BCS601 Cloud Computing Module-1

Module-1
Distributed System Models and Enabling Technologies:
Scalable Computing Over the Internet, Technologies for Network Based Systems, System Models
for Distributed and Cloud Computing, Software Environments for Distributed Systems and
Clouds, Performance, Security and Energy Efficiency.
Textbook 1: Chapter 1: 1.1 to 1.5

EVOLUTION OF DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING

• Grids enable access to shared computing power and storage capacity from your desktop.
• Clouds enable access to leased computing power and storage capacity from your desktop.
• Grids are an open source technology. Resource users and providers alike can understand and
contribute to the management of their grid
• Clouds are a proprietary technology. Only the resource provider knows exactly how their cloud
manages data, job queues, security requirements and so on.
• The concept of grids was proposed in 1995. The Open science grid (OSG) started in 1995 The
EDG (European Data Grid) project began in 2001.
• In the late 1990`s Oracle and EMC offered early private cloud solutions . However the term cloud
computing didn't gain prominence until 2007. o high-performance computing (HPC) applications
is no longer optimal for measuring system performance
• The emergence of computing clouds instead demands high-throughput computing (HTC)
systems built with parallel and distributed computing technologies
• We have to upgrade data centers using fast servers, storage systems, and high-bandwidth
networks.
• From 1950 to 1970, a handful of mainframes, including the IBM 360 and CDC 6400
1.1 SCALABLE COMPUTING OVER THE INTERNET
Instead of using a centralized computer to solve computational problems, a parallel and distributed
computing system uses multiple computers to solve large-scale problems over the Internet. Thus,
distributed computing becomes data-intensive and network-centric.
The Age of Internet Computing
The Platform Evolution
o From 1960 to 1980, lower-cost minicomputers such as the DEC PDP 11 and VAX Series
o From 1970 to 1990, we saw widespread use of personal computers built with VLSI microprocessors.
o From 1980 to 2000, massive numbers of portable computers and pervasive devices appeared in both
wired and wireless applications
o Since 1990, the use of both HPC and HTC systems hidden in clusters, grids, or Internet clouds has
proliferated

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High-Performance Computing (HPC) and High-Throughput Computing (HTC) have evolved

significantly, driven by advances in clustering, P2P networks, and cloud computing.
• HPC Evolution:
o Traditional supercomputers (MPPs) are being replaced by clusters of cooperative
computers for better resource sharing.
o HPC has focused on raw speed performance, progressing from Gflops (1990s) to
Pflops (2010s).
• HTC and P2P Networks:
o HTC systems prioritize high-flux computing, emphasizing task throughput over
raw speed.
o P2P networks facilitate distributed file sharing and content delivery using globally
distributed client machines.
o HTC applications dominate areas like Internet searches and web services for
millions of users.
• Market Shift from HPC to HTC:
o HTC systems address challenges beyond speed, including cost, energy efficiency,
security, and reliability.
• Emerging Paradigms:
o Advances in virtualization have led to the rise of Internet clouds, enabling service-
oriented computing.
o Technologies like RFID, GPS, and sensors are fueling the growth of the Internet of
Things (IoT).
• Computing Model Overlaps:
o Distributed computing contrasts with centralized computing.
o Parallel computing shares concepts with distributed computing.
o Cloud computing integrates aspects of distributed, centralized, and parallel
computing.

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The transition from HPC to HTC marks a strategic shift in computing paradigms, focusing on
scalability, efficiency, and real-world usability over pure processing power.
Computing Paradigm Distinctions
Centralized computing
A computing paradigm where all computer resources are centralized in a single physical
system. In this setup, processors, memory, and storage are fully shared and tightly integrated
within one operating system. Many data centers and supercomputers operate as centralized
systems, but they are also utilized in parallel, distributed, and cloud computing applications.
• Parallel computing
In parallel computing, processors are either tightly coupled with shared memory or loosely
coupled with distributed memory. Communication occurs through shared memory or message
passing. A system that performs parallel computing is a parallel computer, and the programs
running on it are called parallel programs. Writing these programs is referred to as parallel
programming.
• Distributed computing studies distributed systems, which consist of multiple autonomous
computers with private memory communicating through a network via message passing.
Programs running in such systems are called distributed programs, and writing them is known
as distributed programming.
Cloud computing refers to a system of Internet-based resources that can be either centralized
or distributed. It uses parallel, distributed computing, or both, and can be established with
physical or virtualized resources over large data centers. Some regard cloud computing as a
form of utility computing or service computing. Alternatively, terms such as concurrent
computing or concurrent programming are used within the high-tech community, typically
referring to the combination of parallel and distributed computing, although interpretations
may vary among practitioners.

• Ubiquitous computing refers to computing with pervasive devices at any place and time
using wired or wireless communication. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a networked connection
of everyday objects including computers, sensors, humans, etc. The IoT is supported by Internet
clouds to achieve ubiquitous computing with any object at any place and time. Finally, the term
Internet computing is even broader and covers all computing paradigms over the Internet. This
book covers all the aforementioned computing paradigms, placing more emphasis on
distributed and cloud computing and their working systems, including the clusters, grids, P2P,
and cloud systems.
Internet of Things The traditional Internet connects machines to machines or web pages to web
pages. The concept of the IoT was introduced in 1999 at MIT.
• The IoT refers to the networked interconnection of everyday objects, tools, devices, or computers.
One can view the IoT as a wireless network of sensors that interconnect all things in our daily life.
• It allows objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure

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Distributed System Families

Massively distributed systems, including grids, clouds, and P2P networks, focus on resource
sharing in hardware, software, and datasets. These systems emphasize parallelism and concurrency,
as demonstrated by large-scale infrastructures like the Tianhe-1A supercomputer (built in China in
2010 with over 3.2 million cores).
Future HPC (High-Performance Computing) and HTC (High-Throughput Computing) systems
will require multicore and many-core processors to support large-scale parallel computing. The
effectiveness of these systems is determined by the following key design objectives:
1. Efficiency – Maximizing resource utilization for HPC and optimizing job throughput, data
access, and power efficiency for HTC.
2. Dependability – Ensuring reliability, self-management, and Quality of Service (QoS), even
in failure conditions.
3. Adaptability – Supporting large-scale job requests and virtualized resources across different
workload and service models.
4. Flexibility – Enabling HPC applications (scientific and engineering) and HTC applications
(business and cloud services) to run efficiently in distributed environments.
The future of distributed computing depends on scalable, efficient, and flexible architectures that
can meet the growing demand for computational power, throughput, and energy efficiency.
Scalable Computing Trends and New Paradigms
Scalable computing is driven by technological advancements that enable high-performance
computing (HPC) and high-throughput computing (HTC). Several trends, such as Moore’s Law
(doubling of processor speed every 18 months) and Gilder’s Law (doubling of network bandwidth
each year), have shaped modern computing. The increasing affordability of commodity hardware
has also fueled the growth of large-scale distributed systems.
Degrees of Parallelism
Parallelism in computing has evolved from:
• Bit-Level Parallelism (BLP) – Transition from serial to word-level processing.
• Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP) – Executing multiple instructions simultaneously
(pipelining, superscalar computing).
• Data-Level Parallelism (DLP) – SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) architectures.
• Task-Level Parallelism (TLP) – Parallel execution of independent tasks on multicore
processors.
• Job-Level Parallelism (JLP) – Large-scale distributed job execution in cloud computing.
Coarse-grained parallelism builds on fine-grained parallelism, ensuring scalability in HPC and HTC
systems.

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Innovative Applications of Distributed Systems

Parallel and distributed systems support applications in various domains:
Domain Applications
Science & Engineering Weather forecasting, genomic analysis
Business, education, services industry, and E-commerce, banking, stock exchanges
health care
Internet and web services, and government Cybersecurity, digital governance, traffic
applications monitoring
Mission-Critical Systems Military, crisis management

HTC systems prioritize task throughput over raw speed, addressing challenges like cost, energy
efficiency, security, and reliability.
The Shift Toward Utility Computing
Utility computing follows a pay-per-use model where computing resources are delivered as a service.
Cloud computing extends this concept, allowing distributed applications to run on edge networks.

Challenges include:
• Efficient network processors
• Scalable storage and memory
• Virtualization middleware
• New programming models
The Hype Cycle of Emerging Technologies
New technologies follow a hype cycle, progressing through:
1. Technology Trigger – Early development and research.
2. Peak of Inflated Expectations – High expectations but unproven benefits.
3. Trough of Disillusionment – Realization of limitations.
4. Slope of Enlightenment – Gradual improvements.
5. Plateau of Productivity – Mainstream adoption.

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For example, in 2010, cloud computing was moving toward mainstream adoption, while broadband
over power lines was expected to become obsolete.
The Internet of Things (IoT) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS)
• IoT: Interconnects everyday objects (sensors, RFID, GPS) to enable real-time tracking and
automation.
• CPS: Merges computation, communication, and control (3C) to create intelligent systems
for virtual and physical world interactions.
Both IoT and CPS will play a significant role in future cloud computing and smart infrastructure
development.
1.2 Technologies for Network-Based Systems
Advancements in multicore CPUs and multithreading technologies have played a crucial role in
the development of high-performance computing (HPC) and high-throughput computing (HTC).
Advances in CPU Processors

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• Modern multicore processors integrate dual, quad, six, or more processing cores to
enhance parallelism at the instruction level (ILP) and task level (TLP).
• Processor speed growth has followed Moore’s Law, increasing from 1 MIPS (VAX 780,
1978) to 22,000 MIPS (Sun Niagara 2, 2008) and 159,000 MIPS (Intel Core i7 990x, 2011).
• Clock rates have increased from 10 MHz (Intel 286) to 4 GHz (Pentium 4) but have
stabilized due to heat and power limitations.
Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU Architectures

• Multicore processors house multiple processing units, each with private L1 cache and
shared L2/L3 cache for efficient data access.
• Many-core GPUs (e.g., NVIDIA and AMD architectures) leverage hundreds to thousands
of cores, excelling in data-level parallelism (DLP) and graphics processing.
• Example: Sun Niagara II – Built with eight cores, each supporting eight threads, achieving
a maximum parallelism of 64 threads.
Key Trends in Processor and Network Technology
• Multicore chips continue to evolve with improved caching mechanisms and increased
processing cores per chip.
• Network speeds have improved from Ethernet (10 Mbps) to Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
and beyond 100 Gbps to support high-speed data communication.
Modern distributed computing systems rely on scalable multicore architectures and high-speed
networks to handle massive parallelism, optimize efficiency, and enhance overall performance.
Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU Architectures
Advancements in multicore CPUs and many-core GPUs have significantly influenced modern
high-performance computing (HPC) and high-throughput computing (HTC) systems. As CPUs
approach their parallelism limits, GPUs have emerged as powerful alternatives for massive
parallelism and high computational efficiency.
Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU Trends

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• Multicore CPUs continue to evolve from tens to hundreds of cores, but they face challenges
like the memory wall problem, limiting data-level parallelism (DLP).
• Many-core GPUs, with hundreds to thousands of lightweight cores, excel in DLP and
task-level parallelism (TLP), making them ideal for massively parallel workloads.
• Hybrid architectures are emerging, combining fat CPU cores and thin GPU cores on a
single chip for optimal performance.
Multithreading Technologies in Modern CPUs
• Different microarchitectures exploit parallelism at instruction-level (ILP) and thread-
level (TLP):
o Superscalar Processors – Execute multiple instructions per cycle.
o Fine-Grained Multithreading – Switches between threads every cycle.
o Coarse-Grained Multithreading – Runs one thread for multiple cycles before
switching.
o Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) – Executes multiple threads in the same cycle.

GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond

• GPUs were initially designed for graphics acceleration but are now used for general-purpose
parallel computing (GPGPU).

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• Modern GPUs (e.g., NVIDIA CUDA, Tesla, and Fermi) feature hundreds of cores,
handling thousands of concurrent threads.
• Example: The NVIDIA Fermi GPU has 512 CUDA cores and delivers 82.4 teraflops,
contributing to the performance of top supercomputers like Tianhe-1A.

GPU vs. CPU Performance and Power Efficiency

• GPUs prioritize throughput, while CPUs optimize latency using cache hierarchies.
• Power efficiency is a key advantage of GPUs – GPUs consume 1/10th of the power per
instruction compared to CPUs.
• Future Exascale Systems will require 60 Gflops/W per core, making power efficiency a
major challenge in parallel and distributed computing.

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Challenges in Future Parallel and Distributed Systems

1. Energy and Power Efficiency – Reducing power consumption while increasing
performance.
2. Memory and Storage Bottlenecks – Optimizing data movement to avoid bandwidth
limitations.
3. Concurrency and Locality – Improving software and compiler support for parallel
execution.
4. System Resiliency – Ensuring fault tolerance in large-scale computing environments.
The shift towards hybrid architectures (CPU + GPU) and the rise of power-aware computing
models will drive the next generation of HPC, HTC, and cloud computing systems.
1.2.3 Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area Networking
Memory Technology
• DRAM capacity has increased 4x every three years (from 16 KB in 1976 to 64 GB in 2011).
• Memory access speed has not kept pace, causing the memory wall problem, where CPUs
outpace memory access speeds.

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Disks and Storage Technology

• Hard drive capacity has grown 10x every eight years, reaching 3 TB (Seagate Barracuda
XT, 2011).
• Solid-State Drives (SSDs) provide significant speed improvements and durability (300,000
to 1 million write cycles per block).
• Power and cooling challenges limit large-scale storage expansion.
System-Area Interconnects & Wide-Area Networking
• Local Area Networks (LANs) connect clients and servers.
• Storage Area Networks (SANs) & Network Attached Storage (NAS) support large-scale
data storage and retrieval.
• Ethernet speeds have evolved from 10 Mbps (1979) to 100 Gbps (2011), with 1 Tbps links
expected in the future.
• High-speed networking enhances distributed computing efficiency and scalability.

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1.2.4 Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware

Virtualization in Distributed Systems
• Traditional computing tightly couples OS and hardware, reducing flexibility.
• Virtual Machines (VMs) abstract hardware resources, allowing multiple OS instances on a
single system.

Virtual Machine Architectures

1. Native VM (Hypervisor-based) – Direct hardware access via bare-metal hypervisors (e.g.,
VMware ESXi, Xen).
Native VMs, also known as bare-metal virtualization, directly run on physical hardware
without requiring a host operating system. These VMs rely on a hypervisor (or Virtual
Machine Monitor, VMM) to manage multiple virtual instances running on a single hardware
platform.
• Runs directly on the physical machine (bare-metal).
• The hypervisor is responsible for allocating resources (CPU, memory, I/O) to virtual
machines.
• Provides high performance and low overhead since it bypasses the host OS.
• Ensures strong isolation between VMs.
2. Host VM (Software-based) – Runs as an application on a host OS (e.g., VirtualBox, VMware
Workstation).
A hosted virtual machine runs as an application within an existing operating system, relying
on a host OS to provide access to hardware resources. These VMs are managed using
software-based virtualization platforms.
• Runs on top of a host operating system.
• Uses software-based virtualization techniques (binary translation, dynamic
recompilation).
• Has higher overhead compared to native VMs.
• Provides greater flexibility since it can run on general-purpose systems.

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3. Hybrid VM – Uses a combination of user-mode and privileged-mode virtualization.

Hybrid VMs combine features of both native and hosted virtualization. They partially
virtualize hardware by running some components in user mode and others in privileged
mode. This architecture optimizes performance by reducing overhead while maintaining
flexibility and ease of management.
• Uses both hardware-assisted and software virtualization techniques.
• The hypervisor runs at the kernel level, but some functions rely on the host OS.
• Balances performance and flexibility for different workloads.

Virtual Machine Operations

• First, the VMs can be multiplexed between hardware machines, as shown in Figure 1.13(a).
• Second, a VM can be suspended and stored in stable storage, as shown in Figure 1.13(b).
• Third, a suspended VM can be resumed or provisioned to a new hardware platform, as shown in Figure 1.13(c).
• Finally, a VM can be migrated from one hardware platform to another, as shown in Figure 1.13(d).

• Multiplexing – Multiple VMs share physical resources.

• Suspension & Migration – VMs can be paused, saved, or migrated across different servers.
• Provisioning – VMs can be dynamically deployed based on workload demand.
Virtual Infrastructure
• Separates physical hardware from applications, enabling flexible resource management.
• Enhances server utilization from 5–15% to 60–80% (as claimed by VMware).

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1.2.5 Data Center Virtualization for Cloud Computing

Data Center Growth and Cost Breakdown
• 43 million servers worldwide (2010), with utilities (power & cooling) exceeding hardware
costs after three years.
• 60% of data center costs go toward maintenance and management, emphasizing energy
efficiency over raw performance.
Low-Cost Design Philosophy
• Commodity x86 servers & Ethernet replace expensive mainframes & proprietary
networking hardware.
• Software handles fault tolerance, load balancing, and scalability, reducing infrastructure
costs.
Convergence of Technologies Enabling Cloud Computing
1. Virtualization & Multi-core Processors – Enable scalable computing.
2. Utility & Grid Computing – Provide a foundation for cloud computing.
3. SOA, Web 2.0, and Mashups – Facilitate cloud-based service integration.
4. Autonomic Computing & Data Center Automation – Improve efficiency and fault
tolerance.
The Rise of Data-Intensive Computing
• Scientific research, business, and web applications generate vast amounts of data.
• Cloud computing & parallel computing address the data deluge challenge.
• MapReduce & Iterative MapReduce enable scalable data processing for big data and
machine learning applications.
• The convergence of data-intensive computing, cloud platforms, and multicore
architectures is shaping the next generation of distributed computing.

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The integration of memory, storage, networking, virtualization, and cloud data centers is
transforming distributed systems. By leveraging virtualization, scalable networking, and cloud
computing, modern infrastructures achieve higher efficiency, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness,
paving the way for future exascale computing.

1.3 SYSTEM MODELS FOR DISTRIBUTED AND CLOUD COMPUTING

• Distributed and cloud computing systems are built using large-scale, interconnected autonomous
computer nodes. These nodes are linked through Storage Area Networks (SANs), Local Area
Networks (LANs), or Wide Area Networks (WANs) in a hierarchical manner.
• Clusters: Connected by LAN switches, forming tightly coupled systems with hundreds of
machines.
• Grids: Interconnect multiple clusters via WANs, allowing resource sharing across
thousands of computers.
• P2P Networks: Form decentralized, cooperative networks with millions of nodes, used in
file sharing and content distribution.
• Cloud Computing: Operates over massive data centers, delivering on-demand computing
resources at a global scale.
These systems exhibit high scalability, enabling web-scale computing with millions of
interconnected nodes. Their technical and application characteristics vary based on factors such as
resource sharing, control mechanisms, and workload distribution.
Functionality, Computer Clusters Peer-to-Peer Data/ Computational Cloud Platforms
Applications [10,28,38] Networks [34,46] Grids [ 6,18,51] [1,9,11,12,30]
Architecture,
Network of compute Flexible network Heterogeneous clusters Virtualized cluster of
Network
nodes interconnected by of client machines interconnected by high- servers over data centers
Connectivity,
SAN, LAN, or WAN logically speed network links over via SLA
and Size
hierarchically connected by an selected resource sites
overlay network
Control and Homogeneous nodes Autonomous client Centralized control, Dynamic resource
Resources with distributed control, nodes, free in and out, server- oriented with provisioning of servers,
Management running UNIX or Linux with self-organization authenticated security storage, and networks

Applications High-performance Most appealing to Distributed Upgraded web search,

and Network- computing, business file sharing, supercomputing, global utility computing, and
centric Services search e n g i n e s , and web content delivery, and problem solving, and outsourced Most
services, etc. social networking data center services appealing to business file
sharing, content delivery,
and
social networking
computing services
Representative Google search engine, Gnutella, eMule, TeraGrid, GriPhyN, UK Google App Engine, IBM
Operational SunBlade, IBM Road BitTorrent, Napster, EGEE, D-Grid, Bluecloud, AWS, and
Systems Runner, Cray Ka Za A, Skype, JXTA ChinaGrid, etc Microsoft Gnutella,
XT4, etc. eMule, BitTorrent,
Napster, KaZaA, Skype,
JXTA

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Clusters of Cooperative Computers

A computing cluster consists of interconnected stand-alone computers which work cooperatively as
a single integrated computing resource.
• In the past, clustered computer systems have demonstrated impressive results in handling heavy
workloads with large data sets.
Cluster Architecture
Server Clusters and System Models for Distributed Computing
1.3.1 Server Clusters and Interconnection Networks
Server clusters consist of multiple interconnected computers using high-bandwidth, low-latency
networks like Storage Area Networks (SANs), Local Area Networks (LANs), and InfiniBand.
These clusters are scalable, allowing thousands of nodes to be connected hierarchically.

• Clusters are connected to the Internet via a VPN gateway, which assigns an IP address to
locate the cluster.
• Each node operates independently, with its own OS, creating multiple system images
(MSI).
• The cluster manages shared I/O devices and disk arrays, providing efficient resource
utilization.
1.3.1.2 Single-System Image (SSI)
An ideal cluster should merge multiple system images into a single-system image (SSI), where all
nodes appear as a single powerful machine.
• SSI is achieved through middleware or specialized OS support, enabling CPU, memory,
and I/O sharing across all cluster nodes.
• Clusters without SSI function as a collection of independent computers rather than a unified
system.

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1.3.1.3 Hardware, Software, and Middleware Support

• Cluster nodes consist of PCs, workstations, or servers, interconnected using Gigabit
Ethernet, Myrinet, or InfiniBand.
• Linux OS is commonly used for cluster management.
• Message-passing interfaces (MPI, PVM) enable parallel execution across nodes.
• Middleware supports features like high availability (HA), distributed memory sharing
(DSM), and job scheduling.
• Virtual clusters can be dynamically created using virtualization, optimizing resource
allocation on demand.
1.3.1.4 Major Cluster Design Issues

Features Functional Characterization Feasible Implementations

Availability and Support Hardware and software support f o r Failover, failback, check pointing,
sustained HA in cluster rollback recovery, nonstop OS, etc.
Hardware Fault Tolerance Automated failure management to Component redundancy, hot
eliminate all single points of failure swapping, RAID, multiple
power supplies, etc.
Single System Image (SSI) Achieving SSI at functional level with Hardware mechanisms or middleware
hardware a nd software support, support t o achieve DSM at coherent
middleware, or OS extensions c a c h e level
Efficient Communications To reduce me s sa ge -passing system Fast message passing, active
overhead and hide latencies messages, enhanced MPI library, etc.
Cluster-wide Job Using a global job management Application of single-job
system with better scheduling and management systems such as LSF,
Management monitoring Codine, etc.
Dynamic Load Balancing Balancing the workload of all Workload monitoring, process
processing nodes a l o n g with failure migration, job replication and gang
recovery scheduling, etc.
Scalability and Adding more servers to a cluster or Use of scalable interconnect,
adding more clusters to a grid as the performance monitoring, distributed
Programmability workload or data set increases execution environment, and better
software tools
• Lack of a cluster-wide OS limits full resource sharing.
• Middleware solutions provide necessary functionalities like scalability, fault tolerance, and
job management.
• Key challenges include efficient message passing, seamless fault tolerance, high
availability, and performance scalability.
Server clusters are scalable, high-performance computing systems that utilize networked
computing nodes for parallel and distributed processing. Achieving SSI and efficient
middleware support remains a key challenge in cluster computing. Virtual clusters and cloud
computing are evolving to enhance cluster flexibility and resource management.
1.3.2 Grid Computing, Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks, and System Models
Grid Computing Infrastructures

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Grid computing has evolved from Internet and web-based services to enable large-scale
distributed computing. It allows applications running on remote systems to interact in real-time.
1.3.2.1 Computational Grids
• A grid connects distributed computing resources (workstations, servers, clusters,
supercomputers) over LANs, WANs, and the Internet.

• Used for scientific and enterprise applications, including SETI@Home and astrophysics
simulations.
• Provides an integrated resource pool, enabling shared computing, data, and information
services.
1.3.2.2 Grid Families
Design Issues Computational and Data Grids P2P Grids

Grid Applications Reported Distributed supercomputing, Open grid with P2P flexibility, all
National Grid initiatives, etc. resources from client machines
Representative Systems TeraGrid built in US, ChinaGrid in JXTA, FightAid@home,
China, and the e-Science grid SETI@home
built in UK
Development Lessons Learned Restricted user groups, Unreliable user-contributed
middleware bugs, protocols to resources, limited to a few apps
acquire resources
• Computational and Data Grids – Used in national-scale supercomputing projects (e.g.,
TeraGrid, ChinaGrid, e-Science Grid).
• P2P Grids – Utilize client machines for open, distributed computing (e.g., SETI@Home,
JXTA, FightingAID@Home).
• Challenges include middleware bugs, security issues, and unreliable user-contributed
resources.
1.3.3 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network Families
P2P systems eliminate central coordination, allowing client machines to act as both servers and
clients.
1.3.3.1 P2P Systems

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Decentralized architecture with self-organizing peers.

No central authority; all nodes are independent.
Dynamic membership – peers can join and leave freely.

1.3.3.2 Overlay Networks

• Logical connections between peers, independent of the physical network.
• Two types:
o Unstructured overlays – Randomly connected peers, requiring flooding for data
retrieval (high traffic).
o Structured overlays – Use predefined rules for routing and data lookup, improving
efficiency.
1.3.3.3 P2P Application Families
P2P networks serve four main application categories:

Category Examples Challenges

File Sharing Napster, BitTorrent, Gnutella Copyright issues, security concerns

Collaboration PlatformsSkype, MSN, Multiplayer games Privacy risks, spam, lack of trust

Distributed Computing SETI@Home, Genome@Home Security vulnerabilities, selfish nodes

Open P2P Platforms JXTA, .NET, FightingAID@Home

Lack of standardization and security

1.3.3.4 P2P Computing Challenges

• Heterogeneity – Varying hardware, OS, and network configurations.
• Scalability – Must handle growing workloads and distributed resources efficiently.
• Data Location & Routing – Optimizing data placement for better performance.
• Fault Tolerance & Load Balancing – Peers can fail unpredictably.
• Security & Privacy – No central control means increased risk of data breaches and
malware.
P2P networks offer robust and decentralized computing, but lack security and reliability, making
them suitable only for low-security applications like file sharing and collaborative tools.
Both grid computing and P2P networks provide scalable, distributed computing models. While
grids are used for structured, high-performance computing, P2P networks enable decentralized,

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user-driven resource sharing. Future developments will focus on security, standardization, and
efficiency improvements.
Cloud Computing over the Internet
Cloud computing has emerged as a transformative on-demand computing paradigm, shifting
computation and data storage from desktops to large data centers. This approach enables the
virtualization of hardware, software, and data resources, allowing users to access scalable
services over the Internet.
1.3.4.1 Internet Clouds

• Cloud computing leverages virtualization to dynamically provision resources, reducing

costs and complexity.
• It offers elastic, scalable, and self-recovering computing power through server clusters and
large databases.
• The cloud can be perceived as either a centralized resource pool or a distributed computing
platform.
• Key benefits: Cost-effectiveness, flexibility, and multi-user application support.
1.3.4.2 The Cloud Landscape
Traditional computing systems suffer from high maintenance costs, poor resource utilization, and
expensive hardware upgrades. Cloud computing resolves these issues by providing on-demand
access to computing resources.

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Three Major Cloud Service Models:

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
o Provides computing infrastructure such as virtual machines (VMs), storage, and
networking.
o Users deploy and manage their applications but do not control the underlying
infrastructure.
o Examples: Amazon EC2, Google Compute Engine.
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
o Offers a development environment with middleware, databases, and
programming tools.
o Enables developers to build, test, and deploy applications without managing
infrastructure.
o Examples: Google App Engine, Microsoft Azure, AWS Lambda.
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
o Delivers software applications via web browsers.
o Users pay for access instead of purchasing software licenses.
o Examples: Google Workspace, Microsoft 365, Salesforce.
Cloud Deployment Models:
• Private Cloud – Dedicated to a single organization (e.g., corporate data centers).
• Public Cloud – Hosted by third-party providers for general use (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud).
• Managed Cloud – Operated by a third-party service provider with customized
configurations.

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• Hybrid Cloud – Combines public and private clouds, optimizing cost and security.
Advantages of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing provides several benefits over traditional computing paradigms, including:
1. Energy-efficient data centers in secure locations.
2. Resource sharing, optimizing utilization and handling peak loads.
3. Separation of infrastructure maintenance from application development.
4. Cost savings compared to traditional on-premise infrastructure.
5. Scalability for application development and cloud-based computing models.
6. Enhanced service and data discovery for content and service distribution.
7. Security and privacy improvements, though challenges remain.
8. Flexible service agreements and pricing models for cost-effective computing.
Cloud computing fundamentally changes how applications and services are developed, deployed,
and accessed. With virtualization, scalability, and cost efficiency, it has become the backbone of
modern Internet services and enterprise computing. Future advancements will focus on security,
resource optimization, and hybrid cloud solutions.
1.4 Software Environments for Distributed Systems and Clouds
This section introduces Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) and other key software environments
that enable distributed and cloud computing systems. These environments define how
applications, services, and data interact within grids, clouds, and P2P networks.
1.4.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
SOA enables modular, scalable, and reusable software components that communicate over a
network. It underpins web services, grids, and cloud computing environments.
1.4.1.1 Layered Architecture for Web Services and Grids
• Distributed computing builds on the OSI model, adding layers for service interfaces,
workflows, and management.

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• Communication standards include:

o SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) – Used in web services.
o RMI (Remote Method Invocation) – Java-based communication.
o IIOP (Internet Inter-ORB Protocol) – Used in CORBA-based systems.
• Middleware tools (e.g., WebSphere MQ, Java Message Service) manage messaging,
security, and fault tolerance.
1.4.1.2 Web Services and Tools
SOA is implemented via two main approaches:
1. Web Services (SOAP-based) – Fully specified service definitions, enabling distributed OS-
like environments.
2. REST (Representational State Transfer) – Simpler, lightweight alternative for web
applications and APIs.
• Web Services provide structured, standardized communication but face challenges in
protocol agreement and efficiency.
• REST is flexible and scalable, better suited for fast-evolving environments.
• Integration of Services – Distributed systems use Remote Method Invocation (RMI) or
RPCs to link services into larger applications.
1.4.1.3 The Evolution of SOA

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SOA has expanded from basic web services to complex multi-layered ecosystems:
• Sensor Services (SS) – Devices like ZigBee, Bluetooth, GPS, and WiFi collect raw data.
• Filter Services (FS) – Process data before feeding into computing, storage, or discovery
clouds.
• Cloud Ecosystem – Integrates compute clouds, storage clouds, and discovery clouds for
managing large-scale applications.
SOA enables data transformation from raw data → useful information → knowledge → wisdom
→ intelligent decisions.
SOA defines the foundation for web services, distributed systems, and cloud computing. By
integrating sensors, processing layers, and cloud resources, SOA provides a scalable, flexible
approach for modern computing applications. The future of distributed computing will rely on
intelligent data processing, automation, and service-driven architectures.
1.4.1.4 Grids vs. Clouds
• Grids use static resources, whereas clouds provide elastic, on-demand resources via
virtualization.
• Clouds focus on automation and scalability, while grids are better for negotiated
resource allocation.
• Hybrid models exist, such as clouds of grids, grids of clouds, and inter-cloud architectures.

1.4.2 Trends toward Distributed Operating Systems

Traditional distributed systems run independent OS instances on each node, resulting in multiple
system images. A distributed OS manages all resources coherently and efficiently across nodes.
1.4.2.1 Distributed OS Approaches (Tanenbaum's Models)
1. Network OS – Basic resource sharing via file systems (low transparency).
2. Middleware-based OS – Limited resource sharing through middleware extensions (e.g.,
MOSIX for Linux clusters).
3. Truly Distributed OS – Provides single-system image (SSI) with full transparency across
resources.

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1.4.2.2 Amoeba vs. DCE

• Amoeba (microkernel approach) offers a lightweight distributed OS model.
• DCE (middleware approach) extends UNIX for RPC-based distributed computing.
• MOSIX2 enables process migration across Linux-based clusters and clouds.
1.4.2.3 MOSIX2 for Linux Clusters
• Supports virtualization for seamless process migration across multiple clusters and clouds.
• Enhances parallel computing by dynamically balancing workloads across Linux nodes.
1.4.2.4 Transparency in Programming Environments
• Cloud computing separates user data, applications, OS, and hardware for flexible
computing.
• Users can switch between OS platforms and cloud services without being locked into
specific applications.

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1.4.3 Parallel and Distributed Programming Models

Distributed computing requires efficient parallel execution models to process large-scale workloads.

Model Description Key Features

MPI (Message- Standard for writing parallel Explicit communication between

Passing Interface) applications on distributed systems processes via message-passing

Map function generates key-value

Web programming model for scalable
MapReduce pairs; Reduce function merges
data processing on large clusters
values

Open-source framework for

Distributed storage (HDFS) and
Hadoop processing vast datasets in business
MapReduce-based computing
and cloud applications

1.4.3.1 Message-Passing Interface (MPI)

• Used for high-performance computing (HPC).
• Programs explicitly send and receive messages for inter-process communication.
1.4.3.2 MapReduce
• Highly scalable parallel model, used in big data processing and search engines.
• Splits workloads into Map (processing) and Reduce (aggregation) tasks.
• Google executes thousands of MapReduce jobs daily for large-scale data analysis.
1.4.3.3 Hadoop
• Open-source alternative to MapReduce, used for processing petabytes of data.
• Scalable, cost-effective, and fault-tolerant, making it ideal for cloud services.
1.4.3.4 Grid Standards and Toolkits
Grids use standardized middleware to manage resource sharing and security.

Standard Function Key Features

Supports heterogeneous computing,

OGSA (Open Grid Defines common grid
security policies, and resource
Services Architecture) services
allocation

Middleware for resource Uses PKI authentication, Kerberos,

Globus Toolkit (GT4)
discovery and security SSL, and delegation policies

Grid computing framework Supports autonomic computing and

IBM Grid Toolbox
for AIX/Linux clusters security management

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• Distributed OS models are evolving, with MOSIX2 enabling process migration and
resource sharing across Linux clusters.
• Parallel programming models like MPI and MapReduce optimize large-scale computing.
• Cloud computing and grid computing continue to merge, leveraging virtualization and
elastic resource management.
• Standardized middleware (OGSA, Globus) enhances grid security, interoperability, and
automation.
1.5 Performance, Security, and Energy Efficiency
This section discusses key design principles for distributed computing systems, covering
performance metrics, scalability, system availability, fault tolerance, and energy efficiency.
1.5.1 Performance Metrics and Scalability Analysis
Performance is measured using MIPS, Tflops, TPS, and network latency. Scalability is crucial in
distributed systems and has multiple dimensions:
1. Size Scalability – Expanding system resources (e.g., processors, memory, storage) to improve
performance.
2. Software Scalability – Upgrading OS, compilers, and libraries to accommodate larger
systems.
3. Application Scalability – Increasing problem size to match system capacity for cost-
effectiveness.
4. Technology Scalability – Adapting to new hardware and networking technologies while
ensuring compatibility.
1.5.1.3 Scalability vs. OS Image Count
• SMP systems scale up to a few hundred processors due to hardware constraints.
• NUMA systems use multiple OS images to scale to thousands of processors.
• Clusters and clouds scale further by using virtualization.
• Grids integrate multiple clusters, supporting hundreds of OS images.
• P2P networks scale to millions of nodes with independent OS images.

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1.5.1.4 Amdahl’s Law (Fixed Workload Scaling)

• Speedup in parallel computing is limited by the sequential portion of a program.

• Speedup Formula:
where α is the fraction of the workload that is sequential.
• Even with hundreds of processors, speedup is limited if sequential execution (α) is high.
Problem with Fixed Workload

• In Amdahl’s law, we have assumed the same amount of workload for both sequential and parallel
execution of the program with a fixed problem size or data set. This was called fixed-workload speedup
by Hwang and Xu [14]. To execute a fixed workload on n processors, parallel processing may lead to
a system efficiency defined as follows:

1.5.1.6 Gustafson’s Law (Scaled Workload Scaling)

• Instead of fixing workload size, this model scales the problem to match available
processors.

• Speedup Formula:
• This speedup is known as Gustafson’s law. By fixing the parallel execution time at
level W, the following efficiency expression is obtained:

• More efficient for large clusters, as workload scales dynamically with system size.
1.5.2 Fault Tolerance and System Availability
• High availability (HA) is essential in clusters, grids, P2P networks, and clouds.
• System availability depends on Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) and Mean Time to Repair
(MTTR): Availability=MTTF/(MTTF+MTTR)

• Eliminating single points of failure (e.g., hardware redundancy, fault isolation) improves
availability.

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• P2P networks are highly scalable but have low availability due to frequent peer failures.
• Grids and clouds offer better fault isolation and thus higher availability than traditional
clusters.
• Scalability and performance depend on resource expansion, workload distribution, and
parallelization.
• Amdahl’s Law limits speedup for fixed workloads, while Gustafson’s Law optimizes
large-scale computing.
• High availability requires redundancy, fault tolerance, and system design improvements.
• Clouds and grids balance scalability and availability better than traditional SMP or
NUMA systems.
Network Threats, Data Integrity, and Energy Efficiency
This section highlights security challenges, energy efficiency concerns, and mitigation strategies
in distributed computing systems, including clusters, grids, clouds, and P2P networks.
1.5.3 Network Threats and Data Integrity
Distributed systems require security measures to prevent cyberattacks, data breaches, and
unauthorized access.
1.5.3.1 Threats to Systems and Networks

• Loss of Confidentiality – Due to eavesdropping, traffic analysis, and media scavenging.

• Loss of Integrity – Caused by penetration attacks, Trojan horses, and unauthorized
access.
• Loss of Availability – Denial of Service (DoS) and resource exhaustion disrupt system
operation.

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• Improper Authentication – Allows attackers to steal resources, modify data, and conduct
replay attacks.
1.5.3.2 Security Responsibilities
Security in cloud computing is divided among different stakeholders based on the cloud service
model:
• SaaS: Cloud provider handles security, availability, and integrity.
• PaaS: Provider manages integrity and availability, while users control confidentiality.
• IaaS: Users are responsible for most security aspects, while providers ensure availability.
1.5.3.3 Copyright Protection
• Collusive piracy in P2P networks allows unauthorized file sharing.
• Content poisoning and timestamped tokens help detect piracy and protect digital rights.
1.5.3.4 System Defense Technologies
Three generations of network security have evolved:
1. Prevention-based – Access control, cryptography.
2. Detection-based – Firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), Public Key Infrastructure
(PKI).
3. Intelligent response systems – AI-driven threat detection and response.
1.5.3.5 Data Protection Infrastructure
• Trust negotiation ensures secure data sharing.
• Worm containment & intrusion detection protect against cyberattacks.
• Cloud security responsibilities vary based on the service model (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS).

1.5.4 Energy Efficiency in Distributed Computing

Distributed systems must balance high performance with energy efficiency due to increasing power
costs and environmental impact.
1.5.4.1 Energy Consumption of Unused Servers
• Many servers are left powered on but idle, leading to huge energy waste.
• Global energy cost of idle servers: $3.8 billion annually, with 11.8 million tons of CO₂
emissions.
• IT departments must identify underutilized servers to reduce waste.
1.5.4.2 Reducing Energy in Active Servers

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Energy consumption can be managed across four layers (Figure 1.26):

1. Application Layer – Optimize software to balance performance and energy consumption.

2. Middleware Layer – Smart task scheduling to reduce unnecessary computations.
3. Resource Layer – Use Dynamic Power Management (DPM) and Dynamic Voltage-
Frequency Scaling (DVFS).
4. Network Layer – Develop energy-efficient routing algorithms and optimize bandwidth
usage.
1.5.4.3 Dynamic Voltage-Frequency Scaling (DVFS)
• Reduces CPU voltage and frequency during idle times to save power.
o Formula for Energy Consumption in CMOS Circuits:

o Lowering voltage and frequency significantly reduces energy usage.

• Potential savings: DVFS can cut power consumption while maintaining performance.
• Energy efficiency is critical due to high costs and environmental impact.
• Techniques like DPM and DVFS can significantly reduce power consumption without
compromising performance.

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