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What are the issues in designing Load-balancing algorithms?

• Load balancing is a technique used in computer networks, cloud systems, and distributed computing to
distribute work across multiple servers or computers.
• This helps in preventing overloading of any single system and ensures that all resources are utilized
efficiently.
• For example, imagine a food delivery app like Zomato or Swiggy. If all orders are given to only one
restaurant or one delivery person, they will get overloaded, while others will have no work. Load
balancing ensures that orders are evenly distributed so that work happens smoothly.
• However, designing a good load balancing algorithm is not easy. There are several issues that
developers face while creating an effective load balancing system.

Issues :

1. Load Estimation Policy

• This policy defines how the system will measure the workload of a computer (or node).
• If the workload is not correctly estimated, some systems may be overloaded while others remain
underutilized.

Example:

• A web server hosting a popular website like Facebook needs to predict how many users will visit in the
next few minutes. If the server fails to estimate correctly, it may crash due to overload.

2. Process Transfer Policy

• This policy decides whether a task should be executed on the current system or transferred to
another system.
• If a wrong decision is made, it may increase delay and reduce efficiency.

Example:

• In cloud computing, if a virtual machine (VM) is moved unnecessarily to another server, it will
increase network delay and waste computing power.

3. State Information Exchange Policy

• Computers in a network need to share information about their workload.

• If this information is shared too often, it will increase network traffic and slow down the system.
• If information is not shared frequently enough, decisions will be made based on old data, which can
cause inefficiency.
Example:

• In Google Cloud Storage, if data about server load is updated every second, it will consume too much
network bandwidth.

4. Location Policy

• This policy decides which system should handle a transferred process.

• If the wrong system is selected, load balancing will not be effective.

Example:

• Suppose you are using Amazon Shopping, and your request is sent to a distant server instead of a
nearby one. This will increase website loading time.

5. Priority Assignment Policy

• This policy decides which tasks should be executed first.

• If priorities are not assigned properly, important tasks may get delayed.

Example:

• In a hospital management system, if an emergency patient’s request is given low priority, it could
lead to serious health risks.

6. Migration Limiting Policy

• This policy defines how many times a process can be moved from one system to another.
• If a task keeps migrating too often, it increases delay and reduces efficiency.

Example:

• In online multiplayer games like PUBG or Call of Duty, if the game server keeps shifting players
between different servers, it will cause game lag and poor performance.

Real-World Example: Load Balancing in YouTube Servers

Millions of people watch YouTube videos at the same time. To handle this, YouTube’s servers use load
balancing. If one server gets too many video requests, the system automatically redirects users to another
server. This prevents buffering and ensures smooth video streaming.
What is the difference between Load Balancing and Load sharing ?
Explain the concepts of process migration and write features of a good process migration
mechanism
Process migration means moving a running process from one computer (or processor) to another
without stopping it. This helps in better load balancing, fault tolerance, and resource utilization.
Imagine you’re editing a document on Google Docs on your office PC. Suddenly, you need to leave, so
you open the same document on your laptop at home—and guess what? It opens exactly where you left
off!
In a similar way, in computing, a running process can be moved from one machine (or CPU) to another
without restarting. This helps in reducing load, improving performance, and handling system failures.

Types of Process Migration:

1. Non-Preemptive Process Migration:
The process is migrated before it starts execution.
Example: When a job scheduler assigns a process to a less busy node before execution begins.
2. Preemptive Process Migration:
The process is migrated while it is already running.
Example: A cloud server moving a running application to another server when the original server
is overloaded.
Step-by-Step Explanation of the Process Migration Diagram :

Process P1 is running on the Source Node

• The process starts execution on the source node (initial computer/processor).

Execution is Suspended
• At a certain point, the process is paused (freezing time starts) so it can be transferred to another
node.

Transfer of Control
• The process moves from the source node to the destination node.
• This involves copying the process state, memory, and execution details.

Execution Resumed on the Destination Node

• After successful transfer, the process resumes execution from where it left off.

Process P1 is now running on the Destination Node

• The process continues execution on the new node as if nothing happened.

Desirable features of a good process migration mechanism

A) Transparency :
• The migration should be invisible to the user and application. The process should continue running
as if nothing happened.
• Example: When you use Google Drive, your files sync automatically across devices. You don’t
see the internal data transfer happening; it just works smoothly.

B) Minimal Interference :
• Minimal Interference ka matlab hai ki jab ek process migrate hoti hai, toh uska execution zyada
affect nahi hona chahiye. Yeh tab possible hai jab freezing time (jab process temporarily rukti hai
data transfer ke liye) kam se kam ho. Achha migration mechanism ensure karta hai ki process jaldi
resume ho aur smoothly chale bina kisi dikkat ke.
• Example: Soch tu laptop pe ek bada file download kar raha hai aur beech me Wi-Fi change kar
deta hai. Agar tera download bina restart hue continue ho jaye, toh iska matlab system ne transition
 minimal interference ke sath handle kiya, bilkul waise hi jaise ek efficient process migration hona
chahiye.

C) Minimal Residual Dependencies

• Minimal Residual Dependencies ka matlab hai ki jab ek process migrate hoti hai, toh pichle node
pe koi bhi dependency nahi rehni chahiye. Agar process puri tarah se naye node pe shift nahi hoti
aur kuch resources purane node pe dependent rehte hain, toh uska load old system pe bana rahta
hai. Agar purana system fail ya reboot ho jaye, toh migrated process bhi crash ho sakti hai.
• Example: Soch tu Google Docs pe ek file edit kar raha hai, aur beech me internet band ho jata hai,
par fir bhi tera kaam save ho jata hai. Iska matlab tera work completely cloud me shift ho gaya,
bina kisi residual dependency ke. Agar aisa na hota, toh internet disconnect hone pe tera kaam
delete ya crash ho sakta tha.

D) Efficiency in Process Migration

• Efficiency ka matlab hai ki process migration fast aur cost-effective honi chahiye. Matlab, process
migrate hone me kam se kam time lage, naye node pe quickly locate ho, aur remote execution
smoothly chale bina extra cost ke. Agar migration slow ho ya zyada resources use kare, toh system
ka performance down ho sakta hai.
• Example: Soch tu PUBG game khel raha hai, aur tera ping high ho jata hai, toh game automatic
best server pe shift ho jata hai bina kisi noticeable lag ke. Agar yeh transition jaldi aur efficiently
ho, toh game smoothly chalega. Par agar time zyada lage, toh tera game lag karega ya disconnect
ho sakta hai.

E) Robustness in Process Migration

• Robustness ka matlab hai ki koi bhi doosra node fail ho jaye, toh bhi migrated process smoothly
chalti rahe. Matlab, jo process naye node pe run ho rahi hai, usko kisi aur system ke failure ka
impact nahi padna chahiye. Agar system aisa nahi karta, toh failure hone par process crash ya
inaccessible ho sakti hai.
• Example: Soch tu Netflix dekh raha hai, aur tera ek server fail ho jata hai, par phir bhi video buffer
nahi hota aur smoothly chalta hai. Yeh isliye hota hai kyunki Netflix ka system robust hai, aur
woh backup servers pe shift ho jata hai bina interruption ke.

F) Communication Between Coprocessors of a Job

• Jab ek job ke multiple coprocesses alag-alag nodes pe migrate hote hain, toh unke beech fast aur
direct communication hona chahiye. Agar communication slow ho, toh system ka performance
down ho sakta hai aur zyada cost lagegi.
• Example: Jaise multiplayer game me agar voice chat aur coordination bina delay ke ho, toh game
smooth chalega. Par agar network slow ho, toh lag aayega aur coordination bigad jayega.
Explain the architecture of Distributed Shared Memory (DSM) and its working.
Definition: Distributed Shared Memory (DSM) ek aisa system hai jo multiple computers ko ek shared
memory jaisa environment provide karta hai bina kisi physically shared memory ke.
Purpose: Yeh system parallel processing aur distributed computing ke liye design kiya gaya hai taaki
data sharing fast aur efficient ho.

Architecture of DSM
DSM architecture multiple nodes se bana hota hai, jo ek high-speed communication network se
connected hote hain.
(i) Nodes
Har node ke paas ek ya zyada CPUs aur ek local memory hoti hai.
Nodes ek communication network ke through data exchange karte hain.

(ii) Memory Mapping Manager

Har node me ek Memory Mapping Manager hota hai jo shared memory ko local memory ke sath
map karta hai.
Shared memory blocks me divided hoti hai, jo physical memory me store ki jati hai.
Caching technique use hoti hai, taaki frequently accessed data fast retrieve ho sake.
(iii) Communication Network
Jab koi process shared memory se data access karna chahti hai, toh Memory Mapping Manager us
data ko local ya remote memory se fetch karta hai.
Communication network ensure karta hai ki remote data ko efficiently transfer kiya ja sake.

(iv) Data Ownership & Consistency

Har data block ka ek owner node hota hai, jo data ka initial creator hota hai.
Data ownership change ho sakti hai jab data ek node se dusri node me transfer hota hai.
DSM consistency automatically maintain hoti hai, jisse programmer ko manually message passing
ka tension nahi hota.

Advantages of DSM

✅ Simplifies Programming: Developers ko lagta hai ki ek hi memory space hai, jo coding aur
debugging easy banata hai.
✅ Efficient Communication: Direct memory access message passing ke comparison me faster
hota hai.
✅ Scalability: Naye nodes ko easily add kiya ja sakta hai, jo system ko flexible banata hai.

Limitations of DSM

❌ Client-Server Models ke liye inefficient ho sakta hai, kyunki har client ka direct memory access
hona zaroori nahi.
❌ Synchronization issues ho sakte hain, agar multiple nodes ek hi data ko modify kar rahe hain.
Explain any five data consistency models.
Data Consistency Models
Data consistency models define karte hain ki distributed systems me data ka access aur update kaise
hoga, taaki koi bhi inconsistency na aaye. Yeh models ensure karte hain ki agar multiple users ek
shared data pe kaam kar rahe hain, toh unko correct aur expected results milein.

1. Strict Consistency

Definition:
Yeh sabse strong consistency model hai jisme koi bhi read operation hamesha latest write ka result
hi dikhata hai, chahe system ke nodes kitni bhi door ho ya delay ho.
Iska matlab agar koi data update hota hai, toh turant woh update poore system me reflect hona
chahiye.

Example:
Online Banking System: Agar kisi ne ₹500 withdraw kiya, toh turant updated balance dikhna chahiye.
Agar kisi doosre ATM se check karein, toh old balance nahi dikhna chahiye.
Problem: Yeh model distributed systems me practically implement karna bahut mushkil hota hai,
kyunki network latency aur delays hamesha hoti hain.

✅ Advantage:
Most accurate results deta hai.
❌ Disadvantage:
Bahut slow ho sakta hai, kyunki har update poore system me instantly propagate karna padta hai.

2. Sequential Consistency

Definition:
Isme operations ka order sabhi processes ke liye same hota hai, lekin actual execution ka time
different ho sakta hai.
Yeh real-time ka guarantee nahi deta, bas itna ensure karta hai ki jo bhi operations execute hue
hain, unka ek proper order ho.

Example:
Multiplayer Game:
Agar ek player pehle bomb drop kare aur phir fire kare, toh sabhi players ko yeh actions isi order
me dikhne chahiye.
Lekin kisi aur player ke actions parallel me execute ho sakte hain.
✅ Advantage:
Easier to implement as compared to strict consistency.
❌ Disadvantage:
Real-time order ka guarantee nahi deta, bas ek consistent order maintain karta hai.

3. Linearizability (Linear Consistency)

Definition:
Isme real-time order follow hota hai, jisme operations ek single global timeline pe execute hote dikhai
dete hain.
Strict consistency ke near hai, par thoda flexible hai.

Example:
Online Shopping Cart:
Agar ek customer ne cart me ek item add kiya, toh turant system me reflect hona chahiye.
Agar wo checkout kare, aur usi waqt koi doosra user bhi checkout kare, toh system latest stock ke
hisaab se decision le.

✅ Advantage:
Better user experience kyunki real-time updates dikhte hain.
❌ Disadvantage:
High overhead hota hai, specially distributed environments me.

4. Causal Consistency

Definition:
Yeh only causally related operations ka order maintain karta hai, independent operations ka nahi.
Agar ek action doosre se linked hai, toh pehle action ka result dikhna chahiye.

Example:
Social Media (Facebook, Instagram)
Agar Alice ek post karti hai aur Bob uspe reply karta hai, toh pehle Alice ka post dikhna chahiye,
phir Bob ka reply.
Lekin agar Charlie ek independent post karta hai, toh uska order alag ho sakta hai.
✅ Advantage:
Performance aur consistency ka balance bana ke rakhta hai.
❌ Disadvantage:
Har scenario me accurate nahi hota, specially agar operations independent ho.

5. FIFO Consistency (First-In-First-Out Consistency)

Definition:
Ek particular process ke operations usi order me dikhne chahiye, chahe kisi bhi node pe execute ho.
Yeh global ordering ki guarantee nahi deta, sirf per-process order maintain karta hai.

Example:
Messaging System (WhatsApp, Telegram):
Agar ek user "Hello", "How are you?", aur "Bye" bhejta hai, toh har receiver ko yeh same order
me dikhna chahiye.
Lekin doosre users ke messages ka order mix ho sakta hai.

✅ Advantage:
Simple aur efficient consistency model hai.
❌ Disadvantage:
Different processes ke updates ka global order nahi hota, sirf individual process ka order follow
hota hai.
Describe two phase commit protocol.
Two-Phase Commit Protocol ek distributed transaction management technique hai jo ensure karta hai
ki ek transaction jo multiple sites par execute ho raha hai, wo ya to pura commit ho ya pura abort ho.
Yeh protocol atomicity ko maintain karne ke liye design kiya gaya hai taki koi bhi site inconsistent
state me na rahe. Distributed databases me transactions alag-alag servers par hoti hain, jisme atomicity
maintain karna mushkil hota hai. Agar kisi ek site par failure ho jaye ya network issue aaye, to
transaction adhoora reh sakta hai. Is problem ko solve karne ke liye Two-Phase Commit Protocol use
kiya jata hai.

Phase 1 - Prepare Phase:

Phase 1 me coordinator ka role bahut important hota hai. Sabse pehle coordinator apne site par ek log
record create karta hai jisme likha hota hai . Uske baad coordinator sabhi sites ko ek "Prepare T"
message bhejta hai. Har site apne transaction manager ke through decide karti hai ki wo transaction ko
commit kar sakti hai ya nahi. Agar site ready hoti hai to wo log record me likhti hai aur coordinator ko
"Ready T" message bhejti hai. Agar site ready nahi hoti ya kisi reason se transaction commit nahi kar
sakti to wo log record me likhti hai aur coordinator ko "Abort T" message bhejti hai.

Phase 2 - Commit/Abort Phase:

Phase 2 tab start hota hai jab coordinator sabhi sites se response receive kar leta hai. Agar coordinator
ko sabhi sites se "Ready T" message milta hai to wo ka log record likhta hai aur sabhi sites ko "Commit
T" message bhejta hai. Har site apni transaction ko commit kar deti hai aur log record me likhti hai.
Lekin agar kisi ek bhi site ne "Abort T" message bheja ho to coordinator ka log record likhta hai aur
sabhi sites ko "Abort T" message bhejta hai. Is case me har site apni transaction ko rollback kar deti hai
aur log record me likhti hai.
Advantages:
• Atomicity ensure hoti hai, jisme transaction ya to pura execute hota hai ya bilkul nahi hota.
• Distributed transactions me data consistency maintain hoti hai.
• Failure recovery ke liye logging ka use hota hai jo future me rollback ya retry me madad karta
hai.
• Coordinator ka control hone ki wajah se transaction ka proper coordination hota hai.
Disadvantages:
• Blocking Problem: Agar coordinator crash ho jaye aur kisi site ne sirf "Ready T" message
bheja ho lekin "Commit T" ya "Abort T" ka final decision na mila ho, to wo site tab tak blocked
rahegi jab tak coordinator recover nahi hota.
• Network Delays: Agar kisi site se timely response na aaye to coordinator assume kar leta hai ki
site abort ho gayi hai, jo unnecessary aborts create kar sakta hai.
• Single Point of Failure: Agar coordinator fail ho jaye to pura transaction uncertain state me
chala jata hai aur system slow ho sakta hai.
• High Overhead: Messages exchange aur logging ki wajah se processing overhead badh jata hai,
jo system performance ko impact kar sakta hai.
Explain any five client consistency models .
Client Consistency Models:
Client Consistency Models define karte hai ki ek distributed system me multiple clients jab data access
aur update karte hai to consistency kaise maintain hoti hai. Har model alag-alag level ki consistency
provide karta hai, jo system ki performance aur availability par depend karta hai.
Strong Consistency:
Strong Consistency me har read operation hamesha latest write ka updated data return karega. Jaise hi
ek update hota hai, saare clients ko turant wahi update dikhai dega, taki koi bhi stale data na mile.
Example: Agar kisi user ne apni social media profile picture change ki, to sabhi devices par turant wahi
new picture show hogi, bina kisi delay ke.
Eventual Consistency:
Eventual Consistency me system allow karta hai ki temporary inconsistencies ho, lekin guarantee deta
hai ki agar koi naye updates nahi aaye to eventually saare nodes same value par reach kar lenge. Ye
model low-latency systems me use hota hai.
Example: DNS systems me agar domain name update hota hai to wo turant har server pe reflect nahi
hota, lekin kuch time ke baad saare servers same record show karne lagte hai.
Causal Consistency:
Causal Consistency ensure karta hai ki agar ek operation doosre par depend karta hai, to wo operations
har jagah same order me dikhne chahiye. Lekin independent operations ka order har client ke liye alag
ho sakta hai.
Example: Chat application me agar User A ne message bheja aur User B ne reply kiya, to sabhi clients
ko ye messages wahi order me dikhne chahiye, chahe kuch servers update hone me time le rahe ho.
Read-Your-Writes Consistency:
Is model me guarantee di jati hai ki agar ek client ne koi data likha hai, to usi client ko future me wahi
update dikhai dega, chahe doosre clients ko wo update turant na dikhe.
Example: Agar tum Google Docs me koi document edit karte ho aur page refresh karte ho, to tumhe
hamesha apni latest changes dikhengi, chahe doosre collaborators ko thoda delay ho.
Monotonic Reads Consistency:
Monotonic Reads ensure karta hai ki agar ek client ne kisi point par ek updated value read ki, to future
me usse kabhi purani value nahi milegi. Matlab, once updated, always updated.
Example: Agar tum apne bank account me transaction check karte ho aur ek deposit dikh raha hai, to
tumhe future me kabhi us deposit se pehle ka statement nahi milega.
Explain the working of Network File System (NFS).
NFS (Network File System) ek distributed file system protocol hai jo ek network ke andar different
computers ko remote files ko access karne deta hai jaise wo unke local files ho. Yeh originally Sun
Microsystems ne develop kiya tha aur mainly UNIX/Linux systems me use hota hai.
Example ke liye, maan le ek company ka ek central server hai jisme important project files stored hain.
Employees apne alag-alag computers se bina file copy kiye direct usi server se files access aur modify
kar sakte hain, jaise wo unke apne system me ho. Ye NFS ki power hai!

Sorry, I understand you want the information in Hinglish and I apologize for the previous responses. I will do
my best to provide the information in the way you've requested.

Here's the detailed explanation of the NFS architecture image in Hinglish, using only the terms provided in the
image:

NFS Architecture: Components Explained in Hinglish Detail

Let's break down the components shown in the "NFS architecture" picture, with a bit more detail, in Hinglish:

Client Computer Components:

• Application Program:
o Ye wo software hai jo files ko use karta hai. Example ke liye, word processor, video
editing software, ya database app.
o Jab ek application ko file read ya write karni hoti hai, to wo operating system se request
karta hai.
• UNIX Kernel:
o Ye client computer ka main part hai, operating system ka core.
o Ye client ke hardware aur software resources ko control karta hai.
o Ye application programs se file access requests receive karta hai.
o Ye Virtual File System (VFS) aur NFS Client ke saath kaam karta hai file operations
handle karne ke liye.
• Virtual File System (VFS):
o Ye UNIX kernel ke andar ek layer hai.
o Ye applications ko different file systems use karne ka ek consistent tareeka deta hai,
chahe files local computer par ho ya network par.
o Ye application se aaye file access requests ko commands me translate karta hai jo file
system samajh sake.
o Ye local aur network files ke beech ka difference chupata hai.
• NFS Client:
o Ye software client computer ko NFS server se communicate karne deta hai.
o Ye VFS se file access requests leta hai aur unhe NFS protocol requests me convert karta
hai.
o Ye requests network par NFS server ko bhejta hai.
o Ye NFS server se file data aur responses receive karta hai aur unhe VFS ko wapas deta
hai.
• UNIX file system:
o Ye client computer par local file system hai.
 o Ye wo files store karta hai jo physically client ke storage devices par hain.
• Other file system:
o Ye kisi bhi aur type ke file system ko represent karta hai jo client computer par ho sakta
hai, standard UNIX file system ke alawa.

Server Computer Components:

• Application Program:
o Client ki tarah, server computer bhi applications run kar sakta hai jinko share ki gayi files
access karni hoti hain.
• UNIX Kernel:
o Ye server ke operating system ka main part hai.
o Ye server ke hardware aur software resources ko control karta hai.
o Ye clients se NFS requests receive karta hai.
o Ye VFS aur NFS Server ke saath kaam karta hai file operations process karne ke liye.
• Virtual File System (VFS):
o Server par, ye un files ke liye requests handle karta hai jo server ke local file systems par
stored hain.
• NFS Server:
o Ye software server par run hota hai aur clients se NFS requests sunta hai.
o Ye requests receive karta hai, server ke file systems se requested files access karta hai,
aur file data clients ko wapas bhejta hai.
• UNIX file system:
o Ye server par wo file system hai jo clients ke saath share ki gayi files store karta hai.

Other Components:

• NFS Protocol:
o Ye wo rules ka set hai jo client aur server communicate karne ke liye use karte hain.
o Ye requests aur responses ka format specify karta hai, taki dono machines ek dusre ko
samajh sakein.
o Ye wo hai jo client aur server ke beech arrow represent karta hai.
• UNIX system calls:
o Ye wo requests hain jo application programs UNIX kernel ko karte hain.
• Operations on local files:
o Ye wo hai jab client computer apne local storage par stored files ko read ya write karta
hai.
• Operations on remote files:
o Ye wo hai jab client computer NFS server par stored files ko read ya write karta hai.

NFS Working: Step-by-Step in Hinglish

1. Application Request (Application Program se Request):

o Client computer pe jab koi application (software) ko file chahiye hoti hai, to wo request
karta hai.
o Ye request usually "UNIX system calls" ke through hoti hai.
2. VFS Handling (Virtual File System ka Kaam):
o Client computer ka "Virtual File System" (VFS) is request ko handle karta hai.
o VFS decide karta hai ki file local hai ya server par.
o Agar file server par hai, to VFS request ko "NFS Client" ko bhejta hai.
3. NFS Client Communication (NFS Client ka Server se Baat karna):
o "NFS Client" is request ko "NFS protocol" me convert karta hai.
o Ye converted request network par "NFS Server" ko bheji jati hai.
4. NFS Server Processing (NFS Server ka Kaam):
o "NFS Server" is request ko receive karta hai.
o Ye server ke "UNIX file system" me requested file ko dhundta hai.
o Agar file mil jati hai, to "NFS Server" us file ko client ko bhejne ke liye taiyar karta hai.
5. Data Transfer (Data ka Transfer):
o "NFS Server" requested file ko network par "NFS Client" ko bhejta hai.
o Ye transfer "NFS protocol" ke through hota hai.
6. Client VFS Processing (Client ke VFS ka Kaam):
o Client computer ka "VFS" received file ko application program ko deta hai.
o Application program file ko aise use karta hai jaise wo local computer par ho.
What is a Distributed File System (DFS)? Explain its key features.
Distributed File System (DFS) ek aisa system hai jo multiple computers (nodes) pe files ko store aur
manage karta hai, taaki users bina kisi dikkat ke unko access kar sakein, jaise ek centralized system
mein karte hain. Yeh system bade networks aur cloud storage ke liye kaafi useful hota hai.

Sabhi lallu log yaha dhyando Features niche diye gaye he :-

1. Transparency 🫥
DFS four types ki transparency provide karta hai:
Structure Transparency: Users ko nahi pata lagta ki file single server pe hai ya multiple nodes pe.
Access Transparency: Users local aur remote files ko ek hi tarike se access kar sakte hain.
Naming Transparency: File ka naam location-independent hota hai, yani server change hone pe bhi
same rehta hai.
Replication Transparency: Ek hi file ki multiple copies (replicas) hoti hain, jo system automatically
manage karta hai.

Example: Google Drive ek DFS hai, jismein tum kisi bhi device se login karke apni files access kar
sakte ho.

2. User Mobility
User kisi specific node pe dependent nahi hota. Wo kisi bhi system ya location se apni files access
kar sakta hai.

Example: Cloud storage services jaise Dropbox ya OneDrive ka use karke users apni files kahin se
bhi access kar sakte hain.

3. Performance
DFS ka performance centralized file system ke barabar ya usse better hona chahiye. System ka load
multiple servers me distribute hota hai, jisse response time fast hota hai.

Example: Netflix ek DFS use karta hai jo alag-alag servers pe videos store karta hai, taaki users
ko fast streaming experience mile.
4. Simplicity
DFS ka design centralized file system ke jaisa hi hota hai, jisse users aur developers dono ke liye
easy rahe.

Example: Google Drive ya SharePoint me users bina kisi technical knowledge ke files store aur
share kar sakte hain.

5. Scalability
System ko agar aur zyada nodes add karne pade, toh bhi performance degrade nahi hona chahiye.
DFS large-scale networks ke liye bana hota hai.

Example: YouTube ka DFS millions of servers pe videos store karta hai, jo globally users ke liye
available hoti hain.

6. Fault Tolerance
Agar ek node crash ho jaye, toh bhi DFS me backup copies hoti hain jo data ko recover kar sakti hain.

Example: Amazon Web Services (AWS) apni files multiple locations pe store karta hai, taaki kisi
ek data center ke fail hone par bhi data safe rahe.

7. Synchronization
DFS me agar ek file multiple users ek saath access kar rahe hain, toh system consistency maintain
karega.

Example: Google Docs me ek document pe multiple users ek saath kaam kar sakte hain bina kisi
data loss ke.

8. Security
DFS me data encryption, authentication aur access control hote hain, taaki files ko unauthorized
access se bachaya ja sake.

Example: Bank ka DFS secure login aur encrypted storage ka use karta hai, taaki sensitive
customer data safe rahe.
9. Heterogeneity
DFS different OS, hardware aur storage devices ke saath compatible hota hai.

Example: Dropbox ya Google Drive ko Windows, Mac, Linux, Android, aur iOS sab pe access
kiya ja sakta hai.

10. Data Replication

DFS ek hi file ki multiple copies alag-alag servers pe store karta hai, taaki performance aur reliability
maintain rahe.

Example: Facebook ka DFS alag-alag servers pe user data store karta hai, taaki data loss ka risk
na ho.

Advantages of DFS ✅
High Availability – Files multiple locations pe store hoti hain, isliye failure hone par bhi access
possible hota hai.
Better Performance – Load balancing aur caching techniques se performance improve hota hai.
Scalability – DFS ko easily expand kiya ja sakta hai.
User Convenience – Users kisi bhi device se files ko access aur share kar sakte hain.
Security & Backup – Encryption aur data replication se data loss aur unauthorized access se
protection milta hai.

Disadvantages of DFS ❌
Complex Management – Multiple servers aur replicas ka management mushkil ho sakta hai.
Network Dependency – Slow ya unstable network pe performance degrade ho sakti hai.
Data Consistency Issues – Multiple users agar ek file edit karein, toh synchronization problems ho
sakti hain.
High Cost – DFS ko maintain karne ke liye high-end servers aur backup storage ki zaroorat hoti hai.
Security Risks – Agar proper encryption aur authentication na ho, toh DFS vulnerable ho sakta hai.
Explain File accessing models.

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