UNIT 6.

THE CELLULAR
ORGANIZATION OF LIVING
THINGS
 DO YOU
REMEMBER?
1. What is a cell? What are the main differences between plant cells and animal cells?

2. In which part of the human cell is genetic information located?

3. What is a chromosome?

4. Look at these two photographs of cells and describe 4 structures that you see:
 1. What is a cell? What are the main differences between plant cells and animal cells?

A cell is the smallest unit that can live on its own. It carries out
the essential life functions: reproduction, nutrition and
interaction

PLANT CELLS:
ANIMAL CELLS:
- Chloroplast
- Centrioles
- Cell wall
- Big vacuole
In which part of the human cells is genetic
information located?

The genetic information is located in the nucleus, in

the form of DNA

What is a chromosome?

A chromosome is a structure that contains the

genetic information about an individual. They
transfer the information from the parent cell to the
daughter cell.
 Look at these two photographs of cells and describe 4 structures that you see:

Nucleus
Mitochondrion

Ribosomes
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
INDEX

1. CELL THEORY
2. CELL TYPES AND THEIR EVOLUTION
3. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
4. THE CELL NUCLEUS
5. THE CELL CYCLE
6. CHROMOSOMES
7. CELL DIVISION
8. MEIOSIS
1. CELL THEORY

Before the seventeenth century,

So… how were cells discovered?
nobody knew that cells existed Hooke: first to observe
cells and use the term cell

Schleiden and Schwann:

proposed the cell theory
Optical instruments

The cell theory can be summarised as follows:

o The cell is the structural unit of living things. All living things are made up of one or more cells

o The cell is the physiological unit of living things. It can do the three essentials functions:
reproduction, nutrition and interaction.

o All cells come from pre-existing cells as a result of division

 COMPONENTS OF A CELL

All cells share a common organisation:

Cell membrane

The outer structure that delimits the cell.

- Regulate the passing of substances
- Communication with other cells

Cytoplasm
Inner space. It consists of:
- Cytosol: liquid. It contains organic
molecules
- Ribosomes: an organelle

Genetic material
DNA that is inherit from parent
cell to daughter cell
2. CELL TYPES AND THEIR EVOLUTION

There are two types of cells:

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

- Very small - Bigger than prokaryotic

- Simple organisation - Possess ribosomes and other organelle in
- Genetic material not separated from the the cytosol
cytoplasm by a membrane - Genetic material is in the nucleus,
- Bacteria surrounded by a membrane
- Animals, plant, fungi and protist
PROKARYOTIC CELL
 The origin of eukaryotic cells

Lynn Margulis’s endosymbiotic theory is the most

accepted theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells Lynn Margulis

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 HOMEWORK!

o Draw the prokaryotic cell and indicate the main components

o Page 111. Activity 4

o Page 111. Activities 5 and 6

3. EUKARYOTIC CELLS

The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contains:

- Cytoskeleton
- Organelles: with and without some membranes

Organelles with membranes: Organelles without membranes:

o Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) o Ribosomes
o Golgi body or apparatus o Centrosome
o Mitochondria o Cytoskeleton
o Cilia and flagella
o Lysosomes
o Chloroplasts
o Vacuoles
 Endoplasmic reticulum

Interconnected membranes
forming channels:

- Rough ER: has ribosomes.

Protein synthesis. Always next
to nucleus
- Smooth ER: has not ribosomes.
Lipid synthesis

Ribosomes

Non-membranous organelles.
Synthesis of proteins
 Golgi body or apparatus

Unconnected flat sacs with vesicles. Functions:

- Modifying proteins and lipids (ER)

- Secreting substances outside of the cell
- Forming molecules

Mitochondria

- Cellular respiration: they produce

energy (ATP).
- They contain ribosomes and small
DNA molecules
 Cytoskeleton
Centrosome
Protein fibres and filaments
that form an internal It is used for the cell division.
skeleton.
- Animal cells: consists of 2 centrioles (cylindrical
- Gives the cell its shape and structures) + filaments of cytoskeleton
internal movement
- Vegetal: filaments of cytoskeleton. Not centrioles
 Cilia and flagella
Lysosomes
Membrane extensions supported internally by
the cytoskeleton. Allows movement Membranous vesicles containing
enzymes to digest substances
- Cilia: short and abundant
- Flagella: long and few in number

Cilia

Flagellum
 Chloroplasts
Vacuoles
Only in plant cells.
Membranous saccules that store
water, oil,…
- Photosynthesis takes place inside them.
- Contain ribosomes and DNA molecules
They are bigger in plant cells
 Cell wall

Only in plant cells. Rigid covering

surrounding the cell membrane. Gives
shape and rigidity.
 HOMEWORK!

o Complete the worksheet of eukaryotic cells

4. THE CELL NUCLEUS

STRUCTURE
The nucleus contains the genetic information (DNA).

Function: to control and regulate cell functions

There are some cells that have more than

one nucleus. They are called
multinucleated. Ex. Striated muscle cells

Other cells lack nuclei. Ex. human red blood

cells
https://youtu.be/Ipa4bRwUTY8?si=gWB40-d6-mLY703b
 HOMEWORK!

o Page 113. Activity 3

o Page 114. Activity 2

5. THE CELL CYCLE

A cell is born by the division from another cell and it

exists until it divides again or dies

During this time, the cell passes through a series of

events called the cell cycle

EUKARYOTIC CELLS:

Two main stages:

- Interphase (G1, S and G2 phases)

- Cell division (M phase)

Two main stages:

- Interphase (G1, S and G2 phases)

• G1 phase: the cell grows until it reaches a certain size

• S phase: the DNA replicates in the nucleosome. Each

chromosome now has two identical filaments

• G2 phase: the cell continues growing and prepares for

cell division

- Cell division (M phase): short period. The parent cell divides

into two daughter cells,each one with the same DNA as the
parent cell

What is G0 phase?
6. CHROMOSOMES

Chromosomes contain the genetic information about an individual.

They transfer this information from the parent cell to the daughter cell

STRUCTURE
 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS

All individuals within a species have the same number of chromosomes, but they are different between species:

HUMAN: 46 chromosomes DOGS: 78 chromosomes CHIMPANZEES: 48 chromosomes

Is the number of chromosomes related to the complexity of the species?

Most cells in organisms are DIPLOID (2n)

The chromosomes in both sets:

They possess 2 sets of chromosomes:
one from the mother and one for the - Are identical in shape and size
father - They determine the same biological characteristics
- They may contain different information

They are called HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES

HUMANS: 46 chromosomes. We have 23 pairs of

chromosomes, 23 chromosomes from our mother
and 23 from our father
Some cells are HAPLOID (n) They don’t have an homologous chromosomes, it’s only a set of
chromosomes

In humans, the reproductive cells or gametes are haploid : they

possess 23 chromosomes and not 46 chromosomes

When the two reproductive cells (sperm and egg) come together, they produce
WHY?
a cell with 46 chromosomes

46 chromosomes

23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes
 How can we differentiate each chromosome?

CHROMOSOME BANDS Each chromosome has a special pattern of light and dark bands

The position of the centromere is characteristic of each chromosome.

CHROMOSOME TYPES
This position affects arm length
 KARYOTYPE

The Karyotype is the set of chromosomes in a cell it an organism.

We can differentiate two types of chromosomes:

- Somatic chromosomes or autosomes: most of the

chromosomes

- Sex chromosomes or heterochromosomes: these determinate

the sex of an individual. There are two types: X and Y. Male (XY)
and female (XX)

HUMANS

Of the 46 chromosomes:
Humans beings possess 46
chromosomes (2n=46) in
- 44 are autosomes
all cells except gametes
- 2 are sex chromosomes
7. CELL DIVISION

During cell division, two daughter cells are formed from a parent cell. The
genetic material has been replicated before (phase S of the cell cycle) and it is
going to be distributed into the new two cells

In unicellular organisms, this process represents the reproduction.

Everytime the cell divides, a new organism is produced.

However, in pluricellular organisms, this process enables an individual to

grow or replace dying cells.

In Eukaryotic cells, cell division consists of two processes:

- Mitosis: division of the nucleus

- Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm

MITOSIS Division of the nucleus

This process distributes the genetic material equally between both daughter cells.

The DNA replicates before, during the interphase (phase S), but the chromosomes are not yet
visible

Mitosis consists of four phases:

1. PROPHASE

2. METAPHASE

3. ANAPHASE

4. TELOPHASE
https://youtu.be/5bq1To_RKEo?si=O120WYFquq2AxhhJ

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 CYTOKINESIS Division of the cytoplasm

The cytoplasm has to be divided between daughter cells. This process is different in animal and plant cells:

ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

The citoplasma is divided by cleavage in the The cell wall prevents cleavage. The cytoplasm is
cell equator. divided by formation of a septum called a
phragmoplast.
In this process, the contractile ring,
composed of actin and myosin, pulls the A collection of microtubules transports vesicles
cleavage furrow deeper until the cell containing cell wall materials to the center of the cell.
membranes meet in the center of the cell These vesicles fuse together creating the new wall

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 HOMEWORK!

o Page 119. Activity 8

o Page 119. Know how to do. Activities 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

8. MEIOSIS

- First meiotic division

Meiosis is the mechanism of cell division
that involves two consecutive cell divisions
- Second meiotic division

1 diploid cell
(2n, 46 chromosomes)

RESULT

4 haploid cells (n) which differ from

each other genetically. They contain
23 chromosomes, half as many HUMANS:
chromosomes as the parent cell
ONLY IN GAMETES OR SEXUAL CELLS
 Interphase
(DNA is replicated) First meiotic Interphase Second meiotic
Chromosomes have two division (Not replication) division
identical chromatids

Important!!
 FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

1 3

5
 SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION
1

2
5

3
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 THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis only occurs in eukaryotic cells: it takes place in the reproductive or sex cells

One diploid parent cells is divided into four haploid daughter cells

Human gametes have 23 chromosomes

Without this reduction of

chromosomes, the chromosome
number would double from one
46 chromosomes
generation to another

23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes
MEIOSIS INCREASES THE VARIABILITY OF SPECIES

Two reasons: 1 Crossover between maternal and paternal

chromosomes (homologous chromosomes) created
genetic recombination

The chromosomes produced have exchanged

fragments: they carry new combinations of genetic
material

2 The process of chromosome distribution between FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

the four daughter cells is random.

Each cell is going to receive 23 chromosomes

randomly
 HOMEWORK!

oPage 121. Activities 2, 3, 4, 5, 6