

• Chapter 16 gives an overview of performance analysis techniques.
• Chapter 17 describes deployment options for Flask applications, both traditional
and cloud based.
• Chapter 18 lists additional resources.

How to Work with the Example Code

The code examples presented in this book are available from GitHub at https://
github.com/miguelgrinberg/flasky.
The commit history in this repository was carefully created to match the order in which
concepts are presented in the book. The recommended way to work with the code is to
check out the commits starting from the oldest, then move forward through the commit
list as you make progress with the book. As an alternative, GitHub will also let you
download each commit as a ZIP or TAR file.
If you decide to use Git to work with the source code, then you need to install the Git
client, which you can download from http://git-scm.com. The following command
downloads the example code using Git:
$ git clone https://github.com/miguelgrinberg/flasky.git

Preface | xiii
The git clone command installs the source code from GitHub into a flasky folder that
is created in the current directory. This folder does not contain just source code; a copy
of the Git repository with the entire history of changes made to the application is also
included.
In the first chapter you will be asked to check out the initial release of the application,
and then, at the proper places you will be instructed to move forward in the history.
The Git command that lets you move through the change history is git checkout. Here
is an example:
$ git checkout 1a

The 1a referenced in the command is a tag, a named point in the history of the project.
This repository is tagged according to the chapters of the book, so the 1a tag used in
the example sets the application files to the initial version used in Chapter 1. Most
chapters have more than one tag associated with them, so, for example, tags 5a, 5b, and
so on are incremental versions presented in Chapter 5.
In addition to checking out the source files for a version of the application, you may
need to perform some setup. For example, in some cases you will need to install addi‐
tional Python packages or apply updates to the database. You will be told when these
are necessary.
You will normally not modify the source files of the application, but if you do, then Git
will not let you check out a different revision, as that would cause your local changes to
be lost. Before you can check out a different revision, you will need to revert the files to
their original state. The easiest way to do this is with the git reset command:
$ git reset --hard
This command will destroy your local changes, so you should save anything you don’t
want to lose before you use this command.
From time to time, you may want to refresh your local repository from the one on
GitHub, where bug fixes and improvements may have been applied. The commands
that achieve this are:
$ git fetch --all
$ git fetch --tags
$ git reset --hard origin/master

The git fetch commands are used to update the commit history and the tags in your
local repository from the remote one on GitHub, but none of this affects the actual
source files, which are updated with the git reset command that follows. Once again,
be aware that any time git reset is used you will lose any local changes you have made.
Another useful operation is to view all the differences between two versions of the
application. This can be very useful to understand a change in detail. From the command

xiv | Preface
line, the git diff command can do this. For example, to see the difference between
revisions 2a and 2b, use:
$ git diff 2a 2b
The differences are shown as a patch, which is not a very intuitive format to review
changes if you are not used to working with patch files. You may find that the graphical
comparisons shown by GitHub are much easier to read. For example, the differences
between revisions 2a and 2b can be viewed on GitHub at https://github.com/miguelgrin
berg/flasky/compare/2a...2b

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, if example code is offered
with this book, you may use it in your programs and documentation. You do not need
to contact us for permission unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code.
For example, writing a program that uses several chunks of code from this book does
not require permission. Selling or distributing a CD-ROM of examples from O’Reilly
books does require permission. Answering a question by citing this book and quoting
example code does not require permission. Incorporating a significant amount of ex‐
ample code from this book into your product’s documentation does require permission.
We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the title,
author, publisher, and ISBN. For example: “Flask Web Development by Miguel Grinberg
(O’Reilly). Copyright 2014 Miguel Grinberg, 978-1-449-3726-2.”
If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the permission given above,
feel free to contact us at [email protected].

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file extensions.
Constant width
Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to program elements
such as variable or function names, databases, data types, environment variables,
statements, and keywords.
Constant width bold
Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user.

Preface | xv
Constant width italic
Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by values deter‐
mined by context.

This element signifies a tip or suggestion.

This element signifies a general note.

This element indicates a warning or caution.

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Acknowledgments
I could not have written this book alone. I have received a lot of help from family, co-
workers, old friends, and new friends I’ve made along the way.
I’d like to thank Brendan Kohler for his detailed technical review and for his help in
giving shape to the chapter on Application Programming Interfaces. I’m also in debt to
David Baumgold, Todd Brunhoff, Cecil Rock, and Matthew Hugues, who reviewed the
manuscript at different stages of completion and gave me very useful advice regarding
what to cover and how to organize the material.
Writing the code examples for this book was a considerable effort. I appreciate the help
of Daniel Hofmann, who did a thorough code review of the application and pointed out
several improvements. I’m also thankful to my teenage son, Dylan Grinberg, who sus‐
pended his Minecraft addiction for a few weekends and helped me test the code under
several platforms.
O’Reilly has a wonderful program called Early Release that allows impatient readers to
have access to books while they are being written. Some of my Early Release readers
went the extra mile and engaged in useful conversations regarding their experience
working through the book, leading to significant improvements. I’d like to acknowledge

Preface | xvii
Sundeep Gupta, Dan Caron, Brian Wisti and Cody Scott in particular for the contri‐
butions they’ve made to this book.
The staff at O’Reilly Media has always been there for me. Above all I’d like to recognize
my wonderful editor, Meghan Blanchette, for her support, advice, and assistance from
the very first day we met. Meg has made the experience of writing my first book a
memorable one.
To conclude, I would like to give a big thank you to the awesome Flask community.

xviii | Preface
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
ST. CROIX and MISACODA or BURNTWOOD RIVERS.
 INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDA.

The principal points at which the waters of the Mississippi river

communicate, by interlocking rivers and portages, with the
lakes, are the following, proceeding from south to north,
namely,
1. By the Illinois and Chicago Creek, (with Lake Michigan.)
2. By the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, (with Green Bay.)
3. By the Chippewa and Mushkee (or Mauvais) Rivers, (with
Lake Superior.)
4. By the St. Croix and Burntwood (or Brulé) Rivers, (do.)
5. By the Savanne and St. Louis Rivers, (do.)
The routes by the Illinois, and by the Wisconsin, were first
laid open by French enterprise, and have been used for canoes
and flat-bottomed boats in their natural state, and without any
practical improvement which as yet, facilitates the
communication, about a hundred and sixty years. They are so
familiar in our geography, have been so much explored, and are
so well appreciated, as prominent points for effecting canal and
railroad routes, that it is only to be desired that early and
efficient measures should be taken for opening them.
The route of the Chippewa (or Sauteaux) River, is imperfectly
known, and has never been fully and accurately delineated and
described. It is a long river, having a number of fingered
branches, which spread over a large area of interior midland
country. They are connected, at distant points, with the principal
sources of the St. Croix and the Wisconsin of the Mississippi;
with the Mushkee, the Montreal, and the Ontonagon of Lake
Superior; and with the Monomonee, and the North Branch of
Fox River of Green Bay. The portages are of no great length, but
being at considerable altitudes above both the Mississippi and
the lakes, and remote from either, they are impracticable for
boats.
In 1766 or ’67, J. Carver ascended the Chippewa River to the
Ottawa Fork. He ascended it no higher, and his delineations of
it, on the map which accompanied his original work, published
in London, cannot now be referred to. Dr. Douglass Houghton,
and Lieut. Robert E. Clary, U. S. A. delineated this stream, in
1831, to the junction of the Red Cedar Fork, and up that fork to
its source in Lac Chetac; they continued the delineation of the
route thence, by portages, into the Ottawa Fork of the
Chippewa, up that river to Lac Courtorielle, or Ottawa Lake, and
thence by a series of short portages, to the Namakagon Branch
of the St. Croix, and up that branch, to the commencement of
the series of portages, which connect it with the Mushkee or
Mauvais River of Lake Superior. The latter river was delineated
in its entire length. These topographical observations, were
commenced at the most easterly point of the route. They
remain in manuscript. Duplicates of them have been
communicated to the government.
The route of the St. Croix and Brulé, describes a shorter line
between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, than the preceeding;
and it is one, that has been, and continues to be, much used by
the traders and by the resident Indian population. We cannot
refer, however, to any accurate delineation of it, or to any
printed account of the country. Carver, in his way to the
Kiministiquoia, or Grand Portage, visited the upper forks of the
St. Croix, and descended the Burntwood, or Brulé, to which he
gave the name of Goddard’s River.
The channel of communication which exists through the
Savanne and St. Louis Rivers, was delineated by Capt. D. B.
Douglass, as a member of the expedition sent into that quarter
by the government in 1820. But the result of his observations,
has not been given to the public. The route has been again
delineated with care, in its whole extent, from Fond du Lac to
Sandy Lake, during the present year, by Lieut. James Allen, of
the U. S. Army, and will with his other delineations, be
transmitted for the use of the Topographical Bureau at
Washington.
Lieut. Allen’s delineations, also, embrace the St. Croix and
Burntwood Rivers, in their whole length; and exhibit the first
actual survey of these streams, which the topographical history
of the region, presents.
Portions of these surveys have been prepared by the officer
making them, to illustrate the present volume, together with the
octavo sketches, which accompany the Narrative to Itasca, Cass
and Leech Lakes.
 EXPLORATION
OF THE

ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD RIVERS.

CHAPTER I.
Interval of the banks of the Mississippi, between the mouths of the River De Corbeau
and St. Croix, adverted to.—Plains above St. Anthony’s Falls, agricultural.—Fact
respecting the recession of the bison.—Geological change in the character of the
Mississippi, in crossing 45 deg. parallel.—Fort Snelling.—Council.—Reach the mouth of
the St. Croix.—Picturesque character of St. Croix Lake.—Traits of its natural history.—
Encamp near a diminutive kind of barrows.—“Standing Cedars.”—An Indian trader.—
Green-stone rock.—Falls of the St. Croix.—Traditionary account of an ancient Indian
battle, fought at these falls by the Chippewas, Saucs, Foxes, and Sioux.—Wahb Ojeeg.

That portion of the Upper Mississippi, lying between the junction of

the De Corbeau and St. Anthony’s Falls, presents to the eye a
succession of prairie and forest land, which has the characteristics of
a valuable agricultural country. It is difficult in passing it, to resist the
idea, that it will, at some future day, sustain a dense population. It is
so elevated above the bed of the Mississippi, as to be out of the
reach of its periodical floods. The banks are rendered permanent by
resting upon a basis of fixed rocks, (the primitive,) which appear in
the channel of the river. The soil is arable upland, apparently light,
but of that ferruginous character, which has turned out so durable
and fertile in Michigan. Like the prairies of the latter, the plough
might be set in motion, without the labor of clearing and grubbing,
and a farm reclaimed with no additional labor but that of fencing.
Wood is often wanting on the immediate margin of the river. It is not
always so; and when thus wanting, forests may be observed on the
hilly grounds, at a distance. Wild hay might be cut in any quantity. It
is among the facts which mark the natural history of the region, that
the buffalo, or more strictly speaking, the bison, which fed on these
plains, in 1820, has not appeared here since. The Virginia deer and
the elk are, however, still abundant. The absence of lime stone will
probably prove the most formidable bar to its settlement. Nothing of
this kind is found except in its southern borders. There appears to
be no formations of rock elevated above the soil, but the limited
district called the Pètites Roches. And the strata here are exclusively
referable to the primitive series.
The entrances of a small river called Nokassippi, about two
hundred miles above St. Anthony’s Falls, may be considered as the
termination of this tract. Above this point, although the Mississippi
has some rich alluvions, as at the mouth of Sandy Lake River, its
vegetation assumes generally an alpine character, and a large
portion of the wide area of its valley, is traversed by pine ridges,
with innumerable intervening lakes, and extensive tracts of, what the
natives denominate, mushkeegs.
On crossing through the forty-fifth parallel of latitude, the
Mississippi exhibits a change in the materials of its banks
preparatory to its entering the limestone region. This is first
rendered strikingly visible on the rapids immediately above the Falls
of St. Anthony. The fall itself is an imposing exhibition of geological
scenery. The river here sinks its level about forty feet, in the distance
of, say 1,500 yards.[20] Sixteen feet of this has been estimated to
consist of a perpendicular fall, reaching, with irregularities from
shore to shore. Debris is accumulated in rude masses below, and the
rapids are filled with fallen or rolled rocks which impart a character
of wildness to the scene. We made a portage of 1,250 yards, having
descended nearer to the brink of the fall than is common. Fort
Snelling is situated at the estimate distance of nine miles below the
falls, at the junction with the river St. Peter’s. It occupies a
commanding position, and exercises it may be inferred, an important
influence over the contiguous Indian tribes, and the Indian trade.
We reached this post on the 24th of July. Capt. Jouett, the
commanding officer, promptly afforded every facility for
communicating the object of the visit to the Sioux, and requesting
their concurrence, which was promised by the chiefs, in a council
convened at the Agency House. We refer to the subjoined report for
its results. No recent details of the progress of the Sauc war, had
been received. Having accomplished the object we proceeded down
the Mississippi, and reached the mouth of the St. Croix, at three
o’clock in the afternoon of the 26th, five days before the decisive
action of Gen. Atkinson with the combined Saucs and Foxes below.
The River St. Croix has one peculiarity, to distinguish it from all
other American rivers. It has its source and its termination in a lake,
and each of these bears the same name with itself. The lake at its
mouth is not less than thirty miles in length, and is, probably, no
where, much over a mile wide. Its banks are high and afford a series
of picturesque views, which keep the eye constantly on the stretch.
The country is an upland prairie, interspersed with groves and
majestic eminences. The waters are beautifully transparent, and the
margin exhibits a pebbly beach, so cleanly washed, that it would
scarcely afford earth enough to stain the fairest shoe. If “Loch
Katrine” presents a more attractive outline of sylvan coast, it must
be beautiful indeed. We went up it, turning point after point, with
the pleasure that novelty imparts, aided by the chanting of our
canoe-men. We were in hourly expectation of reaching its head for
our night encampment; but we saw the sun set, casting its golden
hues and its deep shadows over the water, and going down in a
gorgeous amphitheatre of fleecy clouds. The moon almost
imperceptibly shone out, to supply its place, creating a scene of
moonlight stillness, which was suited to fix a living impression of

“The silence that is in the starry sky,

The sleep that is among the lonely hills.”
Nothing could present a greater contrast, to the noisy scene of
horses and horsemen, war and bloodshed, which, we were then
unconscious, was about being acted, so near to us. We allude to the
pursuit and destruction of the Black Hawk’s army.
 We encamped at a late hour, near a lofty eminence, which
exhibited on its summit, a number of small mounds or barrows
strongly relieved by the moonlight, which shone across the
eminence, and left us in the shade. We resumed our way again,
before the hour of five in the morning, (27th) and were still
something more than two hours in reaching the head of the lake. In
going out of this beautiful sheet of water, we would revert to some
traits in its natural productions which serve to distinguish it, as well
as its prominent scenery, although there are none equally distinctive.
The great carboniferous limestone formation,[21] which fills the
Mississippi valley, also reaches here, although there is now reason to
believe that it reaches but little farther north. Its vegetation has little
that is peculiar. The red cedar is found, hanging from some of its
craggy shores on the lower part. Some fresh water shells, generally
thin and small, with primary and lateral teeth wanting, characterize
the sandy portions of its shore. There are some willow islands at the
point where the River St. Croix enters it. And this point of the
ingress of a large stream, presents the characteristics of what have
been, not inaptly, called drowned lands, i. e. land bearing trees
permanently standing in the water.
The St. Croix above this point exhibits the appearance of a wide,
deep, ample river, with prominent banks, and forests of hard wood,
and pine species. Its islands consist of rich alluvions, heavily
timbered and subject to inundations. About two o’clock we passed
the “Standing Cedars,” a point called so, in the treaty of limits
between the Sioux and Chippewa tribes, and described in the inexact
phraseology of the Indians, to be “about a day’s paddle, in a canoe,
above the lake.” Howbeit, we were but a few minutes over nine
hours, in performing the distance, with a strong crew of engagés,
however, in light canoes, and with every appliance in pushing
forward.
As evening approached, we encountered a man descending the
river, having four canoes in company, with several Frenchmen and
their Indian families. It turned out to be a Mr. B. who had been
engaged in trade, in the Chippewa country. We examined his papers
to determine whether he had been legally licensed, and caused a
search of his canoes in quest of whiskey. None of this article, or
strong drink of any kind was discovered. Little doubt had been felt,
from information, which was not, however proved, of his having
used this article in the course of his trade; whether with or without
permission, could not be determined. We revoked his license for the
unexpired part of the time specified in it, and permitted him to
proceed out of the country, with the canoes and the very trifling
property which he possessed, which seemed, indeed, to be essential
to the mere subsistence of the numerous persons with him.
The narrowing of the valley, and increased rapidity of the current,
had, for some time, admonished us of our approach to the falls.
About six o’clock we entered through a defile, formed by
perpendicular walls of rock on either shore. Its seamed and mossy
surface did not permit us to determine its character, without getting
a fresh fracture. It proved to be greenstone. We were in the midst of
a formation of this rock, and for two hours, urged our way up rapids
and swift channels, made by the broken and angular character of
this stratum. We reached the foot of the falls, and encamped there
at eight o’clock in the evening.
The word “falls,” as applied here, is but another name for
impracticable rapids. The river tears its way through a vast bed of
greenstone, whose black and square masses, stand on either side,
and in the bed of the stream. Common quartz, imperfectly
chrystalized, is seen in the mass, and is the sole mineral apparent,
although a more attentive search may disclose others. A portage of
four hundred yards is made to avoid the falls. But there is still a
series of rapids, extending, with short interruptions, several miles
above.
The physical character of this spot is such as to arrest a passing
attention; but it is inferior to the moral interest arising out of it. It is
the battle ground of Wahb Ojeeg, a celebrated Chippewa war chief
of the last century, and testifies to an event in Indian tradition,
which is not so remote as to be added to the events of the oblivious
years of their residence upon this continent. We have neither time
nor space to enter into details of this kind, and can merely advert to
the incident we have named. Like most of the incidents of Indian
warfare in the region, it is connected with the restless spirit, erratic
adventure, and ambitious daring of the tribes who are, this season,
(1832,) arrayed in hostility to the settlements on the Wisconsin. It is
one of the links of the curious chain of history, of the Sauc and Fox
tribes, who have fought their way from the St. Lawrence, thus far
across the continent, and been successively embroiled, with each of
the white powers, and, perhaps with some exceptions, with each of
the Indian tribes of the north. They appear, by their language and
traditions, to be Algonquins, and may be traced, as a starting point,
to the north shores of Lake Ontario. They appear to have been
driven thence for perfidy. They attacked the fort of Detroit,
unsuccessfully. They lived long at, and gave name to Sagana. They
went to the Fox River of Green Bay which is named after them, and
here embroiled themselves with the Monomonees, the Chippewas
and the French. They were finally driven thence by force of arms.
They fled to the Wisconsin where Carver speaks of their villages in
1766, thence to their recent residence on Rock River, and by the last
tragic act in their history, are confined to a limit commencing west of
the Mississippi. We speak of the Saucs and Foxes as connected, in
the gauntlet-like warfare they have maintained, for they appear to
have been intimate allies from the earliest times. The Indian name
of the one tribe signifies, Those who went out of the land,
(Osaukee,) and the other, Redearths, (Miskwakee,) known by the
nom de guerre, of Foxes.
While resident at Green Bay, they occupied also Lac du Flambeau,
and extended themselves to Lake Superior, and south-west of its
shores, to the Sauc and Little Sauc Rivers, above the Falls of St.
Anthony. While thus located, they appear to have fallen out with the
Chippewas, their cousins-german, and leagued with the Sioux,
whom they have, of late, so strenuously fought. With the aid of the
latter, at first covertly given, they maintained the possession of the
rice lakes and midland hunting grounds. But they were finally
overthrown in a general defeat, at these falls, by the combined
Chippewa bands of Lake Superior. The latter came down the St.
Croix, by its Namakagon branch. They were led by Wahb Ojeeg.
Their spies reached the falls without having encountered an enemy,
but they unexpectedly found the Foxes, (whom they call
Ootaigahmees,) with their allies, encamped at the other end of the
portage. A partial action ensued. It was rendered general by the
arrival of the whole Chippewa force. It was a fierce and bloody
action. The Foxes made a resolute stand. But they were
overpowered and fled. And they have not since re-appeared in the
region. Among the slain several Sioux were found, and this is said to
be the first actual testimony of the Sioux being leagued with them,
in the war against the Chippewas. But this assertion is hardly
reconcileable with the date of the war in other places.
Wahb Ojeeg, or the White Fisher, who is noticed as the leader on
this occasion, is said to have led out seven other expeditions against
the Foxes and Sioux. He died at Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, in
1793.
 CHAPTER II.
Ascent of the St. Croix above the falls.—Direct the burning of illegal trading houses.—
Snake River.—Its chief, Pezhicki.—Notices of Snake River.—Its population and trade.—
A foreign trading company formerly located here.—Effects upon the Indian intercourse
of the present day.—Anecdote of the former mode of using rum and tobacco.—Kettle
Rapids.—Shell River.—A hunting party of Chippewa boys.—Pokanokuning, or Yellow
River.—Its population and trade.—Notices of its natural history.—Shells.—Prairie
squirrel.—Widow of a murdered Indian, called the Little Frenchman, declines having
her son put to school.—Reach the forks of the St. Croix.—Notice of the Namakagon
Branch.—The chief, Kabamappa.—Women’s Portage.—The Sturgeon Dam.—
Kabamappa’s village.—Upper St. Croix Lake.

We pursued our way as early on the morning (28th) as the

clearing up of the fog would permit. Soon after reaching the head of
the series of rapids, we observed a couple of buildings of logs, upon
the left shore, and landed to examine them. They proved to be
deserted cabins which had been occupied by traders, with their
doors open, and containing nothing of value. As these had been
erected contrary to decisions of the Indian office, made under the
law of Congress regulating trading posts, and at a point where the
Sioux and Chippewas are thus improperly brought into contact, we
directed them to be burned. The remainder of the day was diligently
employed in the ascent. The following day being the Sabbath, was
devoted to rest. The water in the river appeared to be very low, and
was momently falling. We removed our place of encampment in the
evening, about ten miles. A Chippewa whom we met with his family,
in a canoe, informed us that Snake River was baishoo, a term
denoting near at hand.
The next morning, (30th,) after about three hours paddling, we
reached the mouth of the Kinábic, or Snake River. We found
Pezhicki, (or the Buffalo,) the principal chief of that place, and his
band, encamped on the small peninsula which is formed by the
junction. They fired a salute, and crowded down to the shore, to
welcome us. This chief was one of a delegation who visited
Washington, some years ago. He came back with a profusion of
ornaments, and a sword and tassels. These were of no real utility,
and have long since disappeared. The visit had the effect to shew
him the strength and resources of the Americans. With little force of
character, he has been pacific, so far at least, as relates to white
men. He was present at the treaties of Prairie du Chien, and Fond du
Lac. He is not the war chief of the Snake River band. We know not,
that he encountered in his journey, any teacher or preacher to
inform him that there was a savior.
Official business occupied a part of the morning. We found not the
slightest evidence of any participation, or disposition to participate,
in the hostile schemes of the Saucs and Foxes. Pezhicki approved of
the requests made by the Chippewas of the Upper Mississippi, for
having their lines surveyed, and united strongly in the measure. He
said that the Sioux had manifested a disposition to claim the country
above the Standing Cedars, and that they had, and still continued to
trespass on it. He said, that they had this season, crossed through
the Chippewa hunting grounds on the St. Croix to go against the
band at Rice Lake on the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa River. He
cheerfully promised to assist the military canoes, in their ascent and
immediately sent three young men for that purpose.
Snake River is an important tributary of the St. Croix. It
constitutes an established post of trade, for which licences are
granted by the Indian department. Its Indian population is reported
at three hundred and one souls. Persons of the mixed cast, thirty-
eight. This river is connected, by an easy portage, with Rum River, a
route much used by Indians going to the Mille Lac and Sandy Lake
borders. Masses of native copper have been brought out of its bed
by the Indians, who report the existence of further indications of its
presence. The North West Company formerly held a post on this
river, and it remained for several years, a central place of trade for
the Indians of the lower St. Croix. The influence of this company
over the Indians was every where visible, and so far as this influence
was connected with political feelings, it was, as a matter of course,
exerted in favor of the British government. As not more than twenty
years have elapsed, since the authority of the American government
began at all to be exercised in this quarter, and a much shorter
period must be assigned for any active influence from its posts and
agencies, it should not excite surprise that the elder Indians should,
as they do, feel an attachment for that government. Nor is it
strange, that ambitious and designing men among them, should
occasionally form combinations for open resistance, of the character
of that which has recently been witnessed among the Saucs and
Foxes. Time, and judicious counsels, will afford the surest corrective.
In looking back to the condition of the trade, as it existed here,
fifty years ago, some striking changes have supervened. A Mr.
Harris, who is still living at the age of about eighty-four, informed
me, that about the close of the American war, when he first came to
this river, rum was an article in high request among the Indians.
When they had purchased a keg of it, it was customary to pour it
out into a large kettle and place it over a fire. A hand of tobacco was
then put in. After being heated and stirred about for a time, the
mixture was drank.
The distance from Snake River to Yellow River is about thirty-five
miles. We employed the 30th, from about eleven in the morning till
eight at night, and the 31st until eight o’clock in the morning, in
performing this distance. The water was very low, and it frequently
required the men to get out and wade. The Kettle Rapids, nine miles
in extent, are, however, the most formidable obstacle. The St. Croix
receives, in this distance, the Akeek or Kettle River, from the left,
and the Aissippi, or Shell River, from the right. The latter takes its
rise in a lake, which is noted for the number and large size of its
fresh water shells. Hence its name. We met a number of Indians, on
this day’s journey who evinced a friendly feeling. We encamped at
eight o’clock, with a party of Indian boys, who had come down the
river hunting. They were rejoiced on seeing us approach, and spent
much of their ammunition in saluting us, which a colder feeling of
foresight, might have induced them to reserve for the chase. And
they offered us some of the scanty products of their evening’s
labour, thus evincing the truth of the remark,
 “Yet is he free; a morsel though his fare,
That morsel will he, unrepining, share;
A kind companion, and a liberal friend,
Not prone to hoard, nor cautious to expend,
Thence, often poor; but not that craven kind,
The low-born meanness of a stingy mind.”
One of the canoe-men lacerated his foot on the angular masses of
greenstone, which form a shore of angular pebbles, near Snake
River. And this rock appeared again distinctly, in place, on the Kettle
rapids. Masses of it, were frequently seen in the bed of the river and
incumbering its shores, below that point. They were observed to
decrease in size and frequency above these rapids, from which it
may be inferred, that the rapids themselves are situated near the
limits of the formation.
At Yellow River, we found a considerable assembly of Indians,
who, as they saw our approach for some distance, ranged
themselves along the shore, and fired a formal salute. I had visited
this place, the same month and nearly the same day, in 1831, and
then entered the mouth of the river to form my encampment. But on
attempting again to reach the same spot, the water was found so
low, that it was impracticable, and I came to the landing in front of a
naked eminence, which, the Indians call Pokonokuning, or Place of
the Hip Bone,[22] a term by which the river itself is (by them)
designated.
This river is a post of trade, containing a population estimated at
three hundred and eighty-two souls. The lands are fertile, and afford
in connection with Ottawa Lake, and the adjacent country, a good
location for a mission and school. The river originates near the head
of Long River of the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa, to which there
is a canoe portage. It expands at unequal distances, beginning at its
source, into Lac Vaseux, Rice Lake, and Yellow Lake. Wild rice is one
of its productions, and is among the means of subsistence on which
the natives rely. Its natural history is further deserving of remark, as
yielding abundantly, univalve shells of a fine size. The purple winged
unio is found in abundance; and the natives make use of this
species, for spoons, by rubbing off the alatæ and rounding the
margin—a process by which they are rendered of no value as
specimens of the species. The copper-head snake is said to exist in
the waters of this river. Its banks afford much of the open grounds
which are favorable to the thirteen striped, or prairie squirrel, (S.
tredecem, of Mitchill.) The Indians exhibited to me the skin of this
little animal, which is peculiarly marked with alternations of stripes
and spots.
We observed among the group of Indians at this place, the widow
and children of Waimit-Egozhains, a Chippewa, having an admixture
of white blood, who, with three others, was murdered by the Sioux
while descending the lower part of the St. Croix, in a canoe, in the
fall of 1830. We directed the interpreter to say to her, that as
providence had removed her natural protector, and her means of
subsistence must be small, the elder of her boys, who was present,
would be taken and sent to school, and also taught the arts of an
industrious life, if she would direct him to embark in one of our
canoes. She appeared to be pleased but at the same time
embarrassed. She consulted with a brother who was one of the
Indians present, and then replied that the boy was not altogether
useless in aiding her to get a support, as he could fish and kill
partridges. She did not feel willing thus suddenly to part with him,
but observed that she would send him out in the spring.
We were five hours and a half in going from Yellow River to the
Forks of the St. Croix. The distance is probably not over thirteen
miles. These data will show how slowly we proceeded, with every
exertion, against the obstacles of a very low state of water. And at
this spot we knew that we were to lose, at least, one half of the
entire volume. The loss is indeed greater, for the Namakágon, or
right hand fork, which we were here to leave, is decidedly the
largest of the two.
The Namakágon Branch has its rise in a lake, which the Indians
call Mattedhair Lake, very near the source of the Mushkee or
Mauvais River of Lake Superior. Neither of these streams can,
however, be ascended to their sources. There is a portage across the
intervening grounds, interspersed with small lakes which is
practicable for canoes and packages of goods, carried after the
northwest manner. The Namakágon has another portage, at a lower
point to Ottawa Lake, the source of one of the navigable branches of
the Chippewa River. This river, after running about one hundred and
seventy miles, joins the northwest branch at the Forks of the St.
Croix, and from this point, the joint volume, increased by a number
of tributaries is carried on, to swell the mass of the Mississippi.
We found the chief Kabamappa, with others, encamped at the
Forks. They evinced the same feeling of welcome, and pleasure we
had met from the Chippewas on the lower part of the stream.
Kabamappa said that nothing had been very recently heard from the
direction of Lac du Flambeau and the borders of the Sauc
disturbances. He readily communicated many facts respecting the
existing difficulties, and the means taken to enlist the Indians in a
general war. He said, that the confederacy, as it is, had been
reported to consist of nine tribes, whom he named.[23] With respect
to a permanent peace with the Sioux, he cordially approved it. He
had, he observed, given much of his thoughts and his time to that
object, and particularly so since our previous visit. It was, primarily,
through the influence of this chief that a general peace-council had
been held by the Sioux and Chippewas, during the fall of 1831, on
Snake River.
As to the state of the water his expression was, “iscutta! iscutta!”
indicating an exhausted state. He added, that though we had
encountered difficulties on the stream below, they would be
multiplied on the branch we were about to ascend. Even within sight
of his lodge, he pointed to shallows, where it would be impossible to
ascend without wading in the stream and carrying all the baggage.
The river, he said, was uncommonly low for the season, and was
daily getting lower. Under these circumstances, we had no time to
lose. We employed the remainder of the day in going about seven
miles, and encamped after dark at a place called the Women’s
Portage. Just before encamping, and when we were seeking a spot
along the thick brushy shore, to debark at, Kabamappa suddenly
appeared standing on the bow of his canoe, and pointing onwards,
guided us to the spot of our encampment. Daylight had completely
disappeared and it was barely possible, in a dark atmosphere, to
discern contiguous objects. As the tall and gaunt form of the chief
glided by, with his spear-pole elevated in the direction we were to
go, it might have needed but little power of the imagination, to
transform him into a spirit of supernatural power. Owing to the
darkness we found it difficult to procure fire-wood for the night. It
was sought with torches. The chief joined us at our evening meal.
We were pleased with his urbanity.
A fog detained us at our encampment until after daylight, (1st
Aug.) We were enabled to proceed at five o’clock. Our first labor was
the ascent of a rapid, our second, our third, and our fourth labors,
were also rapids. In short, rapid succeeded to rapid, and with such
short intervals, that it would be impracticable from any notes
preserved of the route, to speak of this part of the stream, in any
other light than as a continued series of rapids. We often thought
ourselves above them but we as often found, in the language of our
canoe-men, “encore un.” About two o’clock in the afternoon we
came to still waters with sedgy shores, and at seven in the evening
reached and landed at Kabamappa’s village. The distance may be
twenty-five miles above the Women’s Portage. We encamped here.
The village is situated on a part of the river called Namai
Kowagon, or Sturgeon Dam. It occupies an eligible prairie bank, and
exhibits in the style of the lodges and gardens, considerable industry
and regard to comfort. It would seem to be no difficult effort to
induce Indians, who had proceeded thus far in fixed industry, to
labor on their lands more extensively and effectually. The lodges
represent, on the ground plan, oblongs enclosed with strong elm
bark, sustained on a frame work of saplings, tied on posts firmly set
in the ground. They have a moveable piece or door, at each end,
and an opening in the centre of the lodge, in the place of a chimney.
Corn and potatoe fields, covered the surrounding grounds. The corn
was in tassel, but the wilting of its blades, indicated, that they had
been touched by a slight frost. Its effects were particularly apparent
in some vines near one of the lodges. Although the lodges had been
carefully closed, the chief said during his absence, a wolf had broken
into his lodge and committed depredations. He observed, in
speaking of game, that the red deer was found on the adjoining
plains. In order to hunt the moose an animal formerly abundant in
the region, he observed that it was necessary to go to one of the
remote forks of the Burntwood or Brulé River. He represented the
population of his village at eighty-eight souls, of whom twenty-eight
were men, This estimate was understood to include the minor chief
Blackbird and his followers, who are sometimes referred to as a
distinct band. We asked the chief, while sitting at the camp-fire in
the evening, whether he did not feel tired, having observed that
during the day, he had alone, with the aid only of his wife, poled up
his canoe and managed to keep ahead, so as to guide, our canoe
with seven men. He was evidently fatigued, but replied, smiling, no.
We parted with this chief, who has become respectable for his
influence in this part of the country, at four o’clock on the next
morning, (2d.) We had now got above all the strong rapids, and
attained very nearly the height of land. The river, above this point,
receives the Clearwater and Buffalo Rivers, as tributaries on the right
bank. It is finally traced to Lake St. Croix, a handsome sheet of clear
water, about six miles long. This lake has an island[24] which is the
site of a small village. Its head is perhaps ten or eleven leagues
distant from the Namai Kowagon.
 CHAPTER III.
Character of the St. Croix.—Its productiveness in wild rice.—Population and trade.—
Condition of the Indians, and their prospect.—Portage to the Burntwood.—Marine
sand formation.—Bass lake.—Character of the Burntwood river.—Arrival at its
discharge into Fond du Lac of Lake Superior.—Indian friends.—Close of the Narrative.
—Brief general remarks on the condition of the Chippewas.—Traits of character and
government.—The institution of the Totem.—Tale of the origin of White Fish.

On entering lake St. Croix we were favored with a fair wind, and
made use of our sails in passing it. As we approached its head, we
found the swell formidable, but were able, nevertheless, to keep the
lake. We debarked, on a marshy margin at its head, being the
commencement of the portage to the Brulé. As the river St. Croix
has its origin here, a few general remarks on its geographical
features, may be subjoined.—This stream is an important tributary to
the Upper Mississippi, originating on elevated grounds, and
consequently, having a rapid mean descent. Although not
remarkable for its length, its waters spread in a lateral line, an
unusual distance. It has many tributaries, connecting it, on the
north, with Rum river, on the south, with Chippewa river, and
towards the east with the Mauvais and the Brulé rivers of Lake
Superior. The main channel may be estimated, by its windings, at
two hundred miles. The length of its Namakagon fork, is estimated
to be one hundred and seventy miles, while that of its northern
branch does not probably exceed sixty-five miles. Both branches,
together with its lower tributaries, and their numerous lakes, yield
the northern rice plant. The abundance of the plant, has led to the
local term of the Folle Avoine country, a name by which it is
particularly known in the transactions of the Fur Trade.
It has a comparatively mild climate, and rich soil, and in addition
to the small fur bearing animals, on the sale of which the Indians
rely for their woollens, arms, and ammunition; it affords the
spontaneous means of subsistence, more fully, perhaps, than most
other parts of the northwest regions. Its present aggregate
population has been estimated the present year, at eight hundred
and ninety-five, say nine hundred souls, numbering those only who
are permanently located in its valley.—What quantity of furs and
peltries is annually got from it, and what amount of Indian goods are
required to pay for them, are questions which might be ascertained,
with general accuracy, by consulting official records. But it is
sufficient for the purposes of moral enquiry, to remark, that both the
supplies and the returns, are less than they were in former years,
and that there is a declension in the trade, which must at length
produce a migration of the Indians, or induce them to become
agriculturists. The fate that has overtaken other tribes, enjoying a
more southerly position, must inevitably overtake these bands. And
the period will probably arrive earlier, than it might be anticipated.
They occupy a portion of the Mississippi valley, which is adapted for
agriculture. Many parts of it, possess a rich soil, and are well
timbered. Other portions are prairie land, suited for pasturage. Its
most arid tracts abound in pine, and there is hardly a stream, of its
many tributaries which does not afford numerous eligible seats for
saw and grist mills. Hunting seems the only occupation, which
cannot be a permanent one. But,

“While thus the chase declines, and herds depart,

And heaven in prospect, dooms his favorite art,
No care of lands or flocks prepares his mind,
To mend his fortunes, and to save his kind.”
The portage from the St. Croix to the Burntwood, begins at the
head of (the Upper) lake St. Croix. It lies over an elevated sandy
pine ridge, which divides the two streams. The distance which the
canoes and packages require to be carried, is 3,350 yards, or nearly
two miles. On the left hand, in carrying from the St. Croix, there is a
deep tamerac valley, which is said to afford the head springs of both
streams. On the right, is seen, at some distance, a small lake, which
is stated to yield the black bass, and to have no outlet. Its existence
in a sand formation, indicates perhaps, coral rag, hardpan, or some
firmer material below. This sand is apparently of marine deposition,
and agrees, in this respect, with the extensive formations at the
sources of the Mississippi.
The goods after being carried this distance, are put down, on the
banks of a sandy bottomed brook of very clear cold water, overhung
with alders. Any other person, but one who had become familiar
with northwest portages, would be apt to say, on being ushered to
this secluded spot, “well, this is certainly an eligible spot to quench
one’s thirst at, but as for embarking on this rill, with a canoe and
baggage, the thing seems to be preposterous.” And so it certainly
appeared, on our arrival.—There was not an average depth of water
of more than two to four inches. But by going some distance below,
and damming the stream, it rose in a short time, high enough to
float a canoe, with a part of its lading. The men walking in the
stream, then led the canoes, cutting away the brush to veer them,
and carrying such parts of the lading as could not, from time to
time, be embarked. We did not begin the descent, till six o’clock, in
the evening, and went about a mile during the first hour and a half.
It then became so dark, that it was necessary to encamp. And to
encamp in such a place, seemed impossible. We could not, however,
hesitate. There was no alternative, we could neither advance nor
recede, and we were surrounded with a shaking bog. We slept on a
kind of bog, which the men, call têtes des femmes. Some rain fell
during the night, but we were happily relieved from the fear of
inundation, by the showers passing off. The next morning brought
with it, a resumption of the toil of the evening. Tho canoes were
sent on entirely empty. All the baggage was carried about a mile, at
which distance the stream is perhaps doubled in width, and more
than doubled in depth. The next mile rendering the going quite easy.
At this point, say three miles from the portage, we embarked all our
baggage, and after this, found no want of water, till we came to the
rapids. These, commence about twenty-four miles below the
portage, and they extend with intervals of smooth water, “few and
far between,” to within three or four miles of the point of the
entrance of the river, into Lake Superior. The entire length of this
river may be estimated at one hundred miles, more than eighty
miles of this distance consists of rapids. It has been said that there
are two hundred and forty distinct rapids. At most of these, there is
several feet fall. At some of them eight to ten feet. Four of them
require portages of short extent. Six or seven hundred feet would
not appear to be an extravagant estimate for the entire fall. The
river itself is a perfect torrent; often on looking down its channel,
there are wreaths of foam constituting a brilliant vista, overhung
with foliage. It would never be used at all, for the purposes of the
trade, were it not, that there is much water on the rapids, so that
experienced men can conduct loaded canoes both up and down
them. The river might appropriately be called Rapid, or Mad River, or
almost any thing else, but by its popular name of Brulé. This is, in
fact, rather a departure, than a derivative from the Indian,
Wisákoda, i. e. burnt-pines, or burnt-wood, in allusion to a signal
destruction of its pine forests, by fire. We were two days, and part of
an evening, in effecting the descent, and regained our outward
track, at the point of its discharge into the Fond du Lac of lake
Superior. We reached this point on the fourth of August, late at
night, having gone later than usual, from the fact of finding
ourselves below the rapids, and consequently knowing that we must
be near the lake. Our first certain indication of our proximity to it,
was, however, given by hearing the monotonous thump of an Indian
drum. We soon after came in sight of camp fires, with Indian forms
passing before them.—And we found ourselves, on landing, in the
midst of former Indian acquaintances. Among them were Mongazid
(Loon’s Foot,) the second Chief of Fond du Lac, and Chamees,
(Pouncing Hawk,) a young man who had first recommended himself
to notice in 1820, by guiding a part of Governor Cass’ expedition
above the Knife Portage, and who evinced the same disposition,
during the forepart of the present summer, by acting as a guide to
the party, between Fond du Lac and Sandy Lake. We were pleased
on observing the military boat, used by Lieutenant Allen on the lake,
safely moored, with its sails and tackle, within the mouth of the river,
having been brought down, agreeably to promise, by Mongazid, who
had faithfully remained in charge of it.
 The day following, being the Sabbath, was spent at this place. And
the narrative of our route from the Mississippi, may here be
appropriately closed. Some remarks arising from observations on the
condition of the Indians, among whom we have passed, it may be
proper to add; but from the little leisure we can command, they are
necessarily few and brief.
The Chippewas are spread over a very large area in the north,
divided into local bands, and separated by extensive tracts which
are, in great part, sterile. They are not fixed in their habitations at
any point, during the whole of the year, being compelled to go in
search of the game, fish, and other spontaneous productions, on
which they depend. The space which each band periodically
traverses, in this effort, is extensive, and subjects them to casualties,
which they would otherwise escape. Their condition is still further
imbittered by hostilities with the Sioux tribes, who occupy the whole
line of their western frontier. They cover the entire north-western
angle of the United States, extending down the Mississippi valley on
both banks, as low as the Wadub, being the first stream above Sac
river. At this point their territorial line crosses from the west to the
east banks of the Mississippi, pursuing a southerly course, at the
distance of about forty miles from it, until it intersects the lands of
the Winnebagoes, north of the Wisconsin. This portion of the
territory affords decidedly the largest and best body of farming lands
in their possession, and will, probably, hereafter yield them, either
by the proceeds of its sale, or cultivation, a more sure reliance at a
period when the land becomes divested of game. The climate of this
area is comparatively mild, and the Indians who inhabit it,
notwithstanding their partial losses from wars, have evidently
increased in population. They might be concentrated here, could the
agricultural be substituted for the hunter life—a result which may be
expected to follow, but cannot in any reasonable estimate be
expected to precede, their conversion to christianity.
This tribe offer no prominent obstacles to the introduction of the
gospel. We have before adverted to the slender frame work of their
native religion, which seems to be made up, primarily of certain
superstitious ceremonies, winding themselves about the subject of
medicine. It appears to occupy that void in the barbaric mind, which
the soothsayers and magii of other lands, pressed forward, in the
absence of revelation, to fill. But we do not know that the ritual has
any striking features in common. The principal obstacle which
missionaries will have to contend with, is a want of the knowledge of
their language. And to surmount this is a labor which they cannot
too early begin nor too zealously persevere in. The language itself,
as we have before indicated, (vide Chap. X.) presents a copious
vocabulary, and is capable of being made the medium of religious
instruction. It has some defects which will require to be supplied,
and some redundancies which will demand curtailment, when it
comes to be written. But they offer very slight obstacles to oral
communication. It is obviously better suited to convey narrative than
disquisitive matter. And has been so long applied to corporeal
objects, that it requires caution and a familiar knowledge of its
idioms, in the conveyance of intellectual and still more of spiritual
conceptions.
In mere externals, the Chippewas are not essentially different
from other tribes of the Algonquin stock in the western country. And
the points in which a difference holds, may be supposed to have
been, for the most part, the effects of a more ungenial climate. They
are, to a less extent than most of the tribes, cultivators of the soil,
and more exclusively hunters and warriors. Living in a portion of the
continent, remarkable for the number of its large and small lakes,
they find a common resource in fish, and along with this, enjoy the
advantage of reaping the wild rice.
Their government has been deemed a paradox, at the same time
exercising, and too feeble to exercise power. But it is not more
paradoxical than all patriarchal governments, which have their tie in
filial affection, and owe their weakness to versatility of opinion. War
and other public calamities bring them together, while prosperity
drives them apart. They rally on public danger, with wonderful
facility, and they disperse with equal quickness. All their efforts are
of the partizan, popular kind. And if these do not succeed they are
dispirited. There is nothing in their institutions and resources suited
for long continued, steady exertion.
The most striking trait in their moral history is the institution of the
Totem—a sign manual, by which the affiliation of families is traced,
agreeing, more exactly, perhaps, than has been supposed, with the
armorial bearings of the feudal ages. And this institution is kept up,
with a feeling of importance, which it is difficult to account for. An
Indian, as is well known, will tell his specific name with great
reluctance, but his generic or family name—in other words, his
Totem, he will declare without hesitation, and with an evident feeling
of pride.
None of our tribes have proceeded further than the first rude
steps in hieroglyphic writing. And it is a practice in which the
Chippewas are peculiarly expert. No part of their country can be
visited without bringing this trait into prominent notice. Every path
has its blazed and figured trees, conveying intelligence to all who
pass, for all can read and understand these signs. They are taught
to the young as carefully as our alphabet, with the distinction,
however, that hieroglyphic writing, is the prerogative of the males.
These devices are often traced on sheets of birch bark attached to
poles. They are traced on war-clubs, on canoe paddles, bows or gun
stocks. They are often drawn on skins, particularly those used as
back dresses, by warriors. They have also other hieroglyphic modes
of communicating information, by poles with knots of grass attached
to them, or rings of paint. and often by antlers, or animals’ heads
suspended by the banks of rivers.
The following tale is added as an example of the kind of
imaginative lore indicated by it.
ORIGIN OF THE WHITE-FISH.

In ancient times when the Indians were better than they now
are, when their laws were enforced by the chiefs, and when
every crime was promptly punished, there lived a noted hunter
and a just man, at a remote point on the north shore of Lake
Superior. He had a wife and two sons, who were usually left in
the lodge, while he went out in quest of the animals upon
whose flesh they subsisted. As game was then abundant, his
exertions were well rewarded, and he lived in the enjoyment of
every blessing. But there was at this time a venom preparing for
his heart, which was not the less poisonous, because it was for
a time kept in secret. His two little sons had observed the visits
of a neighboring hunter, during the absence of their father, and
they ventured to remonstrate with their mother on the propriety
of receiving clandestine visits, but she was in no temper to be
reasoned with. She rebuked them sharply, and finally, on their
intimation of disclosing the secret, threatened to kill them if
they made any disclosure They were frightened into silence. But
observing the continuance of an improper intercourse, kept up
by stealth as it were, they resolved at last to disclose the whole
matter to their father. The result was such as might be
anticipated. The father being satisfied with the infidelity of his
wife, took up a war club at a moment when he was not
perceived, and with a single blow despatched the object of his
jealousy. He then buried her under the ashes of his fire, took
down his lodge, and removed to a distant position.
But the spirit of the woman haunted the children who were
now grown up to the estate of young men. She appeared to
them in the shadows of evening. She terrified them in dreams.
She harassed their imaginations wherever they went, so that
their life was a life of perpetual terrors. They resolved to leave
the country, and commenced a journey of many days towards
the south. They at length came to the Poiwateeg falls. (St.
Mary’s.) But they had no sooner come in sight of these falls,
than they beheld the skull of the woman (their mother) rolling
along the beach after them. They were in the utmost fear, and
knew not what to do, to elude her, when one of them observed
a large crane sitting on a rock in the rapids. They called out to
the bird. “See, Grandfather, we are persecuted by a spirit. Come
and take us across the falls so that we may escape her.”
 This crane was a bird of extraordinary size and great age. And
when first descried by the two sons, sat in a state of stupor, in
the midst of the most violent eddies of the foaming water. When
he heard himself addressed, he stretched forth his neck, with
great deliberation, and then raising himself on his wings flew
across to their assistance. “Be careful” said the crane, “that you
do not touch the back part of my head. It is sore, and should
you press against it, I shall not be able to avoid throwing you
both into the rapids.” They were, however, attentive on this
point, and were both safely landed on the south side of the
river. The crane then resumed its former position in the rapids.
But the skull now cried out. “Come Grandfather and carry me
over, for I have lost my children, and am sorely distressed.” The
aged bird flew to her assistance, but carefully repeated his
injunction, that she must by no means touch the back part of
his head, which had been hurt, and was not yet healed. She
promised to obey, but she soon felt a curiosity to know, where
the head of her carrier had been hurt, and how so aged a bird
could have acquired such a bad wound. She thought it strange,
and before they were half way over the rapids, could not resist
the inclination she felt to touch the affected part. Instantly the
crane threw her into the rapids. The skull floated down from
rock to rock, striking violently against their hard edges, until it
was battered to fragments, and the sons were thus happily and
effectually relieved from their tormentor. But the brains of the
woman, when the skull was dashed against the rocks, fell into
the water, in the form of small white roes, which soon assumed
the shape of a novel kind of fish, possessing a whiteness of
color peculiar to itself; and these rapids have ever since been
well stocked with this new and delicious species of fish.
The sons meantime took up their permanent abode at these
Falls, becoming the progenitors of the present tribe, and in
gratitude to their deliverer adopted the Crane[25] as their
Totem.
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