LESSON 1: MATHEMIATICS IN OUR WORLD DIMENSIONS

PART I: What is mathematics?

- Mathematics has beauty, simplicity, structure,

imagination and crazy ideas (like poetry and music)
- a branch of science, which deals with numbers and their
operations.
- Involves calculation, computation, solving of problems
etc.
- Its dictionary meaning states that, ‘Mathematics is the 4-Dimensional hyper cube
science of numbers and space’ or ‘Mathematics is the
science of measurement, quantity and magnitude.’
- It is exact, precise, systematic and a logical subject.
- helps us to organize and systemize our ideas about
patterns

Patterns and Numbers in Nature

- an arrangement which helps observers anticipate what

they might see or what happens next.
• Human culture has developed a formal system of
thought for recognizing, classifying and making sense of
patterns, we call it mathematics

Abstraction

- Symbol and apply logical reasoning and deductions

Hallmark of mathematics

1. Abstraction
2. Symbolic methods
3. Conditional reasoning and deduction
4. Proof
5. Rigor
6. Aesthetics

Mathematics provides us the tools to make sense of the

physical/perceptual world

What is reality?

- Using senses but senses can deceive us. We need to

use our mind (intellect, reason, intuition and
mathematics) to uncover the ideal world
MATHEMATICIANS 2. Formalism
- Creation of the mind
Views:
- We just do...mathematicians create mathematics
1. Platonism - Nagawa lang at hindi nag exists
- Mathematical objects are real, and just need to • Supporting Mathematicians
discover it - Bertrand Russel & Alfred North Whitehead
- Math is part of objective reality, it exists out
there, independent of human experience
• Supporting mathematicians
- Plato

- Galileo

- Richard Feynman - David Hilbert

- Mathematics is a chess – has finite rules

- Goal of formalist is to find the axioms that
would lead to every possible true
mathematical statement, and to rid
mathematics of all contradiction

Conclusion:
Part II: PATTERNS & NAUMBERS IN NATURE PART III: MATHEMATHICS IN THE REAL WORLD

Sequences in Math: Examples:

- Sequence is any function that maps the set of natural 1. Bridges

numbers to real numbers - Abstractions and mental playthings that can
➢ Arithmetic – common difference be turned into something useful)
➢ Geometric – common ration 2. Cellphones
➢ Fibonacci Sequence - -

Fibonacci Sequence

- Named From Leonardo Pisano Bogollo (Itally, 1170-

3. Human Heart
1250)
- Artificial hearts
- Means “son of Bonacci”
-
- Sequence of numbers defined by leaner
4. Flock of birds
recurrence equation
- The formation and direction when they fly as
. a group (mathematical equation)
5. mathematical ecology
- to understand and complex biosystems
- Predators and prey patterns
- How some extinctions are inevitable, human
doing just fast-forwards their extinction
- Fibonacci is like the golden ration 6. Stock Market
- Law of supply and demand
7. Solving Crimes
- Probability, combinatorics, graph theory
8. Waves
- partial differential equation
9. Prime Numbers & Internet security
- Account numbers and bank accounts
10. Fitting pieces
❖ Fibonacci problems (Examples) - Artifacts of geologist
a. Rabbit Reproduction 11. data compression
b. Pinecone Sequences (8 Clockwise and 13 - Ex: National Id
Anti clockwise – Fibonacci numbers) - theory of wavelets
c. Sunflower 12. neutral network
- the brain
- pain receptors and nerves
13. network
- Tokyo subways (Graph Theory)
Problems solved by mathematics

1. Manholes round covers

- Para di mahulog agad
2. Stables stools
- Mathematically, Stools with 3 legs are more
stable, the balance is at the center same with
the science between tripod
3. Wheels aren’t just defined if they’re round or not
4. Division of pancakes into 2 equal parts
5. Typhoons
- Typhoons don’t just go away…it just goes on
the other side of the planet (laging may
bagyo..)
- Behavior of atmosphere…high pressure and
low pressure, cannot be equal
LESSON 2: PROPOSITIONS Simple proposition

Proposition - Only one subject and only one predicate and cannot
be deducted into simpler propositions
- Mathematics language that is used to communicate
mathematical ideas Compound Propositions
- declarative sentence that can be objectively
- Joining 2 or more simple propositions with a
identified as either true or false, but not both. If a
connective
proposition is true, then its truth value is true and is
1. Tautology – always true
denoted by T or 1; otherwise, its truth value is false
2. Contradiction – always false
and is denoted by F or 0.
4 Basic Connectives
Truth Table
1. Conjunction (and ^)
- Diagram in table form that is used to show all its
- p ^ q is only true if both is true
possible truth values
p q p^q
- 2 2^2 = 4 2^3=8
1 1 1
p p q p q r 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 2. Disjunction (or v )
0 1 1 - p v q is false only when both p v q are false,
0 1 0 and is true otherwise
0 0 1 p q pvq
0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
Quantified statements
0 0 0
• Universal quantifiers Examples:
o All, each, every, no, none
Let p and q be propositions such that
• Existential quantifiers
p: No odd numbers are divisible by 2
o Some, there exists, at least one
q: π is rational
Negation 1. p^q No odd numbers are divisible by 2 and π
is rational
- p is the proposition which is false when p is true; and true
2. p v (¬q) Either no odd numbers are divisible by 2
when p is false. The negation of p is denoted by ¬p or ~p.
or π is not rational.
- True will be false, false will be true
p ¬p 3. (¬p) ^ q Some odd numbers are divisible by 2 and
1 0 π is rational.
0 1
4. (¬p) v (¬q) Ethier some odd numbers are divisible by
2 or π is not rational

5. ¬(pvq) Neither no add numbers are divisible by

2 nor π is rational (It is not the case that,
no add numbers are divisible by 2 or π is
rational
Example: Truth table of compound statement pV(q^(¬r) 3. Conditional (if, then →)
- False when p is true and q is false and true
p q r ¬r q^(¬r) pV(q^(¬r)
otherwise
1 1 1 0 0 1
o p is called hypothesis (antecedent
1 1 0 1 1 1
or premise)
1 0 1 0 0 1 o q is conclusion (consequent)
1 0 0 1 0 1 p q p →q
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
• Exclusive or - Remarks: Conditional p→q
o Denoted by “p ⊻ q” or “p ⊕ q” 1. Converse – opposite (q →p)
o True when exactly one of p and q is true and is 2. Inverse - negation (¬p →¬q)
false otherwise 3. Contrapositive – both (¬q→ ¬p)
o Ex: (Technically opposite statements)
▪ An integer is either odd or even - Logically equivalent
▪ A positive integer is greater than 1 is either Converse & Inverse
prime or composite p q ¬p ¬q q→p ¬p →¬q
p q p⊻q 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0
Conditional & Contrapositive
p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬q →¬p
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1

4. Biconditional (If and only if ↔)

- True only is p and q have the same truth
values and false if otherwise
- Also called bi-implications
p q p ↔q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
- Remarks
1. Use commas to group statements in English
sentences.
2. Solve statements inside parentheses first in
symbolic logic.
3. Follow the order of logical operations (¬, ^, v, ↔)
but use parentheses if both conjunction and
disjunction are present.
Examples (Finding truth value) Compound Proposition

p = T, q = F, r = F • Tautology (always true)

• Contradiction (always false)
1. pv(q^r)
o Example: Tautology Contradiction
p v (q ^ r)
(Disjunction) (Conjunction)
T v (F ^ F)
p ¬p p v (¬p) p ^ (¬p)
TvF
1 0 1 0
=T
0 1 1 0
• Logically Implies (Logically Equivalent) ⇔
2. (p^¬q)v(r^¬q)
- If p ⇒ q and q ⇒ p we say its logically equivalent
(p ^ ¬q) v (r ^ ¬q)
(p ⇔q)
(T ^ T) v (F^T)
• Contingency (Combination or true and false)
TvF
- Hindi lahat true, hindi lahat false
=T
Example:
3. ¬(r^q)^(qv¬q)
By constructing true table, show that p ⇒ p v q and p ^ q ⇒ p
¬ (r ^ q) ^ (q v ¬q)
¬ (F ^ F) ^ (F v T) p q pvq p^q p →pvq p^q→p
(T ^ T) ^ (F v T) 1 1 1 1 1 1
T^T 1 0 1 0 1 1
=T 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1
➢ Law of Addition (p ⇒ p v q)
➢ Law of simplification (p ^ q ⇒ p)

Common Equivalences in Logic

1. p ⇔ q, if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology

2. p ⇔p
3. (Commutative property)
pvq⇔qvp
p^q⇔q^p

4. (Associative property)
p v (q v r) ⇔ (p v q) v r
p ^ (q ^r) ⇔ (p ^ q) ^ r

5. (Distributive property)
p v (q ^ r) ⇔ (p v q) v (p v r)
p ^ (q v r) ⇔ (p ^ q) v (p ^ r)

6. De Morgan’s Laws
¬(p v q) ⇔ (¬p) ^ (¬q)
¬(p ^ q) ⇔ (¬p) v (¬q)
7. p → q ⇔ (~p) v q
8. ~(p → q) ⇔ p ^ (~q)
9. p → q ⇔ (~q) → (~p)
10. p ↔ q ⇔ (p →q) ^ (q → p)
Example: Using Truth Table in determining Tautology, Common Forms of Valid Arguments
contingency or contradiction
1. Law of Detachment (Modus Ponens)
X: [(p v q) ^ (~p v r)] → (q v r)
p→q
p q r (pvq) ~p (~pvr) (pvq)^(~pvr) (qvr) x p . (p→q) ^ p → q
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 ∴q
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 2. Law of Contraposition (Modus Tollens)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
p→q
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
~q . (p→q) ^ ~q → ~p
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ ~p
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
3. Law of Disjunctive Syllogism
So then, X: [(p v q) ^ (~p v r)] ⇒ (q v r)
pvq
~p . (p v q) ^ ~p → q
Argument ∴q

- a compound proposition of (p1 ^ p2 ^ p3^…..) → q 4. Law of Hypothetical Syllogism (Law of Transitivity)

o (p1 ^ p2 ^ p3^…..) = Premises
o q = conclusion p→q
- Remarks q→r [(p→q) ^ q → r] → p → r
o An argument is valid if true premises guarantee ∴p→r
a true conclusion; otherwise, it's invalid (a
fallacy).
Common Forms of Invalid Arguments
o An argument is valid if the conclusion logically
follows from the premises. 1. Fallacy of the converse
o If a statement is always true (tautology), the
argument is valid; otherwise, it's invalid. p→q
q . (p→q) ^ q → p
Evaluating Arguments with Truth Tables ∴p

Procedure in determining the validity of an argument:

2. Fallacy of the inverse
1. Write the arguments in symbols.
p→q
2. Write the argument as a conditional statement; use a
~p . (p→q) ^ ~p → ~q
conjunction (^) between/among the premises and
∴ ~q
the implication (→) for the conclusion.
3. Set up and construct a truth table for the symbolic
3. Fallacy of the inclusive or
form.
4. If all truth values under → are Ts or 1s (that is, the last pvq
column is a tautology), then the argument is valid, p . (p v q) ^ p → ~q
otherwise, it is invalid. ∴ ~q
Euler Diagram

To analyze an argument with an Euler diagram:

1. Draw an Euler diagram based on the premises of the

argument
2. The argument is invalid if there is a way to draw the
diagram that makes the conclusion false
3. The argument is valid if the diagram cannot be drawn
to make the conclusion false
4. If the premises are insufficient to determine the
location of an element or a set mentioned in the
conclusion then the argument is invalid

• Universal Affirmative (all A is B)

• Universal Negative (no A is B)

• Particular Affirmative (some A is B)

• Particular Negative (some A is not B)