FLUID MECHANICS – I

Syllabus
Chapter – 1: Introductory concepts on the fluid mechanics.

Chapter – 2: Fluid Statics

Chapter – 3: Fluid Kinematics

Chapter – 4: Fluid Dynamics and Application of Linear Momentum

to Control Volume

Chapter – 5: Characteristics of Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Chapter – 6: Flow Through Closed Conduits

Chapter – 7: Free Surface Flow

 Chapter – 1: Introductory concepts
on the fluid mechanics

Definition of fluid, continuum hypothesis, different

properties of fluids, classification (like Newtonian/ non-
Newtonian, ideal/real, etc.)
Continuum Hypothesis
Fluid behaves as a continuum, i.e., the number
of molecules within the smallest region of
interest (a point) are sufficient that all fluid
properties are point functions (single valued at
a point).
Knudsen number, Kn=a/L
Definition of fluid
A substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress.

No-slip boundary condition

No relative motion between fluid and boundary, i.e., fluid in contact with lower
plate is stationary, whereas fluid in contact with upper plate moves at speed U.

Newtonian Fluid, Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Viscosity, Kinematic Viscosity
A property by which the resistance offered by a moving fluid layer to its adjacent fluid layer.

y U(y)
dy

Dimensions of Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity

Viscosity: [ML-1T-1]

Kinematic Viscosity: [L2T-1]

Causes of Viscosity
1. Molecular cohesive force (predominating in liquid phase)

2. Molecular momentum transfer (predominating in gas phase)

Effects of temperature and pressure

Non-Newtonian Fluid
Classification of Fluids

• Incompressible ( = constant), Compressible ( = variable)

• Viscous (  0), Inviscid ( = 0)

• Ideal ( = 0), Real (  0)

• Newtonian ( = constant), Non-Newtonian ( = variable)

• Non-Newtonian: dilatant (), pseudoplastic ()

A few things more….

Bulk modulus of elasticity Compressibility Sonic Velocity Mach Number

V
Ma 
C

Surface tension,  Liquid droplet Soap bubble Liquid jet

Capillary rise or fall (Dia  6mm)

Some illustrations….
 Chapter – 2: Fluid Statics

Fluid Statics: Pressure at a point, Pascal’s law,

the variation of pressure within a static fluid –
equation of hydrostatic pressure distribution,
the variation of properties in the static
atmosphere; measurement of pressure;
hydrostatic thrust on plane and curved surfaces;
buoyancy, the stability of submerged and
floating bodies.
Hydrostatics: Pressure field generated by a fluid at rest.

Definition of Pressure
Pressure
always acts
normal to
the surface.

h=P/ in m
known as
Pressure
Head
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since by definition a fluid
subjected to a shear stress must deform and undergo motion. Normal stresses
are referred to as pressure p.
Pascal’s law of pressure
Statement: Intensity of pressure at a point in the fluid at rest is same in all the
directions. Pressure is a scalar quantity.

From FBD of Wedge-shaped element,

𝐹𝑅 = 0. Therefore, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝜕𝑠𝜕𝑦 = 0
=> 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠
since 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝜕𝑠 = 𝜕𝑧
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ 𝜕𝑠𝜕𝑦 − 12𝜌𝑔𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 = 0
=> 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑠
since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ 𝜕𝑠 = 𝜕𝑥 and
term 𝐹𝐺 → 0 as 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 → 0
FBD using Tetrahedron
Hydrostatic equation of pressure
From FBD of Cube-shaped element, 𝐹𝑅 = 0, since at rest condition.
Therefore, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑧 = 0.
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑃
For 𝐹𝑥 = 0, 𝑃 − 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 − 𝑃 + 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 = 0 => − 𝜕𝑥 = 0, 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 = 𝑑∀≠ 0
2 𝐿 2 𝑅
𝐹 𝐹

Similarly,
𝜕𝑃
for 𝐹𝑦 = 0, − =0
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑃
For 𝐹𝑧 = 0, − = 𝜌𝑔
𝜕𝑧

Pressure variation, when gravity is the only body force acting downwards:
𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾 Hence, 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑑𝑧
Hydrostatic pressure equation by INTEGRAL approach

Basic Equation of Fluid Statics p   X

Pressure equations
Case (1): for constant density fluids
𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔(𝑧0 − 𝑧) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ → Gauge pressure
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑃0 → Absolute pressure. ℎ = (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
Case (2): for isothermal ideal fluid
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝜌= 𝑃 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑔 𝑃0 𝑑𝑃 𝑧0 𝑔
𝑑𝑧
= − 𝑅𝑇
𝑔 ⇒ 𝑃
= − 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑃 𝑃
=− 𝑧 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑧
𝑃0 𝑔 𝑃0 𝑔ℎ
⇒ 𝑙𝑛 = − 𝑧0 − 𝑧 ⇒ = 𝑒 𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑃
Case (3): temperature dependent fluids
Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

Say, 𝑇 = 𝑇0 −∝ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ). Following the steps of Case (2),

𝑃0 𝑑𝑃 𝑔 𝑧0 𝑑𝑧
⇒ 𝑃 𝑃
= −
𝑅 𝑧 𝑇0 −∝(𝑧−𝑧0 )
Scale of Pressure Measurement
(Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum)
 𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾
Measurement of Pressure and Manometry 𝑑𝑧
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
(a) Manometers (low pressure range) (b) Mech. Pressure or Vacuum Gauges

(a) Press. Gage (b) Vac. Gage

Simple manometers
Piezometer
(a) Upright (b) Inverted
U-tube differential manometer

See FM White7th
 𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾
𝑑𝑧
COMPOUND MANOMETER 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
 Differential manometer

Do not memorize but adapt the techniques for deriving the manometer formulas
Single Column
manometer

Inclined single column Bourdon Tube

Micro-manometer
manometer Pressure Gauge
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

F   dF   pdA    ghdA   hcg A

A A A

M  hcp F   hpdA    h2 dA    hcg2 A  I cg 

A A
I cg
hcp  hcg 
hcg A
Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force on plane surface is product of pressure at
centroid of area and area of surface.
Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with depth. Center of pressure
is determined by equating the moments of the resultant and distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
.

or,

I cg
hcp  hcg 
hcg A

F   dF   pdA    ghdA   hcg A M  hcp F   hpdA    h2 dA    hcg2 A  I cg 

A A A A A

Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force on plane surface is

product of pressure at centroid of area and area of surface.
Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases
with depth. Center of pressure is determined by equating the moments
of the resultant and distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.
Properties of some common Areas
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

The horizontal component of

force acting on a curved surface
is equal to the force acting on a
vertical projection of that surface
including both magnitude and
line of action.
Buoyancy

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

If C is above G, then the

body is stable.

If G is above C, then the

body is unstable
Floating Bodies and Metacentric Height

Metacentric height: MG
Stable: MG>0
Unstable: MG<0
Neutral: MG=0
SOME Illustrations…

Dam

Sluice Gate Lock Gate

Find h to open the gate Find RB
 Chapter – 3: Fluid Kinematics

Fluid Kinematics: preliminaries of Eulerian and Lagrangian

description of fluid flow; velocity and acceleration of fluid
particles in rectilinear and curvilinear coordinates; different types
of flow – steady and unsteady flow, uniform and non-uniform
flow, one, two and three-dimensional flow, rotational and
irrotational flow, laminar and turbulent flow; streamline, streak
line and path line; stream filament and stream tube; the principle
of conservation of mass – equation of continuity for a stream
tube and unsteady three-dimensional flow; deformation of a fluid
particle – linear and angular deformation and rotation; vortex
motion; relative equilibrium of fluids.
 Lagrangian description of fluid flow z
Fixed Particle
S  ix  jy  kz
dx
u  F  x0 , y0 , z0 , t  y x

 
dt
S  S S0,t v
dy
 G  x0 , y0 , z0 , t 
dt
dz
w  R  x0 , y0 , z0 , t 
dt

Eulerian description of fluid flow Steady flow Uniform flow

Fixed Point v  v t  v  v t 
 
v  v S0,t
 
v  v S0  
v  v S0
a  a S ,t 
a  a S  a  a t 
0
0
 Description of fluid flow
Lagrangian description: history of
displacement of individual moving
particle is tracked. Commonly used for
motion of a solid particle. Not
practical for many moving particles
like fluid.

Eulerian description: Observation is

made on every fixed point of a flow
domain. At these points, velocity,
acceleration, etc. are noted with
respect to time.

Velocity fields
Acceleration

V  ui  v j  wk

DV V  V V V  V
a   u
t  x
v
y
w
z
 
 V  V
Dt  t
Local
Convective

D    
  u  v  w  Total / Substancial / Material derivative
Dt t x y z
Normal and Tangential Acceleration: Curvilinear System
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
 Steady flow (time invariant) and Unsteady flow (time dependent).
 Uniform flow (velocity same) and Non-uniform flow (velocity changing).
 One-dimensional flow, 2D flow and 3D flow.
 Rotational flow (rotate about mass-centre) and Irrotational flow (does not
rotate…)
 Laminar flow (Re < Recritical ) and Turbulent flow (Re > Recritical ).
 Incompressible (density constant) and compressible flow (density changing)
 Sonic (Ma =1), Subsonic (Ma < 1), Supersonic (Ma >1)
 Viscous flow (  0) and Inviscid/real/potential flow ( = 0)

Vs Ls Vs Ls
Re  
 
V
Ma 
C
Some Examples
Flow Visualisation
Streamline: An imaginary line such that tangent to the line at a point at a given instant
represents the direction of the velocity vector at that point at that instant.

Stream tube: An imaginary small diameter tube constructed using streamlines passing
through a closed loop.

Velocity Potential line: Velocity vector is replaced by this scalar quantity. The gradient of 
indicates velocity component in any direction.

Path line (Lagrangian): The line traces by individual fluid particles as it flows from one point
to another point.

Streak line: The tracing or trail of color dye (in liquid) or smoke (in air or gas) passing
through a common point during experiment.

Flow net: During ideal flow, streamlines and velocity potential lines (or iso-potential lines)
intersect each other orthogonally. It is called flow net.

Flow net Path line Streak line

 Streamline (Eulerian), Stream Function ()

dQ  udx  vdy  d
 
 dx  dy
x y

dx dy dz  
   u,  v
u v w y x
Two streamlines never intersect, No cross flow
Appl. to Steady & Unsteady, and both Ideal & Real Flow

Velocity Potential Function ()

  
 u,  v, w
x y z

Used for Potential (also known as Ideal or inviscid) flow

Continuity Equation
It is the Mathematical Statement of the Principle of Conservation Mass.

System

Control mass system Control volume system Isolated system

(Closed system) (Open system, CV)

Rate of Mass
Conservation of mass Out flux

in Fluid Flow
CV

Rate of Mass
Influx

Net rate of mass increase in the CV + Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = 0
Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = Rate of Mass Influx – Rate of Mass Outflux
Differential form of derivation of continuity equation
   u     v     w
   0 u v w
t x y z   0
x y z
 u 0
For incompressible flow,
Density = Constant

Do not follow
this type of CV
Integral form of the continuity equation

Rate of
dA Mass
outflux

CV For steady and incompressible flow:

Rate of
Mass influx  V .n dA  0
A

U2, A2
 U1 A1  U 2 A2

U1, A1
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL MOTIONS

Fluid particle when

moves can undergo four
types of changes:

• Linear translation or
pure translation.
• Linear deformation.
• Angular deformation.
• Rotation.
Linear (Deformation or) Strain Rate

Volumetric Strain Rate

u
( x)t
u
 xx   x
x xt
v
( y )t
v
 yy   x
x yt
 Angular deformation or Shear strain rate

Strain rate tensor

1 d d 
z  (  )
2 dt dt
d d  v u
1 v u
 (  )  xy    
2 x y dt dt x y
Rotation and Vorticity

Pure rotation Zero rotation

v u v u
 xy  0   z  0  
x y x y
v u v u
z  
x y   xy 2 2
x y
Vorticity
It is generally customary to deal with twice the angular velocity, which is called
the vorticity of the element.

 d  d  u2 u1 v u
      
 dt dt  x1 x2 x y
Relative Equilibrium
 Chapter – 4: Fluid Dynamics and Application
of Linear Momentum to Control Volume
Fluid Dynamics: the principle of conservation of linear
momentum, Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline
and for unsteady three-dimensional flow; derivation of
Bernoulli’s equation and physical significance of different
terms; applications of Bernoulli’s equation in flow
measurement devices: stagnation tube, pitot tube, venturi
meter, orifice meter, triangular and rectangular weir.

Application of Linear Momentum to Control Volume: linear

momentum equation; analysis of force exerted by a fluid
stream on a solid boundary – jet impingement, thrust on pipe
bends, etc.
Euler and Bernoulli equations along a streamline

s
v v 1 p z
v   g
p(s, t) t s  s s
z

v(s, t) Flow work: p

g 

Assumptions invoked: a) Ideal fluid. b) Steady. c) Incompressible. d) Gravity as

the only body force. e) Along a streamline.

v2 p
By integrating the Euler’s equation:  gz C
2 
Bernoulli’s Equation: Mechanical Energy equation
Euler and Bernoulli equations along a streamline

Assumptions
a) Ideal fluid.
b) Steady.
c) Incompressible.
d) Gravity as the
only body force.
e) Along a
streamline.

Euler equation

Bernoulli equation
 Various terms
v2 p
 Kinetic energy per unit mass.  Pressure energy per unit mass.
2 
gz Potential energy per unit mass.

v2 p
 Energy/Unit weight= Velocity Head.  Pressure Head.
2g g
z Datum Head.

At any points between 1 and 2

2
v12 p1 v2 2 p2
  z1    z2  hf1- 2
1 2g  g 2g  g
Head loss
Euler Equation of Motion (for Ideal Fluid)
Resulting equation relating the relationship between velocity and pressure
field for an ideal fluid, that is the fluid whose viscous effect is neglected.

Du u u u u 1 p
 u v  w  Xx 
Dt t x y z  x
Dv v v v v 1 p
 u v  w  Xy 
Dt t x y z  y
Dw w w w w 1 p
 u v w  Xz 
Dt t x y z  z
Application: Outlet velocity while emptying a tank
 Application: Finding exit velocity of the a tank
Fluid Inlet velocity=V1
1
in Inlet pressure=p1

If the fluid is inviscid, to find

h the exit velocity

Fluid
2 out

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 along the streamline and assuming
head loss to be zero 2 2
p1 V1 p2 Vexit
  z1    z2
 g 2g  g 2g
p2  patm
z1  z2  h

Vexit  V12  2  p1  patm  /   2 gh

 Conservation of Momentum
Net force acting on a CV = Net rate of change of momentum within the CV
+ Net rate of efflux of momentum across the control surface


 F  t CV Vd   CS V V d A  
Analysis of Finite Control Volume

•Inertial control volume CV moving with uniform velocity or

stationary, no acceleration
•Non-inertial control volume CV moving with an acceleration
 Application: Force exerted on a pipe bend
Outlet
V2 , A2

Fy

V1 , A1 p2
Inlet
Fx
CV
F
p1
g
By the application of Momentum conservation theorem at the CV, we have shown that
Fx  m V2 cos   V1   p2 A2 cos   p1 A1
Fy  mV2 sin   p2 A2 sin   g m   AV
1 1   A2V2

Force required to keep the bend stationary: FxB   Fx , FyB   Fy

Also we have solved a numerical problem on the
force exerted on a pipe bend.
 Application: Liquid jet hitting an incline plate

Plate
Q, A, V
Liquid jet 
To determine force exerted by the fluid on the plate?
We assume the fluid to ideal and throughout the domain the atmospheric. Let us consider
a control volume containing the jet volume. n
Q1, V
Fs  0
O
Q  AV CV
A
Q 
Therefore, the momentum balance,

Q2V  Q1  V   QV cos   Fs  0

Q2, V s

 Q2  Q1  Q cos 
Q Q
From continuity, Q2  Q1  Q Q2  1  cos   , Q1  1  cos  
2 2
 Now, to find the force, Net efflux of momentum from the control volume along on

 Q2  0   Q1  0   QV sin   Fn
Outflux Influx

 Fn    QV sin 

Therefore, force is acting on the plate,

Fp   Fn   QV sin 
For practical purposes, if the plate is moving with a velocity u, then work done by the jet

P  Fp sin  u   QV u sin 2 
Problem # 1
The fluid flow over a stationary flat plate forms boundary layer, as shown in the
figure. The streaming fluid has uniform velocity U . The velocity distribution within
the boundary layer can be approximated by
  y   y 2 
u  U  2      
       
If the density of the fluid is  and width of the plate perpendicular to the paper is
w, determine the mass flow rate across the surface bc of the control volume abcd.
U
U b CV
c
y


x
a d
Solution: Applying the conservation of the mass in the CV

 V .n dA  0
A
 Now,

 V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA  0
A Aab Abc Acd Ada
  (1)
 V .n dA     u dA    u wdy    U
Aab Aab 0 0
 wdy    U  w



  y  y 
 2
 2  U  w
 V .n dA    u dA    u w dy    U  2       w dy 
Acd Acd 0 0      
  3

 V .n dA  0
Ada
No mass flow across the surface da, since no slip boundary at the wall.

Putting the above values in Eq. (1), we obtain the mass flow rate across the surface bc as,

mbc   V .n dA    V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA
Abc Aab Acd Ada

2  U  w  U  w
 mbc   U  w  0 
3 3
 Problem # 2
Gravel is dumped from a hopper, at a rate of 650 N/s, onto a moving belt, as shown in the
figure. The gravel then passes off the end of the belt. The drive wheels are 80 cm in
diameter and rotate clockwise at 150 r/min. Neglecting system friction and air drag,
estimate the power required to drive this belt.

CV

Solution
The CV goes under the gravel on the belt and cuts through the inlet and outlet gravel
streams, as shown. The no-slip belt velocity must be

Then the belt applies tangential force F to the gravel, and the force balance from the
momentum conservation theorem is

Hence, Since,

Therefore, the power required to drive the belt is

Problem # 3
A pump in a tank of water directs a jet at 45 m/s and 5 kg/s against a vane, as
shown in the figure. Compute the force F to hold the cart stationary if the jet
follows (a) path A; or (b) path B. The tank holds 550 liters of water at this instant.

CV

Solution
Let, be the CV encloses the tank and passes through jet B.
(a) For jet path A, no momentum flux crosses the CV, therefore F = 0.
(b) For jet path B, there is momentum flux, so the x-momentum relation yields:
 Now we don’t really know uB exactly, but we make the reasonable assumption
that the jet trajectory is frictionless and maintains its horizontal velocity
component, that is, uB ≈Vjet cos60°.
Thus we can estimate
 kg 
F  muB   5    45cos 60   112.5 N
 s 

Assignment Problem
Water at 20°C flows through the elbow shown in the figure and exits to the
atmosphere. The pipe diameter is D1 = 10 cm, while D2 = 3 cm. At a weight
flow rate of 150 N/s, the pressure p1 = 2.3 atm (gage). Neglecting the weight of
water and elbow, estimate the force on the flange bolts at section 1.

Answer: 2100 N
 Flow measurement devices:
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
Basic Principle:
The flow meter provides a geometrical change to the flow of fluid, usually a co-
axial contraction to the path of the fluid flow, so that a pressure drop is registered
in the flow of fluid between two sections.

Venturimeter
(Developed by Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in 1797)
8-100

Throat Diverging
Converging
section section
1 2
Converging passage and a gradual
p1  p2 diverging passage in the direction
of flow to avoid the loss of energy
due to separation.
 Measurement of flow rate by the Venturimeter

V2 , p2 , Fluid density 
A2

V1 , p1 ,
m
A1

If we apply Bernoulli’s equation between stations 1 and 2, we have

From continuity,

Therefore, B.E. => V2  A22   p1   p2 

2

 1  
   z 
1   z 2
2 g  A12    g    g 

 
Here, h1 and h2 are the piezometric pressure heads at sec. 1 and sec. 2 respectively,
and are defined as

Hence, the volume flow rate through the pipe is given by

(1)
If the pressure difference between Sections 1 and 2 is measured by a manometer
as shown in the figure, we can write,

Substituting piezometric head difference in Eq.(1),

we obtain,

If the pipe is horizontal, we have, z1=z2, therefore, h1  h2  h1  h2

Therefore,
However, for a real fluid, there will be an additional pressure drop because of the
friction at the solid surface.
Therefore, the actual pressure drop is more than that of estimated by a inviscid
flow. Hence, h is more than that have been obtained by the manometric
equation.

Hence, A1 A2 2 g  m   1 h
Qactual  Cd 
A12  A22
Coefficient of discharge, Theoretical flow rate

Generally, Cd  f  Q, A1 , A2 

For the higher flow rate, Cd  f  Re  Re = Reynolds number of the flow

Generally, for higher flow rates, coefficient of discharge virtually constant and has values
Cd  0.95  0.98 Requires calibration for practical use.
 Orificemeter
Its consists of a orifice plate, that is a plate with a hole at the centre.

D/2
Orifice meter
m Vena contracta

Placing the orifice meter causes contraction of the streamlines and as a result forms
a vena contracta, that is the minimum cross-sectional area which is very close to
the orifice.
Therefore, Vc  V1 , p1  pc
Considering the fluid to be ideal and the downstream pressure taping to be at the vena
contracta (Sec. c-c), we can write, by applying Bernoulli’s theorem between Sec. 1-1 and
Sec. c-c, 2 2
p1 V1 p V
  z1  c  c  zc
 g 2g  g 2g
 From the equation of continuity

Vc2  Ac2 
 1  2    h1  hc 
Therefore,  

2g  A1 

2 g  h1  hc 
 Vc 
 Ac2 
1  2 
 A1 

2g 
 
 m   1  h
Vc   
 Ac2 
1  2 
 A1 
Recalling the fact that the measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid is
always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an inviscid flow, a coefficient of
velocity Cv and hence,
 
  
 2 g  m  1  h 
Vc  Cv     
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
 Therefore, the flow rate, Q  AcVc
 

 2g   m 
 1  h 
   
Q  AcCv 
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
Ac
Now, we define the coefficient of contraction as Cc 
A0
Ac = Area of the vena contracta, and A0 = Area of the orifice (measureable)
 
 2g    m 
 1  h 
   
Hence, Q  A0CcCv 
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
Now, CcCv  Cd
 
 2g   m 
 1  h 
     C    m  1  h 
Q  A0Cd      
 
Therefore,

 Ac2 
     
 1 2 
  A1  
Where, C is a constant, also called the constant of the orifice meter.
To precociously calculate the value of C for the orifice meter, we need to do the
calibration experimentally. Usually, the value of Cd for the orifice meter lies in the
range 0.60-0.65.
Flow Nozzle or Nozzle Meter
It is almost the same as that for
a venturi meter, consists of a
streamlined convergent nozzle
but no divergent part of the
venturi meter. Intermediate rate
of Energy Dissipation.
The basic equations for calculation of flow rate are the same as those for a venturimeter.

Comparisons of various flow meters

Flow meter Accuracy Cost Loss of total energy Cd
Venturimeter High High Low 0.95-0.98

Orificemeter Low Low High 0.6-0.65

Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium 0.75-0.8

 Concept of Static and Stagnation pressures

Static pressure: It is the hydrostatic pressure, that is pressure exerted when the fluid
is at rest.
For the flow of a real and Stoksian fluid (the fluid which obeys Stoke’s law) the
static or thermodynamic pressure becomes equal to the arithmetic average of the
normal stresses at a point. The static pressure is a parameter to describe the state
of a flowing fluid.
How to measure the Static pressure?

No component of velocity in this direction

Pressure measuring Static pressure, p
device
Stagnation pressure: The stagnation pressure at a point in a fluid flow is the pressure
which could result if the fluid were brought to rest isentropically.

Uniform velocity fluid

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between

points A and B
p V 2 pB
 
 g 2g  g p0  p
1
p0  pB  p  V 2 Corresponding equivalent pressure head
2
p0 1
By definition, stagnation pressure V 2  is the dynamic pressure.
Where, p is the static pressure. 2
Hence, when the fluid is brought to rest, the total conversion of the KE into the pressure
energy.
 Pitot Tube for Flow Measurement
The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted first by a French
Scientist Henri Pitot in 1732 for measuring velocities in the river.
Concept

Measures stagnation pressure

Measures static pressure

Sense the static

pressure
Measures the
stagnation
pressure/stagnation
tube

Pitot static tube Flow velocity V  2  p0  p    2H 

V-Notch or Weir for Open Channel Flow Measurement

Rectangular Notch or Weir