Lecture 2

CERAMICS

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 Outline

1. Introduction

2. Spectrum of Ceramic uses

3. Ceramic Structures

4. Classifications of Ceramics

5. The properties of ceramics

6. Type of clay products and uses

7. Mortar and plastering

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INTRODUCTION
❑ The word ‘ceramic’ comes from Greek word ‘keramos’ means pottery

❑ The ceramic are inorganic non metallic solid materials with varying
properties due to their difference bonding and structure
❑ Ceramics usually consists of metallic and non metallic elements bounded

by ionic and covalent bonds

❑ The ceramics are generally hard , brittle, poor conductivity, high melting

point, resistant to creep , low toughness, low ductility etc.

❑ They are good electrical and thermal insulators due to absence of free

electrons
❑ Ceramics includes clay , silicate, metallic oxides, and their combinations

❑ New ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic

engineering such as semiconductors

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 Spectrum of Ceramic uses

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 Ceramic Structures
Ceramic materials can be divided into two structural
classes:

1) Crystalline and 2) Amorphous (non-crystalline).

❑ In crystalline materials, atoms (or ions) are

arranged in a regularly repeating pattern in three
dimensions (i.e., they have long-range order).

❑ In amorphous materials, the atoms exhibit only

short-range order.
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 Ceramic Structures cont…
❑ Some ceramic materials, like silicon dioxide
(SiO2), can exist in either form.

❑ A crystalline form of SiO2 results when this

material is slowly cooled from a high temperature.

❑ Rapid cooling favors non-crystalline (amorphous)

formation since time is not allowed for ordered
arrangements to form.

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 Ceramic Structures cont…
Amorphous form of SiO2

❑ The type of bonding (ionic or

covalent) and the internal
structure (crystalline or
amorphous) affects the
properties of ceramic materials.

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 Ceramic Structures cont…
Crystalline form of SiO2

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 Classifications of Ceramics
Ceramic materials can be classified into following basic groups,
according to their fieds of use
1. Structural ceramic
▪ The ceramic materials that are used for constructing buildings
and other various structures eg Bricks, floors, pipes, roof tiles
etc
2. Facing ceramic materials
▪ Such ceramic materials are used for internal and external
facing of building and structures eg facing bricks, tiles, slabs
3. Refractories' ceramics
▪ These are ceramic materials whose mechanical properties at
high temperatures do not change
4. Fine ceramics
▪ The are used domestically in electrical appliances and in
laboratories eg. Dishes, wash basins, porcelain wares,
chemical wares glassed
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 Classifications of Ceramics

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 The main properties of ceramics are:
• hard
• wear resistance
• strong in compression
• electrical insulators
• many of them can withstand very high temperature
and therefore suitable for use as refractory
materials in furnace and kiln.

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The main disadvantages of ceramics are:
• brittleness
• weak in tension and
• not very tough.

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❑ Hardness and brittleness are the general attributes of
ceramics to be more resistant than either metal or
polymer materials to high temperature and aid to serve
environment.
❑ The electronic behaviour of constituent atoms is the
basis for these characteristics.
❑ Metallic elements (atom) release their outer most
electrons which are received by non-metallic atoms
which retain them; all these develop strong attraction
force to each other.
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There are vast types of ceramics but some of them are:
1) Amorphous ceramics:
❑ These include different types of glass used for
windows, containers, lenses and the glass fibers
used to reinforce plastic materials.
❑ The term amorphous as applied to materials means
that their atoms are not arranged in a regular
geometric pattern

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2) Crystalline ceramics:
❑ These are generally good electrical insulators and
capable of withstanding high temperature.
❑ They are bonded and used to make grinding wheels
and discs.
❑ Hard carbides and nitrides are bonded together in
metal matrix for use as cutting tool tips.

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3) Bonded ceramics (vitrified clay):
❑ These are products made from natural clay or
mixture of clays and added crystalline ceramics.
❑ Bonded clay ceramic include:
• whiteware
• structural clay products
• refractory ceramics

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4) Cements:
❑ These are made from varieties of calcium, silicon, magnesium
and other metallic oxides.
❑ Cement undergoes chemical reaction and set into crystalline
structure when water is added.
❑ Cement have moderate strength and hardness but weak in
tension.
❑ Common cement used in building is Portland cement (PC).
❑ Others are special such as high-alumina cements that are
resistance to sea water and silicate cements that are resistance
to acid attack.
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Type of Clay Products and Uses

1. BRICKS
❑Bricks are usually made of clay.
❑These are chiefly employed in building
construction and architectural compositions. The
size of bricks is 7.5cm – 10 cm ×10 cm ×21cm.

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Bricks cont…

❑ Advantage of bricks included:-

▪ Easy availability
▪ Light weight
▪ Comparative cheapness
▪ Easy in handling, mounding into shapes and
size
❑ Brick are also called artificial sandstone

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Bricks cont…
Classification of Bricks

❑ Clay bricks are divided into ordinary bricks and

fire bricks.
❑ Ordinary bricks which are rectangular are again
classified into four classes according to their
qualities; such classes are: -

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Classification of Bricks cont…
❑First class bricks
▪ These are well burns brick of proper well defined
edges.
▪ Smooth and clean surface free from cracks.
▪ Should not absorb water more than 20% of its
weight when kept immersed for 16 hours
▪ No mark can be made on its surface by finger
nails

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Classification of Bricks cont…
❑First class bricks cont…
▪ Should not break into pieces when dropped on hard
ground from a height of 1m.
▪ Should produce metallic ringing sound when struck
against each other.
▪ Have uniform compact texture

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Classification of Bricks cont…

❑Second class Bricks

▪ The qualities are almost the same as those
of first class bricks; but they are irregular in
shape and size with spots on their surfaces.
▪ They have hair cracks and edges may not be
sharp and uniform.

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Classification of Bricks cont…

❑Third class bricks – usually under burnt bricks

(Ama Bricks). They are soft and light in colour; they
produce dull sound when knocked together
❑Zhama brick – These are over burnt bricks which
have deformed shape and size. They are usually
porous.

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Uses of bricks

▪ 1st & 2nd class are used for all sorts of sound works
especially of permanent structure.
▪ 1st class bricks are specified for architectural
compositions and face work to expose beauty.

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Uses of bricks cont…

▪ Second class brick works shall be plastered.

▪ 3rd class and sun dried bricks are used for
temporary works (not to be used in damp
condition)

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 Manufacture of Bricks

❑ The manufacture of bricks involves the following four major

operations: -
(i) Preparation of brick earth
▪ Strip the ground to remove the top soil.
▪ Dug out the clay in clear weather and keep it on the clean
ground. Remove stones pebbles, vegetable matters etc.
▪ If the earth is too lumpy it can be grounded into powder.
▪ Mix clay well till it becomes homogeneous mass and cover it
with mat
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Manufacture of Bricks cont…

(ii) Molding of bricks

When brick earth is prepared, it is moulded by hand or machine
- Hand mould is preferred where manpower is cheap and readily
available or when bricks are manufactured in small scale.
- Manual moulding can be ground or table moulding

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Manufacture of Bricks cont…

(ii) Molding of bricks cont…

- Bricks are machine moulded when large number of bricks is
being manufactured in a short time.
- Machine moulding can be done when the clay is in plastic
condition or moist powder.

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Manufacture of Bricks cont…
(iii) Drying of bricks
Prior burning the bricks are sun dried or under
the shade.
Proper brick drying is essential to prevent
cracking during burning process.

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Manufacture of Bricks cont…
(iv) Burning of Bricks
The dry bricks are made into a sort of kiln and
burnt. The burning process can be done in a
clamp or in a flame kiln.

Brick Kiln
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Strength of Brick

❑ The strength depends on following factor: -

▪ Composition of brick earth.
▪ Preparation of clay for moulding.
▪ Nature of moulding adopted
▪ Drying of green brick and
▪ Burning and cooling process.

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Strength of Brick cont…

❑ The crushing and tensile strength for hand- mould

bricks average to 59N/mm2 and 19.6N/mm2
respectively.

❑ Machine moulded bricks are much stronger than

hand mould bricks

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2. TILES

❑Tile is a thin shaped piece of baked clay used for

roof covering, wall, floor, etc.
(a) Tiles are classified into :-
(i) Common tiles – Used for paving, flooring and
roofing

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2. TILES cont…

(ii) Encaustic tiles – Used for decorative purposes in

floors, walls roof and ceiling.

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TILES cont…

❑ Tiles are made into many different shapes strength

and size depending on their uses.
❑ Roof tiles may derive their names according to
their shape, area to be used and the place where
they have been manufactured.

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 Manufacturing of Tiles.

i. Preparation of clay: –
❑ is the same as for bricks but with certain modification.
❑ Clay required for good tiles are found 1m below the bricks
earth.
❑ Clay is dug out and ground into powder; it is then thoroughly
mixed and made ready for moulding.

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 Manufacturing of Tiles.

i. Preparation of clay cont.. : –

❑ For superior tiles the ground clay is mixed with water and
stirred in a tank where the heavier particle settle, and fine
particles of clay is passed to another tank where the water is
driven off leaving the fine clay for mixing with other
ingredient.

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 Manufacturing of Tiles.

i. Preparation of clay cont.. : –

❑ Mixture of grand pottery and grand glass is added clay which
makes the tile hard, impervious to water and resistant to
weathering action.

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 Manufacturing of Tiles cont….

ii. Moulding - As for bricks, with great care to avoid warping or

cracking due to atmospheric actions. However it is common now-
days to employ machines in tile manufacturing rather than
manual.

iii. Shaping and Drying

- Shaping is done for hand-ground moulded an the hard clay
- After shaping, the tiles are allowed to dry for several days.

iv. Burning - Is done into a kiln as for bricks using wood or any
other fuel as may be convenient.

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 SPECIAL TILES
There are several types of special tiles which included: -
i. Sanitary tiles - used for walling and flooring in sanitary
toilets and bath. These tiles are manufactured from a mixture of
fire clay and stone dusts. They are prepared by pressing the moist
mixture into the required shape, cut into required shape and size,
dried and burnt at a very high temperature.
After burning, the face of the tiles is dipped into the grazing
solution and again fired to give a bright smooth surface.

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 Special Tiles cont…

ii. Porcelain or Grazed tiles – May be manufactured,

either by dry or wet process.
- They may be plain and white or colored and
decorative
- These are used in walling and sometimes in
flooring to serve specific functions.

- In manufacturing porcelain tiles, the selected clay

is prepared, pressed into shape, cut into size, dried,
burnt and grazed

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 Special Tiles cont…

iii. Drain tiles.

- Drain tiles, are usually segmental tiles required for
drain construction

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 TERRACOTTA

❑ Terra – cotta may be defined as a kind of earth-

ware. It is stronger and durable than fire clay wares.
❑ Terracotta is made from well prepared refractory
bricks clay or from selected clay mixed with ground
glass, pottery and sand.

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 Terracotta cont…
Composition of Terracotta clay
❑ The composition of a typical terracotta clay are: -
▪ Si 03 = 75%, Al2 03 = 10%, Fe 203 = 3%, Ca 0 =
1%, Organic matter = 5%, Alkalis = 0.5 %, H2 0 =
5.5 %
▪ High percent of silica and low percent of alkalis
make the clay refractory and help to produce a
durable vitrified surface.
▪ Colour depends on percentage of the oxide of iron
and the extreme and condition of burning.
▪ 50% of shrinkage occurs in drying and the rest on
burning.
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 Uses of Terracotta block

❑ As terracotta is hard, impervious to water and is

capable of withstanding weathering action than most
kinds of stone, it is used for substituting stone in
ornamental parts of building such as:
▪ cornice, string course, sills, fountains, chimneys,
fire places, decorated panels, copping, etc

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 STONE AND EARTHWARE

These are names given to clay goods of various

kinds made from mixed clays or from selected clay
mixed with ground glass, stone dusts, potteries,
sand, et.c

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 Stone and Earthware cont…
❑Stoneware’s are usually made from refractory clay
or from clays mixed with powdered glass, ground
potteries, stone dust, sand et.c in order to prevent
shrinkage, and impart strength and hardness, and to
make then impervious.
❑ They are burt at a high temperature and usually
resemble fire bricks.

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 Stone and Earthware cont…

❑Earth wares are made from ordinary mild clay similar to

the brick earth or clay for tiles and burnt at a completely
low temp.
❑ They are weak and porous, resembling inferior terra-
cotta.
❑Uses : -
- Sewer and drain pipe
- Acid jars
- Sanitary and drainage appurtenances, et.c.
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 Mortar and Plastering

Mortar
❑ Mortar is the name given to a mixture of sand or similar inert
particles with cementing materials and water and has the
capacity of hardening into a rock like mass
❑ In general the maximum size of the inert particles in mortar is
less than 5mm, and the cementing material is Portland cement
and/or lime.

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 Mortar and Plastering

Plastering
❑Plastering is the process of applying thin cover of
cement mortar over the exposed surface in order to
safeguard against penetration of rain water and
other atmospheric agencies
❑ It improves the appearance of structure and gives
decorative effect to the interiors

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 Mortar and Plastering cont…
Purpose of plastering
1. To protect the external surface against penetration of rain
water and other atmospheric agencies
2. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot
lodge
3. To give decorative effect
4. To protect surface against insects
5. To hide inferior materials or defective workmanship

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 Mortar and Plastering cont…

Requirements of good plaster

1. It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered
during all variations of climatic changes
2. It should be cheap and economical
3. It should be hard and durable
4. It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions
5. It should be effectively check the entry or penetration of
moisture from the surface
6. It should possess good workability

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 Mortar and Plastering cont…

Materials for plastering

❑The most common materials of plaster mainly contain either
gypsum, lime, or cement which all work in similar way
❑ The plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed
with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately
before it is applied to the surface.
❑The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization
and the hydrated plaster then hardens

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 Test for bricks blocks and mortar
Following tests are conducted on bricks to
determine its suitability for construction work.
1.Absorption test
2.Crushing strength test
3.Hardness test
4.Shape and size
5.Color test
6.Soundness test
7. Efflorescence Test

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 Test for bricks cont..
Absorption test

❑ conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture

content absorbed by brick under extreme conditions.
❑ The sample dry bricks are taken and weighed. After
weighing these bricks are placed in water with full
immersing for a period of 24 hours.
❑ Then weigh the wet brick and note down its value.
The difference between dry and wet brick weights will
give the amount of water absorption
❑ For a good quality brick the amount of water
absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry
brick.
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 Test for bricks cont..
Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

❑ Determined by placing brick in compression testing machine.

After placing the brick in compression testing machine, apply
load on it until brick breaks.
❑ Note down the value of failure load and find out the crushing
strength value of brick.
❑ Minimum crushing strength of brick is 3.50N/mm2.if it is less
than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is not useful for construction
purpose.

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 Test for bricks cont..
Hardness Test on Bricks

❑ A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things.

So, for this test a sharp tool or finger nail is used to make
scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick
then it is said to be hard brick.

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 Test for bricks cont..
Shape and Size Test on Bricks
❑ Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration.
❑ All bricks used for construction should be of same size.
❑ The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular with sharp
edges.
❑ Standard brick size consists length x breadth x height as
19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
❑ To perform this test, select 20 bricks randomly from brick
group and stack them along its length , breadth and height
and compare.
❑ So, if all bricks similar size then they are qualified for
construction work.

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 Test for bricks cont..
Color Test of Bricks

❑ A good brick should possess bright and uniform color

throughout its body.

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 Test for bricks cont..
Soundness Test of Bricks
❑ Soundness test of bricks shows the nature of bricks against
sudden impact.
❑ In this test, 2 bricks are chosen randomly and struck with one
another.
❑ Then sound produced should be clear bell ringing sound and
brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick.

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 Test for bricks cont..
Efflorescence Test on Bricks
❑ A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it.
❑ If soluble salts are there, then it will cause efflorescence on brick
surfaces.
❑ To know the presence of soluble salts in a brick, placed it in a
water bath for 24 hours and dry it in shade. After drying, observe
the brick surface thoroughly.
❑ If there is any white or grey color deposits, then it contains
soluble salts and not useful for construction.

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